NOTE

 Change the numerical values according to your calculations

 Include the proper table and graph

WHEN YOU DESIGN AN AIRPLANE ……… THINK ABOUT HOW YOU WOULD
FEEL IF YOU HAD TO FLY IT! SAFETY FIRST. Sign on the wall of the design
office at Douglas Aircraft Company, 1992.

Aircraft design is an evolutionary process rather than a revolutionary process.

Thanks to Sir George Cayley who is a milestone in the evolutionary process. If
anyone wants to design an aircraft without taking any help from previous designs, it
will be a one of two extremes, one a success with the hectic and long process or a
failure even after long duration.

Airplane design is an art and a science. In that respect it is difficult to learn by

reading a book. Airplane design the intellectual engineering process of creating on
paper a flying machine to meet certain specification and requirements established by
potential users or to pioneer innovative, new ideas and technology, like the aircraft to
be designed here.

An example of the former is the designer of most commercial transports,

starting at least with the Douglas DC-1 in 1932, which was designed to meet or
exceed various specifications by an airplane company.

An example of the later is the design of Rocket- powered Bell X-1, the first
airplane to exceed the speed of sound in level of climbing or level flight on October
14, 1947. The design process is indeed an intellectual activity, but a rather a special
one that is tempered by good intuition developed via experience, by attention paid to
successful airplane designs that have been used in past, and by design procedures
and databases that are a part of every airplane manufacturers.

So there is a need to conduct a literature survey related to what sort of aircraft

is going to be designed.

The project is centered towards a design of safe jet transport. The objective of
this project is to provide a better design by manipulating the previous designs.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Experiment Description Page No.

1. Introduction

2. Literature survey

3. Comparative Plots

4. Preliminary Weight estimation

5. Wing & Tail Design with control surfaces (Aerodynamics)

6. Drag Estimation

7. Calculation for Thrust required & Engine selection

Rate of Climb Calculation

8.

9. V-n Diagram

10. Landing gear selection and Design

11. Wing Structural Design

12. Fuselage Design and Layout

13. Detailed design with CAD drawings

14. Conclusion

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 LIST OF SYMBOLS

R -Range
V –Velocity
T- Thrust
W - Weight
C -specific fuel consumption
E -Loitering time
L/D -lift to drag ratio
V alt -Velocity at altitude
ρalt -Density at altitude
S - wing surface area
b - wing span
µalt -coefficient of viscosity at altitude
C HT -Horizontal tail volume coefficient
L HT - Horizontal tail arm length
S HT - Horizontal tail area
SW -Wing area
C W -Wing mean chord
LVT -Vertical tail arm length
SVT –Vertical tail area
C VT -Vertical tail volume coefficient
b W -Wing span
SW -Wing area
VTO - Vertical take-off distance
STO - Take-off distance
FTO - Take-off thrust
VA - Approach Velocity
Sπ – Wetted area
Λ-Sweep angle
λ- Taper ratio

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 EXPERIMENT 1`

INTRODUCTION

An airplane design is both an art and a science. Airplane design is an intellectual

engineering process of creating on paper a flying machine to

 Meet specifications established by users

 Pioneer innovative, new ideas and technology.

The design process is an intellectual activity developed via experience, by

attention paid to successful airplane designs that have been used in the past and by
design procedures and databases that are a part of every airplane manufacturer.

From the time when an airplane materializes as a new thought to the time the
finished product is ready, the complete design undergoes three distinct phases in
perfect sequences which are

 Conceptual design
 Preliminary design
 Detail design

1.1. CONCEPTUAL DESIGN:-

The design process starts with a set of specifications or much less frequently
to desire to implement pioneering. There is a concrete goal where we designers are
aiming at. The first step towards it is conceptual design. Within a fuzzy latitude,
overall shape, size, weight are determined for the potential user.

The product of the conceptual design phase is layout of airplane configuration

on paper. This drawing has flexible lines, which can be slightly changed. However
we get a detailed account of the layout configuration at the end of this phase. The
major drivers during the conceptual design process are aerodynamics, propulsion
and flight performance.

Structural and control system considerations are not dealt in detail but
however they are not dealt in detail but however they are not totally absent. The
designer is influenced by qualitative aspects. No part of the design process is carried
out in total vacuum unrelated to other parts.

1.2. PRELIMINARY DESIGN:-

This phase includes only minor changes to be made in the configuration

layout. There is serious control and structural system analysis and design takes
place. During this phase substantial wind tunnel testing will be carried out and major
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) calculations. At the end of the phase, the
airplane configuration is frozen and defined. The drawing process is called lofting.

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This process makes precise shape of outside skin of airplane making certain all
sections fit together.

The end of the phase is the decision if the airplane is to be manufactured or

not. It is no longer a critical condition where “you – bet your company” on full scale
development of a new airplane.

1.3. DETAIL DESIGN:-

This phase is literally the ‘nuts and bolts’ phase of airplane design. The
aerodynamic, propulsion, structures, performance, flight control analysis are over in
the preliminary phase. The airplane is to be fabricated and machined. The size,
number and location of rivets, fasteners are determined now. Flight simulators are
developed. At the end of this phase, the aircraft is ready to be fabricated.

1.4. THE SEVEN INTELLECTUAL PIVOT POINTS FOR CONCEPTUAL

DESIGN:-

The overall conceptual design is anchored b seven intellectual “pivot points” – seven
factors that anchor the conceptual design thought process. They allow different,
detailed thinking to reach out in all directions from each point.

The requirements are given by the people who are going to buy – the customers. For
other aircrafts, these requirements are usually set by the manufacturer in full
appreciation of needs of owner. Requirements of one airplane are different from the
other. There can be no stipulated specific standard. There must be established
requirements that serve as impinge off point for design process. The requirements
that are frequently stipulated are:

 Range
 Takeoff distance
 Stalling velocity
 Endurance
 Maximum velocity
 Rate of climb

For dog fighting combat, maximum turn rate and minimum turn radius

 Maximum load factor

 Service ceiling
 Cost
 Reliability and maintainability
 Maximum size.

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 SEVEN INTELLECTUAL PIVOT POINTS FOR DESIGN

REQUIREMENTS

WEIGHT OF AIRPLANE –FIRST ESTIMATE

CRITICAL PERFORMANCE PARAMETER

 LIFT COEFFICENT (CLMAX)

 LIFT-TO-DRAG RATIO (L/DMAX)
 WING LOADING (W/S)
 THRUST TO WEIGHT RATIO(T/W)

CONFIGURATION LAYOUT – SHAPE

ANDSIZE OF AIRPLANE ON DRAWING

BETTER WEIGHT ESTIMATE

NO
PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS-DOES DESIGN
MEET REQUIREMENTS

YES
OPTIMIZATION

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AIRCRAFT CONCEPTUAL DESIGN PROCESS

BETTER NEW CONCEPT

REQUIREMENTS IDEAS

REVISED LAYOUT

TECHNOLOGY AVAILABLE
AERO

WEIGHT
INITIAL LAYOUT S
CONCEPT SKETCH
PROPULSION

AERO COST

STRUCTURE
WEIGHTS

FIRST GUESS SIZING LANDING GEAR

PROPULSION

OTHERS

REFORMED SIZE
PERFORMANCE
SIZING AND OPTIMIZATION
PERFORMANCES
OPTIMIZATION
PRELIMINARY DESIGN

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CRITICAL PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS:-

Requirements stipulate the performance of the new aircraft. The critical

parameters are:

 Maximum lift coefficient

 Lift to drag ratio (L/D)
 Thrust to weight ratio (T/W)

Therefore the next step is to make first estimates of W/S and T/W to achieve the
performance as stipulated by requirements.

CONFIGURATION LAYOUT:-

The configuration layout is a drawing of the shape and size of the airplane as
evolved till stage. The critical performance parameters along with first weight
estimate helps to draw the configuration and approximate the size of the aircraft.

BETTER WEIGHT ESTIMATE:-

The overall size and shape of the airplane are better known now. There is now an
improved estimate of weight based on performance parameters. A more detailed
estimate of fuel is required now.

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PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS:-

This is the point where the configuration is judged if it can meet all original
specifications. An interactive process is initiated where the configuration is modified.
The critical performance parameters are adjusted for improving performance. In this
stage, some mature decisions should be made as the specifications or cost or
unavailable technology.

Hence some specifications might be relaxed so that others might get higher priority.

OPTIMIZATION:-

When iterative process is over, it has produced a viable airplane. This leads to
optimization. The optimization analysis is carried out may be carried out by a
systematic variation of different parameters T/W, W/S and plotting the performance o
graphs which can be found using a sizing matrix or a carpet plot from which optimum
design can be found.

WEIGHT OF AIRPLANE – FIRST ESTIMATE:-

No airplane can take off the ground unless it produces a lift greater than its
weight. There should be a first estimate of gross takeoff weight. The weight estimate
is the next pivot point after the requirements. Lilienthal, Langley and Wright brothers
knew more weight means more drag. This needed an engine with greater power and
hence more weight

CONSTRAINT DIAGRAM:-

A constraint diagram is constructed which identifies allowable solution space for

airplane design. A constraint diagram consists of plots o the sea – level thrust to take
off weight ratio versus wing loading at takeoff weight ratioT O /WO versus wing loading
at takeoff WO /S determined by intellectual pivot point.

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THE DESIGN WHEEL

SIZING
AND
TRADE
STUDIES

DESIGN
REQUIREMENTS
ANALYSIS

DESIGN
CONCEPT

1.5. CLASSIFICATION OF AIRPLANES

1. FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATIONS
a. Civil Airplanes
b. Military Airplanes

Civil Airplanes Military Airplanes

1. Cargo transport 1. Strategic fighters
2. Passenger travel 2. Interceptors
3. Mail distribution 3. Escort fighters
4. Agricultural 4. Tactical bombers
5. Ambulance 5. Strategic bombers
6. Executive transport 6. Ground attack airplanes
7. Training 7. Photo-reconnaissance airplanes
8. Sports 8. Multipurpose airplanes
9. Air taxi & charter
10. Forestry
11. Fish and wildlife sanctuary
12. Construction
13. Aerial photography
14. Off- shore drilling

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 2. CLASSIFICATION BY POWER PLANT
a. Types of engine
i. Piston Engines
ii. Turbo-Prop Engines
iii. Turbo-jet Engines
iv. Ram-jet Engines
v. Rockets
b. Number of engines
i. Single Engine
ii. Twin Engine
iii. Multi-Engine
c. Location of power plant
i. Engine (with propeller) located in fuselage nose
ii. Pusher Engine located in the rear fuselage
iii. Engines (jet) submerged in the wing
1. At the root
2. Along the span
iv. Engines (jet) in nacelles suspended under the wing(pod
mountings)
v. Engines (jet) located on the rear fuselage
vi. Engines (jet) located within the rear fuselage

3. CLASSIFICATION BY CONFIGURATION
a. Shape and position of wing
b. Type of fuselage
c. Location of horizontal tail surfaces
d. Types of Landing gear

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Department of Aeronautical Engineering Page 12 of 77
 EXPERIMENT 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

It is very easy to design an aircraft if we have data’s about already existing

aircrafts of similar type. It provides more satisfaction and avoids confusion while
choosing some design parameters for our aircraft. In this detailed survey some many
important design drivers like aspect ratio, wing loading, overall dimensions and
engine specifications are determined for our reference. It assists in proposing a new
design and modification in our design which will improve the performance of the
proposed aircraft. This assures the performance of the aircraft as per the design
calculations and easy way of designing an aircraft within particular period of time. So
in this literature survey we have collected some ten already existing 20 seated jet
transport aircraft for our reference of design parameters. Mostly these aircrafts have
similar characteristics in many designs aspects which are shown in the table.

2.1. GEOMETRIC SPECIFICATIONS

Wing Lengt Wing Wing

Sl. Name of the Aspec
Span h Area Loading
No. Aircraft t Ratio
(m) (m) (m2) (Kg/m2)
1 Airbus A380 7.54 79.75 72.72 845 845
2 Airbus A340 10.2 60.3 59.39 363 715,05
3 Irkut MC-21 9.2 35.9 36.8 128 618.36
Embraer E-170
4 9.3 26.01 29.90 72.72 1127
Jet family
5 Boeing 747 7 59.6 56.3 511 756
6 Boeing 777 8.17 60.93 63.73 427.8 700
7 Boeing 737 10.34 28 29 91.04 637
8 Comac C919 10 35.8 38.9 129.15 733.33
9 Douglas DC-3 9.17 29 19.7 91.7 125.16
10 Ilyushin Il-96 8.8 60.1 55.35 300 900
** Minimum of 15 aircrafts of similar kind will be selected for Survey

Sl. Name of the Empty Gross Maximum Take-off

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 Weight Weight Weight
No. Aircraft
(Kg) (Kg) (Kg)
1 Airbus A380 276,800 575,000 575,000
2 Airbus A340 129,000 276,700 606,271
3 Irkut MC-21 43,000 72,560 79,250
Embraer E-170
4 21,141 33,000 38,600
Jet family
5 Boeing 747 181,400 333,400 735,000
6 Boeing 777 302,100 445,000 545,000
7 Boeing 737 43,400 88,500 97,000

8 Comac C919 42,100 77,300 75,100

9 Douglas DC-3 7,700 11,431 13,190

10 Ilyushin Il-96 117,000 216,000 250,000
2.2. WEIGHT SPECIFICATIONS
** Minimum of 15 aircrafts of similar kind will be selected for Survey

2.3. POWERPLANT SPECIFICATIONS

Sl. Name of the Type of Number of Power or Thrust

No. Aircraft Engine Engines per Engine
Rolls-Royce
1 Airbus A380 4 311 kN
Trent 900
Rolls-Royce
2 Airbus A340 4 250 kN
Trent 450
The Pratt &
3 Irkut MC-21 Whitney 2 120 kN
PW1400G
Electric
Embraer E-170 CF34-8E
4 2 62.28 kN
Jet family turbofan
engines
5 Boeing 747 Pratt & 4 190 kN
Whitney

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 JT9D
engines
General
Electric
6 Boeing 777 2 489 KN
GE90-77B
engines
7 Boeing 737 CFM56-7B 2 82.3 kN
CFM
International
8 Comac C919 2 123.63 KN
LEAP-1C
engines
Pratt &
Whitney R-
9 Douglas DC-3 1830 Twin 2 890 KN
Wasp
engines
Aviadvigatel
10 Ilyushin Il-96 PS-90A 4 157 KN
turbofans
** Minimum of 15 aircrafts of similar kind will be selected for Survey

2.4. PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS

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 Maximum Service
Cruising Range
Name of
Sl. No. speed speed ceiling
the Aircraft (Km)
(m/s)
(m/s) (Km)
Airbus 329.3 13.1 14800
1 307.7
A380
Airbus 311.3 11.9-12.5 12400
2 288.8-298.7
A340
3 Irkut MC-21 300 280.9-298.7 12-13 6000-6400
Embraer E-
4 170 Jet 272.2 272.2 12.4 3982
family
5 Boeing 747 318.7 307.7 13.7 8556
6 Boeing 777 322.5 307.7 13.1 17205
7 Boeing 737 298.7 280.9 12 6990
Comac 288.8 12.2 4075
8 272.2
C919
Douglas 414.7 7.1 2400
9 333.5
DC-3
Ilyushin Il- 298.7 13.1 11000
10 288.8
96

SUMMARY

The specification details such as Geometric, Power plant, Weight and

Performance Parameters for various aircraft under same (fighter,utility,passenger,
long range ,capacity,bomber etc.) category have been compared and tabulated.

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Department of Aeronautical Engineering Page 17 of 77
 EXPERIMENT 3

COMPARATIVE PLOTS

Comparative graphs
 Speed Vs aspect ratio
 Speed Vs rate of climb
 Speed Vs range
 Speed Vs altitude
 Speed Vs wing loading
 Speed Vs b/l
ATTACH GRAPHS

SUMMARY

From the above comparative graphs and calculation,

DESIGN DATA SHEET

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 EXPERIMENT 4

PRELIMINARY WEIGHT ESTIMATION

The purpose of this section is to introduce a technique to obtain the first

estimate of the maximum take-off weight for an aircraft before it is designed and
built. The word estimation is intentionally selected to indicate the degree of the
accuracy and reliability of the output. Hence, the value for the maximum take-off
weight is not final and must be revised in the later design phases. The result of this
step may have up to about 20% inaccuracies, since it is not based on its own aircraft
data. But the calculation relies on the other aircraft data with similar configuration
and mission. Thus, we are adopting the past history as the major source of the
information for the calculation in this step. At the end of the preliminary design
phase, the take-off weight estimation is repeated by using another more accurate
technique.

An aircraft has a range of weights from minimum to maximum depending upon the
number of pilots and crew, fuel, and payloads (passengers, loads, luggage, and
cargo). As the aircraft flies, the fuel is burning and the aircraft weight is decreasing.
The most important weight in the design of an aircraft is the maximum allowable
weight of the aircraft during take-off operation. It is also referred to as all up weight.
The design maximum take-off weight (MTOW or WTO) is the total weight of an
aircraft when it begins the mission for which it is designed. The maximum design
take-off weight is not necessarily the same as the maximum nominal take-off weight,
since some aircraft can be overloaded beyond design weight in an emergency
situation, but will suffer a reduced performance and reduced stability. Unless
specifically stated, maximum take-off weight is the design weight. It means every
aircraft component (e.g. wing, tail) is designed to support this weight.

The major factor that determines the whole design of aircraft especially the
selection of overall weight, airfoil and power plant of the aircraft.

Total weight of an airplane is given by,

WTO =WC+WPL+WF+WE

Where,

WTO = Design takeoff weight of the aircraft

WC = crew weight
WPL = weight of the payload
WF = weight of the fuel
WE = empty weight
To simplify the calculation, both fuel and empty weights can be expressed as
fractions of the total takeoff weight, i.e., WF/WO. Equation

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 WO = WC+WPL+ ( )WTO+( )WTO

This can be solved for WTO as follows:

WTO ─ ( ) WTO ─ ( ) WTO = WC+WPL

WTO = ( )

Now WTO can be determined if (WF/WTO) and (WE/WTO) can be estimated.

These are described below.

According to our design, aircraft’s capacity is 10 to 20 passengers. So,

WPL=WPASSENGERS+WBAGGAGE

Assuming that each passenger weight is 80 kg with 15 kg baggage, then the

payload weight is,

W Pay Load = 95×2= 190 kg.

Assuming that each crew weight is 80 kg with 15 kg baggage, then,
W Crew = (2 ×80) + (2 ×15)
= 190 kg
So,

WTO = 380
1-(W f/WTO) – (WE / WTO )

MISSION PROFILE:-

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From the figure the various stages of aircraft during mission is as follows,
1. Start & warm up
2. Taxiing in the runway
3. Takeoff
4. Climb
5. Cruising
6. Loiter
7. Descent and
8. Landing.
For subsonic jet transport aircraft weight fuel fraction is,
(W8/W0) = (W1/W0)×(W2/W1)×(W3/W2)×(W4/W3)×(W5/W4)×(W6/W5)×(W7/W6)x(W8/W7)

APPROXIMATE WEIGHT ESTIMATION:

Weight fraction for each profile in mission segment,
For Warm up,
(W1/W0) =0.995.
For Taxy,
(W2/W1) =0.997.
For Takeoff,
(W3/W2) =0.998.
For Climb,
(W4/W3) =0.992.
For Cruising,

(W5/W4) =exp ( )
Where,
SYMBOLS DESIGN DESIGN VALUES
PARAMETERS
R range 645.23km(348nm)
V velocity 0.49mach(90.17knots)
L/D lift to drag ratio 8
C specific fuel 0.8
consumption

So, (W5/W4) =exp [ -348 ×0.8 ]

90.17×8
= 0.680

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For loiter,

Assume 10 minutes for loitering,

(W6/W5) =exp ( )
Where,
DESIGN
SYMBOLS DESIGN VALUES
PARAMETERS
E Loitering time 0.166 hr
L/D lift to drag ratio 10
specific fuel
C 0.7
consumption

So, (W6/W5) =exp [-0.166×0.7 ]

10
=0.988
For descent,
(W7/W6) =0.993
For landing,
(W8/W7) =0.993
Then,
(WF/WTO) = (1.06× (1-W8/W0))
=0.370
Assume Empty Weight fraction,
(WE/WTO) = 0.56

So, overall weight,

W TO = 380
1-(W f/WTO) – (WE / WTO )

Approximate Overall weight = 4750 kg

SUMMARY

Thus the final Takeoff weight of the proposed aircraft was estimated using fuel
fraction method were as follows,

WTO (APPROXIMATE) =4750 kg.

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 EXPERIMENT 5

WING & TAIL DESIGN WITH CONTROL SURFACES (AERODYNAMICS)

This experiment focuses on the detail design of the wing. The wing may be
considered as the most important component of an aircraft, since a fixed-wing
aircraft is not able to fly without it. Since the wing geometry and its features are
influencing all other aircraft components, we begin the detail design process by wing
design. The primary function of the wing is to generate sufficient lift force or simply
lift (L). However, the wing has two other productions, namely drag force or drag (D)
and nose-down pitching moment (M). While a wing designer is looking to maximize
the lift, the other two (drag and pitching moment) must be minimized. In fact, wing is
assumed ad a lifting surface that lift is produced due to the pressure difference
between lower and upper surfaces.

During the wing design process, eighteen parameters must be determined.

They are as follows:
1. Wing reference (or planform) area (SW or Sref or S)
2. Number of the wings
3. Vertical position relative to the fuselage (high, mid, or low wing)
4. Horizontal position relative to the fuselage
5. Cross section (or airfoil)
6. Aspect ratio (AR)
7. Taper ratio
8. Tip chord (Ct)
9. Root chord (Cr)
10. Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC or C)
11. Span (b)
12. Twist angle
13. Sweep angle
14. Dihedral angle
15. Incidence (iw)
16. High lifting devices such as flap
17. Aileron
18. Other wing accessories

5.1. Airfoil Selection

The airfoil, in many respects, is the heart of the airplane. The airfoil affects the
cruise speed, take-off and landing distances, stall speed, handling qualities, and
overall aerodynamic efficiency during all phases of flight. The design of the airfoil is a
complex and time consuming process.

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 Much of the Wright brothers success can be traced to their development of
airfoils using a wind tunnel of their own design, and the in-flight validation of those
airfoils in their glider experiments if 1901-1902. More recently, the low speed airfoils
develop by peter Lissaman contributed much to the success of the man-powered
Gosssmer Condor, and the airfoils designed by John Rontz were instrumental to the
success of Burt Rutan’s radical designs.

Cruising Reynolds number (Re) as follows,

V alt × ρalt ×C
Re =
µ alt

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V alt =Velocity at altitude
ρalt = Density at altitude
C =(s/b)
S = wing surface area
b = wing span
µalt = coefficient of viscosity at altitude

And, from standard air table at altitude 4200 m,

T alt =262.2 k.

ρalt =0.819 kg/m2

V alt =M×√ (ΥR T alt )

=0.136×√ ¿)

=2.45 m/s

Aspect ratio of our aircraft=5.7

From the literature survey for that aspect ratio,

Area=29.3 m 2

Span=12.92 m

And, c =s/b =2.26 m-1

T alt 0.75
And µalt = µ0 ×( )
T0

−5 262.2 0.75
= 17.5 ×10 ×( )
288.16

=1.6310×10−4

324.5× 0.819 ×2.26

So, Re = −4
1.413× 10

=4.2×10 6

For the Reynolds’s number approximately 3 ×106 , from the THEORY OF WING
SECTION by ABBOT following data can be obtained.

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 Airfoil type Maximum lift coefficient Minimum drag coefficient
NACA 0010-34 0.95 0.004
NACA 0012-4 1.5 0.006
NACA 0012-64 1.4 0.005
NACA 1408 1.5 0.0045
NACA 1410 1.5 0.0055
NACA 2408 1.5 0.005
NACA 4412 1.5 0.0070

5.2. DIMENSIONAL PARAMETERS

Fuselage:

Once the takeoff gross weight has been estimated, the fuselage, the wing. And tail
can be sized. Many methods exist to initially estimate the required fuselage size. For
certain types of aircraft, the fuselage size is determined strictly by “real world
constraints”. For example, a large passenger aircraft devotes most of its length to the
passenger compartment. Once the number of passengers is known and the number
of seats across is selected, the fuselage length and diameter are essentially
determined.

Wing:

Actual wing size can now be determined simply as the takeoff weight divided by
takeoff wing loading. Remember that this reference area of the theoretical,
trapezoidal wing, and includes the area extending into the aircraft center line.

Tail Volume Co-efficient:

For the initial layout, the historical approach is used for the estimation of the tail size.
The effectiveness of a tail in generating a moment about the centre of gravity is
proportional to the force produced by the tail and to the tail moment arm. The
primary purpose of the tail is to counter the moments produced by the wing.

1. Length of fuselage:

LFU = a woc

= 1.6× 45500.23

= 11.21 m.

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2. Surface area:

Aspect ratio of our aircraft=5.7

From the literature survey for that aspect ratio,

Area=29.3 m 2

Span=12.92 m.

3. Taper ratio

Taper ratio is defined as the ratio between the tip chord (Ct) to the root chord (Cr).
This definition is applied to the wing, as well as the horizontal tail, and the vertical
tail. General, the taper ratio varies between zero and one. 0 ≤ λ ≤ 1

The taper ratio can be defined as,

tip chord
λ=
root chord

And the value for the taper ratio in general from design book is 0.4
2s
So, C root chord =
b(1+ λ)
2× 2.93
= =0.32 m.
12.92(1+0.4)

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 And, C tip chord = λ× C root chord
=0.128 m.
4. Aerodynamic mean chord:

2
2 1+ λ+ λ
C W= × C root chord×( )
3 (1+ λ)

2
2 1+0.4 +0.4
= × 0.32×
3 (1+0.4 )

C W =0.2377 m.

Location of mean chord is, x =

b (1+2 λ)
And, y =
6 (1+ λ)
12.92 (1+0.8)
=
6 (1+0.4)
=2.768 m.

5. Vertical and horizontal volume coefficient:

LHT × S HT
CHT =
C W × SW
Where,
C HT -Horizontal tail volume coefficient
L HT - Horizontal tail arm length
S HT - Horizontal tail area
SW -Wing area
C W -Wing mean chord

Since, L HT is 25% of the fuselage length,

L HT = 0.25× LFU
= 0.25×9.27
= 2.3175 m.
For our design,
SW =29.3 m2

Department of Aeronautical Engineering Page 28 of 77

 C W =0.2377 m.

From “Aircraft design: A Conceptual approach” by Daniel.P.Raymer 3rd Ed,

C HT =0.70So,

CW × S W × C HT
SHT =
LHT

0.2377 ×29.3 × 0.70

SHT = = 2.097 m2
2.3175

LVT × S VT
And, C VT =
bW × SW

Where,

LVT -Vertical tail arm length

SVT –Vertical tail area
C VT -Vertical tail volume coefficient
b W -Wing span
SW -Wing area
Since, LVT is 50% of the fuselage length,
LVT = 0.5× LFU
= 0.5×9.27
=4.635 m.
For our design,
SW = 29.3 m2.
b W = 12.92m.

From “Aircraft design: A Conceptual approach” by Daniel.P.Raymer 3rd Ed,

C VT =0.04 m.

bW × SW × CVT
So, SVT =
LVT

12.92× 29.3× 0.04

=
4.635

Department of Aeronautical Engineering Page 29 of 77

 = 3.266 m 2

5.3. WETTED AREA DETERMINATION

Aircraft wetted area (Swet), the total exposed surface area, can be visualized as the
area of the external parts of the aircraft that would get wet if it were dipped into
water. The wetted area must be calculated for drag estimation, as it the major
contributor to friction drag.

The wing and tail wetted areas can be approximated from their platforms. The wetted
area is estimated by multiplying the true view exposed plan form area is estimated
by multiplying the true view exposed planform area (S exposed) times a factor based
upon the wing or tail thickness ratio.

If a wing or tail were paper –thin, the wetted area would be exactly twice the true
plan form area. The effect of finite thickness is to increase the wetted area, as
approximated by the following equations.

Note that the true exposed plan form area is the projected area divided by the cosine
of the dihedral angle.

If t/c ˂ 0.05,

S wet =2.003 S exposed

If t/c ˃0.05,

S wet= S exposed [1.977 + 0.52(t/c)]

The exposed area can be measured from the drawing in several ways. A
professional designer will have access to a “planimeter” a mechanical device for
measuring areas. Use of the planimeter is a dying art as the computer replaces the
drafting board. Alternatively the area can be measured by tracing onto graph paper
and “counting squares”.

The wetted area of the fuselage can be initially estimated using just the side and top
views of the aircraft. The side and top view projected areas of the fuselage are
measured from the drawing, and the values are averaged.

For a long, thin body circular in cross section, this average projected area times Π
will yield the surface wetted area. If the body is rectangular in cross section, the
wetted area will be four times the average projected area. For typical aircraft the
following equation provides a reasonable approximation.

S wet=3.4 [(A top + A side) / 2) ]

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A more accurate estimation of wetted area can be obtained by graphical integration
using a number of fuselage cross sections. If the perimeters of the cross sections are
measured and plotted vs longitudinal locations, using the same units on the graph,
then the integrated area under the resulting curve gives the wetted area.

Perimeters can be measured using a professional’s “map-measure,” or

approximated using a piece of scrap paper. Simply follow around the perimeter
measurements should not include the portions where components join, such as at
the wing –fuselage intersection. These areas are not “wetted”.

WETTED AREA CALCULATION

1) For fuselage
2
π df
s πf =
4

Π denotes its wetted calculation

lf
From Airplane Design Part II by Dr.John roskam, for Single Engine Aircraft is 6.5,
df
From wing design calculation Lf =9.7 m,
9.7
Now, d f = =1.49 m,
6.5
2
π d f π ×1.49 2
s πf = = =1.74 m2
4 4

2) For wing
s πw= t w × bw
tw
A known relation, = 0.1(from aerofoil t/c max)
c root
From wing design calculation,c root is 3.24 m,
t w=0.1×3.24 = 0.324 m.
s πw = 0.324×12.92 =4.186 m2

3) For horizontal tail

s πht = t ht ×b ht =7.64×0.0324 =0.2479 m2
t ht = t vt = 10 percent t w =0.1×0.324 =0.0324

Department of Aeronautical Engineering Page 31 of 77

From “Aircraft design: A Conceptual approach” by Daniel P.Raymer,
2
bht
(AR) ht = ❑ = 4
s ht
Now,
2
b ht = 4×14.63 = 7.64 m
4) For vertical tail
2
bvt
(AR) vt = ❑ =
s vt
s πvt=b vt ×t vt = 3.82×0.0324 =0.123 m2.
5) Engine area
2
π de
s πengine =
4
π × 0.745
2
df
= Since d e = = 1.49/2 =0.745 m
4 2
=0.436 m2.
6) 1/4 flap deflection
θ=¿15˚
For Single Engine range, (0.05 to 0.1)
The below is average of above range,
s π = 0.075 m2
7) 3/4 flap deflection
θ=¿45˚
For Single Engine range, (0.15 to 0.2)
The below is average of above range,
s π = 0.175 m2
8) Undercarriage
s πu =1.1× s πengine
=1.1×0.436
=0.479 m2

S.No Component s π (m2)

1 Fuselage 1.74
2 Wing 4.186
3 Horizontal tail 0.2479

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4 Vertical tail 0.123
5 Engine 0.436
6 1/4 flap 0.075
7 3/4 flap 0.175
8 Undercarriage 0.479

5.4. Design of control surfaces

Aircraft flight control systems are classified as primary and secondary. The primary
control systems consist of those that are required to safely control an airplane during
flight. These include the ailerons, elevator (or stabilator), and rudder. Secondary
control systems improve the performance characteristics of the airplane, or relieve
the pilot of excessive control forces. Examples of secondary control systems are
wing flaps and trim systems.

PRIMARY
AIRPLANE AXES OF TYPE OF
CONTROL
MOVEMENT ROTATION STABILITY
SURFACE
Aileron Roll Longitudinal Lateral
Elevator/
Pitch Lateral Longitudinal
Stabilator
Rudder Yaw Vertical Directional

Vertical and horizontal volume coefficient:

LHT × S HT
CHT =
C W × SW
Where,
C HT -Horizontal tail volume coefficient
L HT - Horizontal tail arm length
S HT - Horizontal tail area
SW -Wing area
C W -Wing mean chord

Since, L HT is 25% of the fuselage length,

L HT = 0.25× LFU
= 0.25×9.27
= 2.3175 m.

Department of Aeronautical Engineering Page 33 of 77

For our design,
SW =29.3 m2
C W =0.2377 m.

From “Aircraft design: A Conceptual approach” by Daniel.P.Raymer 3rd Ed,

C HT =0.70So,

CW × S W × C HT
SHT =
LHT

0.2377 ×29.3 × 0.70

SHT = = 2.097 m2
2.3175

And,

LVT × S VT
C VT =
bW × SW

Where,

LVT -Vertical tail arm length

SVT –Vertical tail area

C VT -Vertical tail volume coefficient

b W -Wing span

SW -Wing area

Since, LVT is 50% of the fuselage length,

LVT = 0.5× LFU
= 0.5×9.27
=4.635 m.
For our design,
SW = 29.3 m2.
b W = 12.92m.

Department of Aeronautical Engineering Page 34 of 77

From “Aircraft design: A Conceptual approach” by Daniel.P.Raymer 3rd Ed,

C VT =0.04 m.

So,

bW × SW × CVT
SVT =
LVT

12.92× 29.3× 0.04

=
4.635

= 3.266 m 2

SUMMARY

1. Selected Airfoil :

2. The dimensional parameters of wing are,

3. The wetted area details are,

4. The dimensional parameters of control surfaces are,

Department of Aeronautical Engineering Page 35 of 77

 EXPERIMENT 6
DRAG ESTIMATION

Aerodynamic forces that split into two forces: Lift force or lift, and Drag force
or drag. A pre-requisite to aircraft performance analysis is the ability to calculate the
aircraft drag at various flight conditions. Drag force is the summation of all forces
that resist against aircraft motion.

The drag coefficient is non-dimensional parameter, but it takes into account every
aerodynamic configuration of the aircraft including, wing, tail, fuselage and landing
gear. This coefficient has two main parts. The first part is referred to as lift-related
drag coefficient or induced drag coefficient (CDi) and the second part is called zero-
lift drag coefficient (CDo).

6.1. Calculation of CDo

The CDo of an aircraft is simply the summation of CDo of all contributing

components.

CDof, CDow, CDoht, CDovt, CDoLG, CDoN, CDoS, CDoHLD, are respectively
representing fuselage, wing, horizontal tail, vertical tail, landing gear, nacelle, strut,
high lift device (such as flap).
CDo OTHERS is components such as antenna, pitot tube, wire, and wiper

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Fuselage
The zero-lift drag coefficient of fuselage is given by the following equation:

where, Cf is skin friction coefficient and is non-dimensional number. It is determined

based on the Prandtl relationship as follows:

(for turbulent and laminar flow)

Where ρ is the air density, V is aircraft true airspeed, µ is air viscosity, and L is the
length of the component in the direction of flight. For the fuselage, L it the fuselage
length. The second parameter (fLD) is a function of length to diameter ratio

The third parameter (fM) is a function of Mach number (M).

The last two parameters Swetf and S, where are respectively the wetted area of the
fuselage and the wing reference area.

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Wing, Horizontal Tail, and Vertical Tail

In these equations, Cfw, Cfht, Cfvt are similar to what we defined for fuselage. The
only difference is that the equivalent value of L in Reynolds number) for wing,
horizontal tail, and vertical tail are their mean aerodynamic chord (MAC).

High lift devices

The δf is the flap deflection in degrees (usually less than 50 degrees).

Landing gear

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Engine (cooling drag)

where P is the engine power (hp), T is the air temperature (K), σ is the relative
density of the air, V is the aircraft velocity (m/sec), and S is the wing reference area
(m2). Th parameter Ke is a coefficient that depends on the type of engine. It varies
between 1 and 3.

Overall CDo

where Kc is a correction factor and depends on several factors such as the type,
year of fabrication and configuration of the aircraft.

Sl.No. Aircraft type Kc

1 Passenger 1.1
2 Agriculture 1.5
3 Cargo 1.2
4 Single engine piston 1.3
5 General Aviation 1.2
6 Fighter 1.1

No. Component CDo of Percent from

component total CDo (%)
1 Wing 0.0053 23.4
2 Fuselage 0.0063 27.8
3 Wing tip tank 0.0021 9.3
4 Nacelle 0.0012 5.3
5 Engine strut 0.0003 1.3
6 Horizontal tail 0.0016 7.1
7 Vertical tail 0.0011 4.8
8 Other components 0.0046 20.4
9 Total CDo 0.0226 100

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No. Aircraft type CDo e
1 Subsonic jet 0.014-0.02 0.75-0.85

2 Large turboprop 0.018-0.024 0.8-0.85

3 Twin-engine piton prop 0.022-0.028 0.75-0.8

4 Small GA with retractable landing gear 0.02-0.03 0.75-0.8

5 Small GA with fixed landing gear 0.025-0.04 0.65-0.8

6 Agricultural aircraft without crop duster 0.06-0.065 0.65-0.75

7 glider 0.01-0.015 0.8-0.9

8 Supersonic jet 0.02-0.04 0.6-0.8

6.2. DRAG POLAR

C Dt =C DO+ K (C ¿¿ L)¿2
Where,
1
K=
Π∗e∗AR

Typical values of CDo and e for several aircraft

1
For our wing, k= =0.055
ΠeAR

1. At SEA LEVEL, (h=0)

Where,

T=288.16 K,

ρ =1.225 kg/m3

a = (γ×R×T) ^0.5 = (1.4×287×288.16) ^0.5 =340.268 m/s.

2× W 2× 4550 × 9.81
CL = 2 = 2
ρ× S ×V 1.225× 29.3 ×V

Department of Aeronautical Engineering Page 40 of 77

 S.No V CL M=v/a CDo CDT =(C DO +¿ )2 D=(( CDT
(m/s) ×W)/ CL)
(N)
1. 27.83 3.2112 0.0817 0.00196 0.5975 8296.75

2. 55.66 0.8028 0.1635 0.00196 0.0392 2177.28

3. 83.49 0.3568 0.2453 0.00196 0.0137 1713.86

4. 111.32 0.2007 0.3271 0.00196 0.0085 1223.19

5. 139.15 0.1284 0.4089 0.00196 0.0071 2051.01

6. 167 0.0895 0.4907 0.00196 0.0087 4338.86

2. At Altitude, (h=1.05 km)

Where,

T=281.66 K,

ρ =1.1117 kg/m3

a = (γ×R×T) ^0.5 = (1.4×287×281.66) ^0.5 =336.40 m/s

2× W 2 × 4550× 9.8
CL = 2 = 2
ρ× S ×V 1.1117× 29.3 ×V

S.N V CL M=v/a CDo CDT =(C DO +¿ )2 D=(( CDT

o (m/s) ×W)/ CL)
(N)

1. 27.83 3.2112 0.0817 0.00196 0.5975 8296.75

2. 55.66 0.8028 0.1635 0.00196 0.0392 2177.28

3. 83.49 0.3568 0.2453 0.00196 0.0137 1713.86

4. 111.32 0.2007 0.3271 0.00196 0.0085 1223.19

5. 139.15 0.1284 0.4089 0.00196 0.0071 2051.01

6. 167 0.0895 0.4907 0.00196 0.0087 4338.86

Department of Aeronautical Engineering Page 41 of 77

 3. At Altitude, (h=2.1 km)

Where,

T=274.51 K,

ρ =0.9964 kg/m3

a = (γ×R×T) ^0.5 = (1.4×287×274.51) ^0.5 =332.1m/s.

2× W 2 × 4550× 9.81
CL = 2 = 2
ρ× S ×V 0.9964 ×29.3 × V

S.No V CL M=v/a CDo CDT =(C DO +¿ )2 D=(( CDT

(m/s) ×W)/ CL)
(N)
1 27.83 3.2112 0.0817 0.00196 0.5975 8296.75

2 55.66 0.8028 0.1635 0.00196 0.0392 2177.28

3 83.49 0.3568 0.2453 0.00196 0.0137 1713.86

4 111.32 0.2007 0.3271 0.00196 0.0085 1223.19

5 139.15 0.1284 0.4089 0.00196 0.0071 2051.01

6 167 0.08 0.4907 0.00196 0.0087 4338.86

4. At Altitude, (h=3.15 km)

Where,

T=268.02 K,

ρ =0.8999 kg/m3

a = (γ×R×T) ^0.5 = (1.4×287×268.02) ^0.5 =328.16 m/s.

2× W
CL = 2
ρ× S ×V

2× 4550 × 9.81
= 2
1.225× 29.3 ×V

Department of Aeronautical Engineering Page 42 of 77

S.No V CL M=v/a CDo CDT =(C DO +¿ )2 D=(( CDT
(m/s) ×W)/ CL)
(N)
1. 27.83 3.2112 0.0817 0.00196 0.5975 8296.75
2. 55.66 0.8028 0.1635 0.00196 0.0392 2177.28
3. 83.49 0.3568 0.2453 0.00196 0.0137 1713.86
4. 111.32 0.2007 0.3271 0.00196 0.0085 1223.19
5. 139.15 0.1284 0.4089 0.00196 0.0071 2051.01
6. 167 0.0895 0.4907 0.00196 0.0087 4338.86

4. At Altitude, (h=4.2 km)

Where,

T=260.88 K,

ρ =0.8022 kg/m3

a = (γ×R×T) ^0.5 = (1.4*287*260.88) ^0.5 =323.76 m/s.

2× W
CL = 2
ρ× S ×V

2× 45550 × 9.81
= 2
1.225× 29.3 ×V

S.No V CL M=v/a CDo CDT =(C DO +¿ )2 D=(( CDT

(m/s) ×W)/ CL)
(N)
1. 27.83 3.2112 0.0817 0.00196 0.5975 8296.75
2. 55.66 0.8028 0.1635 0.00196 0.0392 2177.28
3. 83.49 0.3568 0.2453 0.00196 0.0137 1713.86
4. 111.32 0.2007 0.3271 0.00196 0.0085 1223.19
5. 139.15 0.1284 0.4089 0.00196 0.0071 2051.01
6. 167 0.0895 0.4907 0.00196 0.0087 4338.86

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GRAPH BETWEEN Cl& Cd for different altitudes

SUMMARY

1. The graph drawn b/w lift coefficient and drag coefficient for different stages of
aircraft. And the variation of trend was observed.
2. From the above tables and graphs, drag with respect to velocity at different
altitudes is obtained.

Department of Aeronautical Engineering Page 44 of 77

 EXPERIMENT 7
CALCULATION FOR THRUST REQUIRED & ENGINE SELECTION

1. Thrust to weight ratio

2. Thrust matching
3. Engine rating
4. Rubber sizing of the engine
5. Number of the engines

Thrust to weight ratio:

T/W directly affects the performance of the aircraft. An aircraft with a higher
T/W will accelerate more quickly, climb more rapidly, reach a higher maximum
speed, and sustain higher turn rates. On the other hand, the larger engines will
consume more fuel throughout the mission, which will drive up the aircraft up the
aircraft’s takeoff gross weight to perform the design mission.

T/W is not a constant. The weight of the aircraft varies during the flight as fuel
is burned. Also, the engine’s thrust varies with altitude and velocity (as does the
horsepower and propeller efficiency, (ηp).When the designers speak of an aircraft’s
thrust-to-weight ratio they generally refer to the T/W during sea-level static (zero
velocity), standard-day conditions.

T/WTO Ratio for General Aviation- single engine is 1.53

Overall weight of aircraft WTO =4550 kg.

Then,

T=1.53×4550

=6961.5 kg.

=68292 N

So, the thrust needed=68.29 KN

From the literature survey the nearest value of the thrust corresponding aircraft is
Walter Vega

The Walter Vega has the following characteristics,

 Thrust per engine =68.2

 Number of engine = 1
 Type of engine = walter vega
 Total thrust =68.2 KN

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THRUST CALCULATION

Thrust available, from the engine selection calculation,

F = 68.2 KN

Freq = F ×σ1.15

For sea level,

Freq = F [(20 – h) / (20+h)] 1.15

= 68.2 [(20-0) / (20+0)] 1.15

= 68.2 KN

For h = 1.05 km,

Freq = 68.2 [(20- 1.05) / (20+1.05)] 1.15

=60.34 KN

For h=2.1km,

Freq = 68.2 [20-2.1) / / (20+2.1)] 1.15

=53.51 KN

For h=3.15km,

Freq = 68.2 [(20 – 3.15) / (20+3.15 )] 1.15

= 47.33 KN.

For h=4.2km,

Freq = 68.2 [(20-4.2) / (20+ 4.2) ] 1.15

= 41.76 KN.

S.NO ALTITUDE(Km) THRUST or

POWER
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

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Engine Details

 Name of engine selected =

 Number of engine =
 Total thrust =

Department of Aeronautical Engineering Page 47 of 77

 EXPERIMENT 8

RATE OF CLIMB CALCULATION

Rate of climb is defined as the aircraft speed in the vertical axis or the vertical
component of the aircraft airspeed. Hence rate of climb is about how fast an aircraft
gains height.

Jet aircraft:
In general, the Rate of Climb (ROC) is defined as the ratio between excess power
and the aircraft weight

Prop-driven Aircraft:
The available power is the engine power times the propulsive efficiency.

1. At SEA LEVEL (h=0)

S.No V(m/s) T D RATE OF CLIMB
(N) (N) (m/s)
1 55.66 68200 2177.28 4939.77
2 83.49 68200 1713.86 7461.67
3 111.32 68200 1223.19 10022.32
4 139.15 68200 2051.01 12373.06
5 167 68200 4338.86 14335.87

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 Velocity Vs Rate of climb @h=0 km
16000
14000
12000
10000 Velocity Vs Rate of
8000 climb @h=0
6000
4000
2000
0
40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

SUMMARY

1. The required amount of thrust for the aircraft at various altitudes are
2. From the above analysis, graph – rate of climb vs velocity was drawn and the
trend in rate of climb was observed.

Department of Aeronautical Engineering Page 49 of 77

 EXPERIMENT 9

V-n DIAGRAM

The V-n diagram provides a treasure trove of information regarding flight

performance for pilots. Basically, it is a graph depicting the variation of load factor
with the speed of the vehicle. It defines the strength limitation of an aircraft. Every
aircraft has their own version. V-n diagrams are developed during the design
process either in the conceptual or very early preliminary design stages

Four factors affect a V-n Diagram

– MTOW

– Altitude

– Configuration of aircraft: clean, stores, cruise or landing, etc.

– Symmetry of loading

A V-n diagram shows the flight load factors that are used for the structural
design as a function of the air speed. These represent the maximum expected loads
that the aircraft will experience. These load factors are called as limit load factors.
These diagrams are used primarily in the determination of combinations of flight
condition and load factors to which the airplane structure must be designed.

For purposes of structural sizing, analysis is performed at four extreme

loading conditions on the V-n diagram. The Positive High Angle of Attack (PHAA) is
the loading condition represented by the intersection between the positive
operational load limit line and the positive maximum lift curve. The Positive Low
Angle of Attack (PLAA) is at the intersection between the positive operational load
limit line and the dive speed. The Negative High Angle of Attack (NHAA) and
Negative Low Angle of Attack (NLAA) are defined similarly except are for the
negative loads. Should the gust envelope extend beyond the manoeuvring envelope
in any of these four locations, the load factor of the gust envelope is instead used for
the extreme loading condition. The high angle of attack conditions are characterized
by a high coefficient of lift and high drag. The low angle of attack conditions are
characterized by a high lift force. Designing to accommodate these four extreme
loading conditions will guarantee that the wing will not undergo structural damage so
long as operational load limits are not exceeded.

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 1. Table
2. Graph.

SUMMARY

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 EXPERIMENT 10

LANDING GEAR SELECTION AND DESIGN

LANDING GEAR DESIGN

Introduction
Another aircraft major component that is needed to be designed is landing gear
(undercarriage). The landing gear is the structure that supports an aircraft on the
ground and allows it to taxi, take-off, and land. In fact, landing gear design tends to
have several interferences with the aircraft structural design. In this lab, the structural
design aspects of landing gear are not addressed; but, those design parameters
which strongly impact the aircraft configuration design and aircraft aerodynamics will
be discussed. In addition, some aspects of landing gear such as shock absorber,
retraction mechanism and brakes are assumed as non-aeronautical issues and may
be determined by a mechanical engineer. Thus, those pure mechanical parameters
will not be considered in this experiment either. In general, the followings are the
landing gear parameters which are to be determined in this experiment:
1. Type (e.g. nose gear (tricycle), tail gear, bicycle)
2. Fixed (faired, or un-faired), or retractable, partially retractable
3. Height
4. Wheel base
5. Wheel track
6. The distance between main gear and aircraft cg
7. Strut diameter
8. Tire sizing (diameter, width)
9. Landing gear compartment if retracted
10. Load on each strut

Landing gear usually includes wheels, but some aircraft are equipped with skis for
snow or float for water. In the case of a vertical take-off and landing aircraft such as
a helicopter, wheels may be replaced with skids. The descriptions of primary
parameters are as follows. Landing gear height is the distance between the lowest
point of the landing gear (i.e. bottom of the tire) and the attachment point to the
aircraft. Since, landing gear may be attached to the fuselage or to the wing; the term
height has different meaning. Furthermore, the landing gear height is a function of
shock absorber and the landing gear deflection. The height is usually measured
when the aircraft is on the ground; it has maximum take-off weight; and landing gear
has the maximum deflection (i.e. lowest height).

The common options for landing-gear are shows in figure. The single main gear is
used for many sailplanes because of its simplicity. The wheel can be forward of the
center of gravity (c.g), as shown here, or can be aft of the c.g. with a skid under the

Department of Aeronautical Engineering Page 52 of 77

cockpit is also of significant importance and will be employed during calculations.
Wheel base is the distance between main gear and other gear (from side view). The
landing gear is divided into two sections: 1. Main gear or main wheel1, 2. Secondary
gear or secondary wheel. Main gear is the gear which is the closest to the aircraft
center of gravity (cg). During the landing operation, the main wheel touches first with
the point of contact to the ground. Furthermore, during the take-off operation, the
main wheel leaves the ground last. On the other hand, main gear is carrying great
portion of the aircraft load on the ground.

Landing gear primary parameters

10.1. Landing Gear Configuration

The first job of an aircraft designer in the landing gear design process is to select the
landing gear configuration. Landing gear functions may be performed through the
application of various landing gear types and configurations. Landing gear design
requirements are parts of the aircraft general design requirements including cost,
aircraft performance, aircraft stability, aircraft control, maintainability, producibility
and operational considerations. In general, there are ten configurations for a landing
gear as follows:
1. Single main
2. Bicycle

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3. Tail-gear
4. Tricycle or nose-gear
5. Quadricycle
6. Multi-bogey
7. Releasable rail
8. Skid
9. Seaplane landing device
10. Human leg

“Bicycle” gear has two main wheels, fore and aft of the c.g., with small “outrigger”
wheels on the wings to prevent the aircraft from tipping sideways. The bicycle
landing gear has the aft wheel so far behind the c.g., that the aircraft must take-off
and land in a flat altitude, which limits this of gear to aircraft with high lift at low
angles of attack (i.e.., high-aspect ratio wings with large camber and/or flaps).
Bicycle gear has been used mainly on aircraft with narrow fuselage and wide wing
span such as the B-47 .

The “tail dragger” landing gear has two main wheels forward of the c.g. and an
auxiliary wheel at the tail. Tail dragger gear is also called conventional landing gear,
because it was the most widely used arrangement during the first 40 years of
aviation. Tail dragger gear provides more propeller clearance,, has less drag and
weight, and allows the wing to generate more lift for rough-field operation than does
tricycle gear.

However, tail dragger landing gear is inherently unstable. If the aircraft starts to turn,
the location of c.g. behind the main gear causes the turn to get tighter until a “ground
loop” is encountered, and the aircraft either drags wingtip, collapses the landing
gear, or runs of the side of the runway. To prevent this, the pilot of a tail dragger
aircraft must align the aircraft almost perfectly with the runway at touchdown, and
“dance” on the rudder pedals until the aircraft stops.

The most commonly used arrangement today is the “tricycle” gear, with two main
wheels aft of the c.g. and an auxiliary wheel forward of the c.f., with a tricycle landing
gear, the c.g. is ahead of the main wheels so the aircraft is stable on the ground and
can be landed at a fairly large “crab” angle (i.e., nose not aligned with the runway).
Also, tricycle landing gear improves forward visibility on the ground and permits a flat
cabin floor for passenger and cargo loading.

Quadricycle gear is much like bicycle gear but with wheels at the sides of the
fuselage. Quadricycle gear also requires a flat takeoff and landing attitude. It is used
on the B-52 and several cargo planes where it has the advantage of permitting a
cargo floor very low to the ground.

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The gear arrangements described above are also seen with two, four, or more
wheels in place of the single wheels shown in figure. As the aircraft weights become
larger, the requires wheel size for a single wheel capable of holding the aircraft’s
weight too large. Then multiple wheels are used to share the load between
reasonably sized tires.

Also, it is very common to use twin nose-wheels to retain some control in the event
of a nose-wheel flat tire. Similarly, multiple main wheels (i.e. total of four or more) are
desirable for safety. When multiple wheels are used in tandem, they are attached to
a structural element called a “bogey,” or “truck,” or “axle beam” that is attached to the
end of shock-absorber strut.

Typically an aircraft weighing under about 50,000 lb(22,680 kg) will use a single
main wheel per strut, although for safety in the event of a flat tire it is always better to
use two wheels per strut. Between 50,000 lb (22,680-68,040 kg), two wheels per
strut are typical. Two wheels per strut are sometimes used for the aircraft weighing
up to about 250,000 lb(113,400 kg).

Between aircraft weights of about 200,000 and 400,000 lb(90,720-181,440 kg) the
four-wheel bogey is usually employed; for aircraft over 400,000 lb (181,440 kg) four
bogeys, each with four or six wheels, spread the total aircraft load across the runway
pavement.

Except for light aircraft and a few fighters, most aircraft use twin nose-wheels to
retain control in the event of a flat nose tire. Carrier-based aircraft must use twin
nose-wheels at least 19in. (483 cm) in diameter to straddle the catapult-launching
mechanism. The massive C-5 employs four nose-wheels to spread to spread the tire
load, permitting operation off of relatively soft fields.

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10.2. Landing gear arrangements

Guidelines for layout of a bicycle landing gear are shown in figure. The c.g. should
be aft of the midpoint between the two wheels.The requirements for tail dragger gear
are shown in figure. Te tail-down angle should be about 10-15 deg with the gear in
the static position( i.e., tires and shock absorbers compressed the amount seen
when the aircraft seen when the aircraft is stationary on the ground at takeoff gross
weight).The c.g. (most forward and most aft) should fall between 16-25 deg back
from vertical measured from the main wheel location. If the c.g. is too far forward the
aircraft will tend will tend to nose over, and if it is too far back it will tend to ground
loop.To prevent the aircraft from overturning the main wheels should be laterally
separated beyond a 25 deg angle off the c.g., as measured from the rear in a tail-
down attitude.

10.3. Landing Gear Design

 Change the numerical values according to your calculatoins

1. Diameter or width of the wheel

D=AW W B

Where,

A&B is constant,

W w =load on single wheel.

For main wheel that value is 80% of the total aircraft weight and for auxiliary wheel it
is 20% of total aircraft weight. So,

W w for main wheel = 0.8 × W O

=0.8 × 4550 =3640 kg.

W w for auxilary wheel = 0.2 × W O

=0.2 × 4550 =910 kg.

Diameter of main wheel

D=AW W B

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The constants from RAYMER book becomes,

A=1.51

B=0.349

We are choosing a tricycle configuration .so, two main wheels and one auxiliary
wheel. So, for one main wheel W w is 1820.

D=1.51 × 18200.349

=20.74 cm.

Diameter of auxiliary wheel

D=1.51× 910 0.349

=16.28 cm.

2. Width of the wheels

B
For main wheel(w)=AW W

Where,

A=0.7150

B=0.312

W=0.7150× 18200.312

=7.43 cm.

B
For auxiliary wheel (w) =AW W

= 0.7150 × 910 0.312

= 5.99 cm.

3. Pavement or contact area

B
WW = P AP

a) Main wheel,

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 d
Where A P = 2.3 × √ w . d ( −Rr )
2

Rr = rolling radius

w =width

d =diameter

For major civil airfield P=120 psi =828 kg/m2 =8.4432 N/m2
1820× 9.81
AP =
8.4432
=215.558 cm 2.
20.74
A P = 2.3 × √ 7.43 ×20.74 ( −Rr )
2
Rr =2.82 cm.
b) Auxiliary wheel,
910 ×9.81
AP =
8.4432
= 107.78 cm 2.
16.28
A P = 2.3 × √ 5.99× 16.28 ( −Rr )
2
Rr =3.39 cm.
10.4. GEAR RETRACTION GEOMETRY

Another design aspect of the landing gear is to decide what to do with it after take-off
operation. In general, there are four alternatives as follows:
1. Landing gear is released after take-off.

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2. Landing gear hangs underneath the aircraft.
3. Landing gear is fully retracted inside aircraft (e.g. wing, or fuselage).
4. Landing gear is partially retracted inside aircraft.

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No Item Fixed (unretractable) Landing Retractable Landing
Gear Gear
1 Cost Cheaper Expensive
2 Weight Lighter Heavier
3 Design Easier to design Harder to design
4 Manufacturing Easier to manufacture Harder to manufacture
5 Maintenance Easier to maintain Harder to maintain
6 Drag More drag Less drag
7 Aircraft Lower aircraft performance (e.g. Higher aircraft
performance maximum speed ) performance (e.g.
maximum speed)
8 Longitudinal More stable (stabilizing) less stable (destabilizing)
stability
9 Storing bay Does not require a bay Bay must be provided
10 Retraction Does not require a retraction Requires a retraction
system system system
11 Fuel volume More available internal fuel Less available internal
volume fuel volume
12 Aircraft Structure in un-interrupted Structural elements need
structure reinforcement due to
cutout

Fixed and retractable landing gear comparison

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SUMMARY

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 EXPERIMENT 11

WING STRUCTURAL DESIGN

According to classical wing theory, the spanwise lift or load distribution is

proportional to the circulation at each span station. A vortex lifting-line calculation will
yield the spanwise lift distribution. For an elliptical plan form wing, the ift and load
distribution is of elliptical shape.

11.1. Schrenk’s approximation method

For a non elliptical wing, a good semi empirical method for spanwise load
estimate is known as Schrenk’s approximation method. this method assumes that
the load distribution on an untwisted wing or tail has ashape that is the average of
the actual polanform shape and an elliptic shape of the same span and area. The
total area under the lift load curve must sum to the required total lift.

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Change the numerical values according to your calculatoins

From design project-I for our aircraft,

Tip chord (Ct) =0.128 m

Root chord (Cr) =0.32 m

Span (b) =12.92 m

πab
Plan form area = =1.486 m2
4

Where,

Semi span (a) =b/2=6.46 m

b = √ Root chord 2−Tip chord 2 =0.2932 m.

s.no θ(deg) a cos Ө b cos Ө

Include the table and graph

11.2. WING STRUCTURAL WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION

Change the numerical values according to your calculations

STRUCTURAL WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION:

The structural weight is assumed to square of the chord,

WS α Cx2

WS =k × Cx2

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K –constant

Cx –chord at any point at a distance x from the root.

Since the chord variation is linear along the span,

@ x= 0, Cx =a = Cr

@ x= semi span, Cx =Ct

Cx =a +bx ………………………….. (1)

Substitute all in eqn (1)

x=0 , Cx =a =Cr =0.32 m.

x =6.46, Cx = Ct =0.128 m.

Cx = a + bx

0.128 =0.32 +b (6.46)

b = -0.029

Cx =0.32 -0.029x
6.46

Ww =k ∫ Cx 2 dx
0

6.46

=k ∫ (0.32−0.029 x )2 dx
0

=k ( 0.3498 )

227.5 =k (0.3498 )

k = 650.37 N/m2.

11.3. CALCULATION OF SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENTS

Include the FORMULA, table, model calculation and graph

Table-1:

Stations Mean Resultant

Section Cx (m) 2 Air load
(X) ordinates(Y) kC x (N) load

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Table-2:

Load at mid point(in Bending moment

Stations (X) Shear force(N)
magnitude) (N-m)

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11.4. STRUCTURAL DESIGN STUDY – THEORY APPROACH FOR WING

AEROFOIL

An airfoil (in American English) or Aerofoil (in British English) is the shape of a
wing or blade (of a propeller, rotor or turbine) or sail as seen in cross-section.

An airfoil-shaped body moved through a fluid produces an aerodynamic force.

The component of this force perpendicular to the direction of motion is called lift. The
component parallel to the direction of motion is called drag. Subsonic flight airfoils
have a characteristic shape with a rounded leading edge, followed by a sharp trailing
edge, often with asymmetric camber. Foils of similar function designed with water as
the working fluid are called hydrofoils.

The lift on an airfoil is primarily the result of its angle of attack and shape.
When oriented at a suitable angle, the airfoil deflects the oncoming air, resulting in a
force on the airfoil in the direction opposite to the deflection. This force is known as
aerodynamic force and can be resolved into two components: Lift and drag. Most foil
shapes require a positive angle of attack to generate lift, but cambered airfoils can
generate lift at zero angle of attack. This "turning" of the air in the vicinity of the airfoil
creates curved streamlines which results in lower pressure on one side and higher
pressure on the other. This pressure difference is accompanied by a velocity
difference, via Bernoulli's principle, so the resulting flow field about the airfoil has a
higher average velocity on the upper surface than on the lower surface. The lift force
can be related directly to the average top/bottom velocity difference without
computing the pressure by using the concept of circulation and the Kutta-Joukowski
theorem

RIBS

In an aircraft, ribs are forming elements of the structure of a wing, especially in

traditional construction.

By analogy with the anatomical definition of "rib", the ribs attach to the main spar,
and by being repeated at frequent intervals, form a skeletal shape for the wing.
Usually ribs incorporate the airfoil shape of the wing, and the skin adopts this shape
when stretched over the ribs.

Wing construction is basically the same in all types of aircraft. Most modern aircraft
have all metal wings, but many older aircraft had wood and fabric wings. Ailerons
and flaps will be studied later in this experiment.

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 To maintain its all-important aerodynamic shape, a wing must be designed
and built to hold its shape even under extreme stress. Basically, the wing is a
framework composed chiefly of spars, ribs, and (possibly) stringers (see figure 1-5).
Spars are the main members of the wing. They extend lengthwise of the wing
(crosswise of the fuselage). The entire load carried by the wing is ultimately taken by
the spars. In flight, the force of the air acts against the skin. From the skin, this force
is transmitted to the ribs and then to the spars.

Most wing structures have two spars, the front spar and the rear spar. The front spar
is found near the leading edge while the rear spar is about two-thirds the distance to
the trailing edge. Depending on the design of the flight loads, some of the all-metal
wings have as many as five spars. In addition to the main spars, there is a short
structural member which is called an aileron spar.

The ribs are the parts of a wing which support the covering and provide the airfoil
shape. These ribs are called forming ribs and their primary purpose is to provide
shape. Some may have an additional purpose of bearing flight stress, and these are
called compression ribs.

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TYPE OF RIBS

There are several types of ribs. Form-ribs, plate-type ribs, truss ribs, closed-ribs,
forged ribs and milled ribs, where form-ribs are used for light to medium loading and
milled ribs are as strong as it can get.

Form-ribs are made from a sheet of metal bent into shape, such as a U-profile. This
profile is placed on the skin, just like a stringer, but then in the other direction. Plate-
type ribs consist of sheet-metal, which has upturned edges and (often has) weight-
saving holes cut into it.

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 Truss ribs are built up out of profiles that are joined together. These joints
require great attention during design and manufacture. The ribs may be light or
heavy in design which makes them suitable for a wide range of loads. Closed-ribs
are constructed from profiles and sheet metal and are suitable for closing off
sections of the wing (e.g. fuel tank). Here too, particular care must be taken with the
joints and this type of rib is also suitable for application in a variety of loading
conditions.
Forged ribs are manufactured using heavy press-machinery. The result is fairly
rough; for more refined parts, high-pressure presses are required, which are very
expensive. Forged pieces (usually) have to undergo further treatment (for smoother
edges and holes). Forged ribs are used for sections where very high loads apply -
near the undercarriage for example. Milled ribs are solid structures. They are
manufactured by milling away excess material from a solid block of metal (usually
using computer-controlled milling machines). The shape of these ribs is always
accurately defined. Such ribs are used under similar conditions as those for forged
ribs.

Ribs are made out of wood, metal, plastic, composites, foam. The wings of
kites, hang, Para gliders, powered kites, powered hang gliders, ultra lights, and
windmills are aircraft that have versions that use ribs to form the wing shape.

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 For full size and flying model aircraft wing structures that are usually made of
wood, ribs can either be in one piece (forming the airfoil at that rib's "station" in the
wing), or be in a three-piece format, with the rib web being the part that the one-
piece rib consisted of, with capstrips for the upper and lower edging of the rib,
running from the leading edge to the trailing edge, being the other two component
parts.

SPAR

In a fixed-wing aircraft, the spar is often the main structural member of the wing,
running span wise at right angles (or thereabouts depending on wing sweep) to the
fuselage. The spar carries flight loads and the weight of the wings whilst on the
ground. Other structural and forming members such as ribs may be attached to the
spar or spars, with stressed skin construction also sharing the loads where it is used.
There may be more than one spar in a wing or none at all. However, where a single
spar carries the majority of the forces on it, it is known as the main spar.

Spars are also used in other aircraft aerofoil surfaces such as the tailplane and fin
and serve a similar function, although the loads transmitted may be different to those
of a wing spar.

RIBS AND SPAR LOCATIONS & SPACING

SUMMARY

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 EXPERIMENT 12
FUSELAGE DESIGN AND LAYOUT

12.1. LONGERONS

In aircraft construction, a longeron or stringer or stiffener is a thin strip of wood, metal

or carbon fiber, to which the skin of the aircraft is fastened. In the fuselage,
longerons are attached to formers (also called frames) and run the longitudinal
direction of the aircraft. In the wing or horizontal stabilizer, longerons run spanwise
and attach to ribs.

Sometimes the terms “longeron” and “stringer” are used interchangeably.

Historically, though, there is a subtle difference between the two terms. If the
longitudinal members in a fuselage are few in number (usually 4 to 8) then they are
called “longerons”. The longeron system also requires that the fuselage frames be
closely spaced (about every 4 to 6 in/10 to 15 cm). If the longitudinal members are
numerous (usually 50 to 100) then they are called “stringers”. In the stringer system
the longitudinal members are smaller and the frames are spaced farther apart (about
15 to 20 in/38 to 51 cm). Generally, longerons are of larger cross-section when
compared to stringers. On large modern aircraft the stringer system is more common
because it is more weight efficient despite being more complex to construct and
analyze. Some aircraft, however, use a combination of both stringers and longerons.

Longerons often carry larger loads than stringers and also help to transfer skin loads
to internal structure. As stated above longerons nearly always attach to frames or
ribs. But stringers often are not attached to anything but the skin, where they carry a
portion of the fuselage bending moment through axial loading. It is not uncommon to
have a mixture of longerons and stringers in the same major structural component.

12.2. FORMER:

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 A former is a structural member of an aircraft fuselage, of which a typical
fuselage has a series from the nose to the empennage, typically perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis of the aircraft. The primary purpose of formers is to establish the
shape of the fuselage and reduce the column length of stringers to prevent
instability. Formers are typically attached to longerons, which support the skin of the
aircraft.

The Former-and-Longerons technique was adopted from boat construction

(also called stations and stringers), and was typical of light aircraft built until the
advent of structural skins such as fiberglass and other composite materials. Many of
today's light aircraft and homebuilt aircraft in particular, are still designed in this way.

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12.3. BULK HEAD

A bulkhead is a wall inside a craft such as a ship, airplane, or spacecraft. Bulkheads

serve a number of structural functions, and there are wide arrays of variations on the
basic bulkhead design which can be used in specific applications. The term
“bulkhead” may also be used to describe a retaining wall in a mine or along seashore
used for control of flood and erosion.

The Chinese appear to have been the first to use bulkheads in their ships.
When mariners from other regions encountered Chinese ships, they took note of the
bulkhead design and adopted it for themselves, causing it to spread rapidly across

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many shipbuilding cultures. Prior to the use of bulkheads, the entire hull of a ship
would be open, creating a cavernous space.

One of the most obvious reasons to install bulkheads is to divide a space into
usable compartments. Using bulkheads inside a ship, for example, breaks the space
up, which makes it easier to store cargo and to establish accommodations for people
on board the boat. Historically, the use of bulkheads radically changed shipping,
because it allowed companies to sequester various products and to organize their
loads without needing to worry about shifting weight, since the bulkheads held
materials in place.

LONGERONS & FRAME LOCATIONS AND SPACING

12.4. FUSELAGE LAYOUT DRAWING : TO BE ADDED

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SUMMARY

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 EXPERIMENT 13

DETAILED DESIGN WITH CAD DRAWINGS

TOP VIEW, SIDE VIEW, FRONT VIEW (CAD DRAWING)

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 EXPERIMENT 14

14.1 CONCLUSION

 Design is a fine blend of science, presence of mind and the application of

each one of them at the appropriate time.
 Design of anything needs experience and an optimistic progress toward the
ideal system, the scientific society always looks for the best product design.
 This involves a strong fundamental and their skill full application which is a
tough job endowed upon the designer. We had put enough hard work to best
of our knowledge for this design.
 A design never gets completed in a flutter sense but it is one further step
towards the ideal system. But during the design of this fighter aircraft, we
learnt a lot about AERONAUTICS and its implication when applied to an
aircraft design.

14.2 REFERENCES

1. Theory of wing section by IRA H.ABBOT and ALBERT E.VON DOENHOFF.

2. Aircraft performance and design by JOHN D.ANDERSON JR

3. Aircraft design: A conceptual Approach by DANIEL P.RAYMER

4. Aircraft design by THOMAS CORK

5. Aircraft design by MOHAMMAD SADRAEY

6. Aircraft design by JOHN ROSKAM.

7. JANES All the World Aircrafts

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