MEASURES OF DISPERSION

Discussion

Measures of dispersion indicate the extent to which individual items in a series are
scattered about an average. It is used to determine the extent of the scatter so that steps may be
taken to control the existing variation. It is also used as a measure of reliability of the average
value.

These are also the measures of the average distance of each observation from the center
of the distribution. It also indicates the homogeneity or heterogeneity of a particular group.

A small measure of variability would indicate that the data are stipend;

1. clustered closely around the mean… or… far away from the mean
2. more homogeneous … or… heterogeneous
3. less variable … or … more variable
4. more consistent … or … less consistent
5. more uniformly distributed … or … less uniformly distributed

MEASURES OF ABSOLUTE DISPERSION

The measures of absolute dispersion are expressed in the units of the original
observations. They cannot be used to compare variations of two data sets when the average of
these data set differs a lot in value or when the observations differ in the unit of measurement.

The range is the most unstable and unreliable measure of dispersion because it can easily
be affected by extreme values. It can be determined by finding the difference between the largest
and smallest values.
Range (R) = maximum value – minimum value

EXAMPLE 4.8
The IQ scores of 5 members of Andres’s family are 112,114,109,120 and 116. Find the
range.

Solution:

Arrange the scores from lowest to highest, then subtract the lowest score to the highest
score.

R = 120 – 109 = 11

∴The range of the IQ score is 11.

Variancedescribes how the data is spread out. It is the average of the squared differences
from the mean. A value of zero means that there is no variability. All the numbers in the data set
are the same.

The population varianceis denoted by σ 2and can be calculated using the formula:
N

∑ ( xi −μ )2
σ 2= i =1
N
where x = individual value; μ = mean of population; and N = population size

Standard deviationcan be obtained by taking the square root of the variance.

Standard deviation is the most reliable measure of dispersion.

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 ❑
The population standard deviationis denoted byσ and can be calculated using
theformula:

√
N

∑ ( x i−μ )2
σ 2= i=1
N
The population varianceσ 2, can be estimated by the sample variance, s2where

√ √
N N

∑ ( x i−x ) ∑ x i2−( Σ Nⅈ=1 x i )

2 2

s2= i=1
= i=1
n−1 n(n−1)

and the population standard deviation σ , can be estimated by the sample standard deviation s,
where

√
N
n ∑ x i −( Σ ⅈ=1 x i )
2 N 2

i=1
s=
n(n−1)
EXAMPLE 4.9

A sample of five households showed the following number of household members:

3,8,5,4, and 4. Find the standard deviation.

Solution:
5

∑ x i2= 3 2
+ 82 + 52 + 42 + 42 = 130
i=1

2
( Σ5ⅈ=1 x i ) = (3 + 8 + 5 + 4 + 4)2 = 576

√
N
n ∑ x i −( Σ ⅈ=1 x i )
2 N 2

s= i=1
n(n−1)
=
√ 5 ( 130 ) −576
5( 4)
=
74
20 √
=1.924

∴The standard deviation is 1.924. This means that the average distance of data is 1.924apart.

MEASURES OF RELATIVE DISPERSION

Measures of relative dispersion are unitless and are used when one wishes to compare the
scatterings of one distribution with another distribution.

The coefficient of variation (CV) is the ratio of the standard deviation to the mean and is
usually expressed in percentages. It is computed as:

2
σ
CV = × 100 %
μ
EXAMPLE 4.10

A company analyst studied recent measurements made with two different instruments.
The first measure obtained a mean of 4.96 mm with a standard deviation of 0.022 mm. The
second measure obtained a mean of 6.48 mm with a standard deviation of 0.032 mm. Which of
the two instruments was relatively more precise?

Solution:

0.022
Instrument #1: CV = × 100% = 0.44%
4.96

2
 0.032
Instrument #2: CV = × 100% = 0.49%
6.48
∴Instrument # 1 was relatively more precise than instrument #2.

STANDARD SCORE

The standard score measures how many standard deviations an observation is above the
mean. Observed values above the mean have positive z-scores while values below the mean have
negative z-score. The standard score can be computed as:

Population Standard Score Sample Standard Score

x−μ x−x
2
z= ; z= ;
σ s
Where where
x = observe value x = observe value
μ = population mean x = sample mean
σ = population standard deviation s = sample standard deviation

The standard score is useful for comparing two values from different series especially
when these two series differ concerning the mean or standard deviation or both are expressed in
different units.

EXAMPLE 4.11

Joel got a grade of 78 in English and a grade of 93 in History. The mean grade in English
is 68 and the standard deviation is 8, whereas in History, the mean grade is 80 and the standard
deviation is 15. In which subject did Joel perform better?

Solution:

93−80 78−68
Zhistory = = 0.87; Zenglish= = 1.25
15 8

∴The z-score of English is higher than the z-score in history which means that Joel performed
better in English.

EXAMPLE 4.12

A university had a policy that the student whose grade drops beyond two standard
deviations below the mean will fail. If the mean grade of students who took Elementary Statistics
is 76.8 and the standard deviation is equal to 5.65, does Warren fail if he gets a grade of 66?

Solution:
93−80
Z= = -1.91
15

∴Since the z-score in not beyond 2 standard deviations below the mean, Warren will not fail the
course.

MEASURES OF RELATIVE POSITION OR FRACTILES

Fractileis the division of an array into equivalent subgroups. It identifies the position of a
value in an array. An array divided into hundred equal parts is percentile. In quartile, an array is
divided into four equal parts and decile divides an array into 10 equal parts.
General formula to is:

3
 [ ]
th
ⅈ ( n+1 )
F

where i = term of interest; n = number of observed values; and F = Fractile (percentile = 100;
decile = 10; quartile = 4)

Percentiles(Pk).Values in an array are subdivided into 100 equal parts. For instance,P 1is
read as the first percentile which means that the value is greater than 1% of the observed values in
the array. P2 read as the second percentile, value is greater than 2% of the observed values in the
array, and so on.

EXAMPLE 4.13

The following were the scores of 12 students in a 20-item quiz, find the 80thpercentile.

4 3 6 12 11 6 18 5 6 6 17 13

Solution:

Step 1: Arrange the data from lowest to highest.

3 4 5 6 6 6 6 11 12 13 17 18

Step 2: Identify the values on the formula: i = 80; n = 12; and F = 100 (percentile)

[ ] [ ]
th th
ⅈ ( n+1 ) 80 (12+1 )
P80 = = =¿ 10.4th or the 11th position
F 100

∴The 80thpercentile is 17, which means that 80% of the scores are below 17.

Deciles(Dk).An array is subdivided into 10 equal parts. For instance, D 1is read as the first
decile which means that the value is greater than 10% of the observed values in the array. D 2,
read as the second decile, is greater than 20% of the observed values in the array, and so on.

EXAMPLE 4.14

The following were the scores of 12 students in the 20-item quiz, find the 6thdecile.

4 3 6 12 11 6 18 5 6 6 17 13

Solution:

Step 1: Arrange the data from lowest to highest.

3 4 5 6 6 6 6 11 12 13 17 18
Step 2: Identify the values on the formula: I = 6; n = 12 and F = 10 (decile)

[ ] [ ] [ ]
th th th
ⅈ ( n+1 ) 6 (12+1 ) 78
D6 = = = = 7.8th or the 8th position
F 10 10

∴The 6thdecile is 11, which means that 60%of the scores are below 11.

Quartiles(Qk)Quartile subdivided an array into four equal parts. For instance, Q is read as
the first quartile which means that the value is greater than 25% of the observed values in the
array, Q2, read as the second quartile, value is greater than 50% of the observed values in the
array, and so on.

EXAMPLE 4.15

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 The following were the scores of 12 students in a 20-item quiz, find the 1stquartile.

4 3 6 12 11 6 18 5 6 6 17 13

Solution:

Step 1: Arrange the data from lowest to highest.

3 4 5 6 6 6 6 11 12 13 17 18

Step 2: Identify the values on the formula: i = 6; n = 12 and F = 4 (quartile)

[ ] [ ] [ ]
th th th
ⅈ ( n+1 ) 1 ( 12+1 ) 13 = 3.25th or the 4th position
Q1 = = =
F 4 4

∴The 1st quartile is 6, which means that 25% of the scores are below 6.

SHAPE OF A DISTRIBUTION
Normal Distribution.It is a distribution with a bell-shaped appearance. In a normal
distribution, the mean = median = mode.

No. of Correct f
Normal Distribution Answer
6 1 1
5 2 2
4
3 4
4 5
3
5 4
2
6 2
1
7 1
0 N 19
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Skewness(SK). It refers to the degree of symmetry or asymmetry of a distribution, about

the center, while Kurtosis (Ku) refers to the peakedness or flatness of a distribution.

A normal distribution has a coefficient of skewness (SK) of zero or about zero. As the
skewness (SK) departs

1. A negative valueindicates a skewed to the left or negatively skewed distribution.

No. of Correct f
Skewed to the Left Distribution Answer
8
1 0
7 2 0
6 3 1
5
4
4 2
3 5 5
2 6 7
1
0
7 4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 N 19

A distribution is skewed to the left if the bulk of the distribution is on the right. This is otherwise
known as a negatively skewed distribution.

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2. A positive value indicates a skewed to the right or positively skewed distribution.

No. of Correct f
Skewed to the Right Distribution Answer
1 4
8
2 7
7
3 5
6
4 2
5 5 1
4 6 0
3 7 0
2 N 19
1
A 0skewed to-the-right distribution is one whose bulk of the distribution is on the left. This is
1
otherwise known2as a positively
3 4
skewed 5
distribution. 6 7

Kurtosis(KU):It refers to the peakedness or flatness of a distribution.

Mesokurtic is a normal distribution wherein kurtosis

is zero.

Leptokurtic is more peaked or taller than the normal

distribution wherein kurtosis is greater than zero.

Platykurtic is flatter or shorter than the normal

distribution wherein kurtosis is less than zero.

NORMAL PROBABILITY MEASURES

Standard Deviations

28.26
95.44
99.74
The normal probability distribution is a continuous probability distribution that is both
symmetrical and mesokurtic. The curve representing the normal probability distribution is often
described as being “bell-shaped”. This is the Normal Curve.

PROPERTIES OF NORMAL CURVE

1. The mean = median = mode.

2. It is symmetrical about the mean, so half the normal curve has an area of 0.5 or 50%.
3. The tails or ends are asymptotic relative to the horizontal axis.
4. The total area under the normal curve is 1.0 or 100%.
5. The normal curve area may be subdivided into standard deviations, at least 3 to the left and 3

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 to the right.
6. Using the empirical rule, 68% of the data lie within 1 sd. of the mean; 95% of the data within
2 sd. of the mean, and 99.7% of the data lie within 3 sd. of the mean;

AREAS UNDER THE NORMAL CURVE

The total area under the normal curve logically represents the sum of all probabilities for
a random variable. Hence, the area under the normal curve is one. Also, the standard normal
curve represents a normal curve with mean 0 and standard deviation. The area under the normal
curve may represent several things like the probability of an event, the percentile rank of the
score, or the percentage distribution of the whole population.

The first step in finding areas under the normal curve is to convert the normal curve of
any given variable into a standardized normal curve. The formula to be used is as follows:

x−x
z=
s

where x observe value; x = sample mean, and s = sample standard deviation

EXAMPLE 4.16

Jose’s grade in Math is 80. His grade in English is 78. The section where he belongs got a
mean grade of 86 in Math and 75 in English. The standard deviation for both subjects is 5. In
which subject does he perform better?

Solution:

x−x
Using the formula: z=
s

80−86 78−75
Zmath¿ =−1.2 ;zenglish¿ = 0.6
5 5

∴Jose’s grade in Math has a negative z-score of -1.2 which means that he got a grade lower than
the average grade of the class. While his grade in English has a positive z-score which means that
he got a grade higher than the average grade of the class. Therefore, Jose performed better in
Engish.

EXAMPLE 4.17

Consider the mean and standard deviation in the previous example. If Janette, Jose’s
classmate, has a z-score of 1.75 in English, what is her grade in English?

Solution:

x−86
Zmath¿ =1.75
5

x – 86 = 1.75 (5)

x =94.75

∴Janette’s grade in English is 94.75.

Some considerations and reminders when solving statistical problems using the areas
under the normal curve table. The total area under the normal curve is 1 or 100%. Since the
normal curve is symmetrical about the mean, the half of the normal curve has an area of 0.5 or
50%. The table you will use gives only the area to the right of the mean. The given area in the
table is the area from z = 0 to ± z area is always positive but z can be positive or negative.

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 Note: Finding the areas under the normal curve is the same as finding the probability.

Table 4.3. Areas under Normal Curve

z 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
0.0 0.0000 0.0040 0.0080 0.0120 0.0160 0.0199 0.0239 0.0279 0.0319 0.0359
0.1 0.0398 0.0438 0.0478 0.0517 0.0557 0.0596 0.0636 0.0675 0.0714 0.0753
0.2 0.0793 0.0832 0.0871 0.0910 0.0948 0.0987 0.1026 0.1064 0.1103 0.1141
0.3 0.1179 0.1217 0.1255 0.1293 0.1331 0.1368 0.1406 0.1443 0.1480 0.1517
0.4 0.1554 0.1591 0.1628 0.1664 0.1700 0.1736 0.1772 0.1808 0.1844 0.1879
0.5 0.1915 0.1950 0.1985 0.2019 0.2054 0.2088 0.2123 0.2157 0.2190 0.2224
0.6 0.2257 0.2291 0.2324 0.2357 0.2389 0.2422 0.2454 0.2486 0.2517 0.2549
0.7 0.2580 0.2611 0.2642 0.2673 0.2703 0.2734 0.2764 0.2794 0.2823 0.2852
0.8 0.2881 0.2910 0.2939 0.2967 0.2995 0.3023 0.3051 0.3078 0.3106 0.3133
0.9 0.3159 0.3186 0.3212 0.3238 0.3264 0.3289 0.3315 0.3340 0.3365 0.3389
1.0 0.3413 0.3438 0.3461 0.3485 0.3508 0.3531 0.3554 0.3577 0.3599 0.3621
1.1 0.3643 0.3665 0.3686 0.3708 0.3729 0.3749 0.3770 0.3790 0.3810 0.3830
1.2 0.3849 0.3869 0.3888 0.3907 0.3925 0.3944 0.3962 0.3980 0.3997 0.4015
1.3 0.4032 0.4049 0.4066 0.4082 0.4099 0.4115 0.4131 0.4147 0.4162 0.4177
1.4 0.4192 0.4207 0.4222 0.4236 0.4251 0.4265 0.4279 0.4292 0.4306 0.4319
1.5 0.4332 0.4345 0.4357 0.4370 0.4382 0.4394 0.4406 0.4418 0.4429 0.4441
1.6 0.4452 0.4463 0.4474 0.4484 0.4495 0.4505 0.4515 0.4525 0.4535 0.4545
1.7 0.4554 0.4564 0.4573 0.4582 0.4591 0.4599 0.4608 0.4616 0.4625 0.4633
1.8 0.4641 0.4649 0.4656 0.4664 0.4671 0.4678 0.4686 0.4693 0.4699 0.4706
1.9 0.4713 0.4719 0.4726 0.4732 0.4738 0.4744 0.4750 0.4756 0.4761 0.4767
2.0 0.4772 0.4778 0.4783 0.4788 0.4793 0.4798 0.4803 0.4808 0.4812 0.4817
2.1 0.4821 0.4826 0.4830 0.4834 0.4838 0.4842 0.4846 0.4850 0.4854 0.4857
2.2 0.4861 0.4864 0.4868 0.4871 0.4875 0.4878 0.4881 0.4884 0.4887 0.4890
2.3 0.4893 0.4896 0.4898 0.4901 0.4904 0.4906 0.4909 0.4911 0.4913 0.4916
2.4 0.4918 0.4920 0.4922 0.4925 0.4927 0.4929 0.4931 0.4932 0.4934 0.4936
2.5 0.4938 0.4940 0.4941 0.4943 0.4945 0.4946 0.4948 0.4949 0.4951 0.4952
2.6 0.4953 0.4955 0.4956 0.4957 0.4959 0.4960 0.4961 0.4962 0.4963 0.4964
2.7 0.4965 0.4966 0.4967 0.4968 0.4969 0.4970 0.4971 0.4972 0.4973 0.4974
2.8 0.4974 0.4975 0.4976 0.4977 0.4977 0.4978 0.4979 0.4979 0.4980 0.4981
2.9 0.4981 0.4982 0.4982 0.4983 0.4984 0.4984 0.4985 0.4985 0.4986 0.4986
3.0 0.4987 0.4987 0.4987 0.4988 0.4988 0.4989 0.4989 0.4989 0.4990 0.4990
3.1 0.4990 0.4991 0.4991 0.4991 0.4992 0.4992 0.4992 0.4992 0.4993 0.4993
3.2 0.4993 0.4993 0.4994 0.4994 0.4994 0.4994 0.4994 0.4995 0.4995 0.4995
3.3 0.4995 0.4995 0.4995 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4997
3.4 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4998
3.5 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998
3.6 0.4998 0.4998 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999
3.7 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999
3.8 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999
3.9 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000
z 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09

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EXAMPLE 4.18

Find the area from z = 0 to z = 1.2

Solution:

Step 1: Shade the required region.

Step 2: Find the area using the table.
z = 0 has area 0.0000
and z = 1.2 has area 0.3849
area = 0.0000 + 0.3849 = 0.3849

EXAMPLE 4.19

Find the area P(-1.30= z = 2.0)

Solution:

Step 1: Shade the required region.

Step 2: Find the area using the table.
z = -1.3 has area 0.4032
and z = 2 has area 4772
area = 0.4032 + 0.4772 = 0.8804

EXAMPLE 4.20

The average grade in the college entrance exam is 88 with a standard

deviation of 9. There are 2,500 examinees for the year 2018. Determine the
number of students

(a) whose average is equal to or between 81 and 86.

(b) whose average is 90 and above.

Solution :

(a) First, change the grades into z-scores

81.88−88 86−88
z=
9
= - 0.78 ; z= 9
= - 0.22 ;

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Area of -0.78 = 0.2823 Area of – 0.22 = 0.0871

Note:If the z-score has the same side reference to the mean, the operation to be
used is subtraction.

Area = 0.2823 – 0.0871 = 0.1952; then multiply the area to the number of
examinees.
2,500 × 0.1952 = 488.

∴This means that out of 2,500 examinees, 19.52% or 488 examinees got a
a score between 81-86.

(b) Change the grade intoz-scores

90−88
z= = 0.22
9

Area of 0.22= 0.0871

Note:The area on the table uses only the area to the right of the mean. Half of the
normal curve has an area of 0.5 since the area we got to the table. Subtract the area
to 0.5.

Area = 0.5000 – 0.0871 = 0.4129; then multiply the area to the number of
examinees. 2,500 × 0.4129 = 1,032.25 or 1,033.

∴This means that out of 2,500 examinees, 41.29% or 1,033 examinees got a score
90 and above.

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