17

Comparators
Introduction
A comparator works on relative measurements, i.e. to say, it gives only dimensional
differences in relation to a basic dimension. So a comparator compares the unknown dimensions
of a part with some standard or master setting which represents the basic size , and
dimensional variations from the master setting are amplified and measured.
Advantages of comparators:
1. Not much skill is required on the part of operator in its use.
2. The calibration of instrument over full range is of no importance as comparison is done with
a standard end length.
3. Zero error of instrument also does not lead to any problem.
4. Since range of indication is very small, being the deviation from set value, a high
magnification resulting into great accuracy is possible.
The comparators are generally used for linear measurements, and various comparators available
differ principally in the method used for amplifying and recording the variations measured.
According to the principles used for obtaining suitable degrees of magnification of the indicating
device relative to the change in the dimension being measured, the various comparators may be
classified as follows:
Classification of comparators:
1. Mechanical comparators
2. Mechanical-optical comparators
3. Electrical and Electronic comparators
4. Pneumatic comparators
5. Fluid displacement comparators
6. Projection comparators
7. Multi-check comparators
8. Automatic gauging machines.

Characteristics of Comparators
Before we discuss the various types of comparators, let us first look into various
fundamental requirements which every comparator must fulfill. These are as follows:
1. The instrument must be of robust design and construction so as to withstand t he effect of
ordinary usage without impairing its measuring accuracy.
2. The indicating device must be such that readings are obtained in least possible time and for
this, magnification system used should be such that the readings are dead beat. The system
should be free from backlash, and wear effects and the inertia should be minimum possible.
3. Provision must be made for maximum compensation for temperature effects.
4. The scale must be linear and must have straight line characteristic.
5. Indicator should be constant in it return to zero.
6. Instrument, though very sensitive, must withstand a reasonable ill usage ( )
without permanent harm.
7. Instrument must have the maximum versatility, i.e., its design must be such that it can be
used for a wide range of operations.
8. Measuring pressure should be low and constant.
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Uses of Comparators
The various ways in which the comparators can be used are as follows:
1. In mass production, where components are to be checked at a very fast rate.
2. As laboratory standards from which working or inspection gauges are set and
correlated.
3. For inspecting newly purchased gauges.
4. Attached with some machines, comparators can be used as working gauges to prevent
work spoilage ( ) and to maintain required tolerances at all stages of manufacturing.
5. In selective assembly of parts, where parts are graded in three or more groups
depending upon their tolerances.

The dial indicator measures change in

Comparison measurement requires movement length, not the length itself.
because it is change o f length that is desired.

1. Mechanical Comparators
In these comparators, magnification is obtained by mechanical linkages and other mechanical
devices.

Systems of Displacement Amplification used in Mechanical Comparators:

a- Rack and Pinion: The measuring spindle integral with a rack, engages a pinion which
amplifies the movement of plunger through a gear train. Fig (1-a).
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b- Cam and gear train: In this case the measuring spindle acts on a cam which transmits the
motion to the amplifying gear train. Fig (1-b).
c- Lever with toothed sector: In this case a lever with a toothed sector at its end engages a
pinion in the hub of a crown gear sector which further meshes with a final pinion to produce
indication. Fig (1-c).
d- Compound Levers: here levers forming a couple with compound action are connected
through segments and pinion to produce final pointer movement. Fig (1-d).
e- Twisted Taut ( ) Strip: The movement of measuring spindle tilts the knee causing
straining which further causes the twisted taut band to rotate proportionally. The motion of
strip is displayed by the attached pointer.Fig (1-e).
f- Lever combined with band wound around drum: In this case, the movement of the
measuring spindle tilts the hinged block, causing swing of the fork which induces rotation of the
drum. Fig(1-f).
g- Reeds combined with optical display. In this case parallelogram reeds are used which
transfer measuring spindle movement to a deflecting reed whose extension carries a target
utilized in optical path.
i- Tilting mirror projecting light spots.

Dial Indicator:

One of the most commonly used mechanical comparators is essentially of the same type as a
dial indicator. It consists of a robust base whose surface is perfectly flat and a pillar carrying a
bracket in which is incorporated a spindle and indicator. The linear movement of the spindle is
magnified by means of a gear and pinion train into sizable rotation of the pointer on the dial scale.
The indicator is set to zero by the use of slip gauges representing the basic size of the part. This is
generally used for inspection of small precision-machined parts. This type of comparator can be
used with various attachments so that it may be suitable for large number of works. With a V-
block attachment it can be used for checking out-of-roundness of a cylindrical component.

The Johansson .
Reed Type Mechanical Comparator.
The Sigma comparator.

Fig1-a. rack and pinion Fig 1-b. cam and gear train Fig1-c. lever with toothed gear.
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Fig1-d. compound levers. Fig1-f. lever combined with

band wound around drum.

Fig1-e. twisted taut strip

Fig1-f. Lever combined with band wound

around drum

Advantages of Mechanical Comparators

i. These are usually cheaper in comparison to other devices of amplifying.
ii. These do not require any external supply such as electricity or air and as such the variations
in outside supplies do not affect the accuracy.
iii. Usually the mechanical comparators have linear scale which is easily understood.
iv. These are usually robust and compact and easy to handle.
v. For ordinary workshop conditions, these are suitable and being portable can be issued
from a store.
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Disadvantages
i. The mechanical comparators have got more moving parts than other types. Due to more
moving parts, the friction is more and ultimately the accuracy is less.
ii. Any slackness in moving parts reduces the accuracy considerably.
iii. The mechanism has more inertia and this may cause the instruments to be sensitive
vibration.
iv. The range of the instrument is limited as the pointer moves over a fixed scale.
v. Error due to parallax is possible as the moving pointer moves over a fixed scale.

2-Mechanical Optical Comparators

In mechanical optical comparators small displacements of the measuring plunger are
amplified first by a mechanical system consisting of pivoted levers. The amplified mechanical
movement is further amplified by a simple optical system involving the projection of an image. The
usual arrangement employed is such that the mechanical system causes a plane reflector to tilt about
an axis and the image of an index is projected on a scale on the inner surface of a ground-glass
screen. Optical magnifications provide high degree of measuring precision due to reduction of
moving members and better wear resistance qualities. Optical magnification is also free from
friction, bending, wear etc.
The whole system could be explained diagrammatically by (fig 2-a,b) which gives very simple
arrangement and explains the principle of above comparator.

In this system, Mechanical amplification

= 20 /1 ,
And, Optical amplification

50 /1 x 2
It is multiplied by 2, because if mirror
is tilted by an angle , then image
will be tilted by 2 x . Thus overall
magnification of this system
= 2 x (20/1) ( 50/1 =2000 units)

Fig 2-a. principles of Optical Comparator.

Thus it is obvious that optical comparators are capable of giving a high degree of measuring
precision owing to high magnification and the reduction of moving members to minimum. Further
these possess better wear resistance qualities as the only wearing members are the plunger and its
guide and the mirror pivot bearing. Another advantage of the optical comparators is that provision
of an illuminated scale enables readings to be taken without regard to the room lighting conditions.
The point of importance in optical comparator is that mirror used must be of front reflection type
and not normal back reflection type. In normal back reflection type there are two reflected
images, one each from front and back. Thus the reflected image is not well defined one, as one
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bright and other blurred image are observed. If front reflection type of mirror is used, then it
requires considerable care in its use to avoid damage to the reflecting surfaces.

Fig 2-b. an optical lever is used to amplify the reed action. In the actual instrument, the
optical path is longer than is shown here and a prism is used instead of a mirror.

Advantages of Optical Comparators:

i. It has small number of moving parts and hence a higher accuracy.
ii. In the optical comparators, the scale can be made to move past a datum line and thus have high
range and no parallax errors.
iii. It has very high magnification.
iv. Optical lever is weightless.
Disadvantages:
i. As the instrument has high magnification, heat from the lamp, transformer etc. may cause the
setting to drift.
ii. An electrical supply is necessary.
iii. The apparatus is usually large and expensive.
iv. When the scale is projected on a screen, then it is essential to use the instrument in a dark room
in order to take the readings easily.
v. The instruments in which the scale is viewed through the eyepiece of a microscope are not
convenient for continuous use.
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3. Electrical and Electronic Comparators:

These comparators depend for their operation on Wheatstone bridge circuit. In d.c. circuit, a
change of balance of the electrical resistance in each arm of the bridge is caused by the displacement
of an armature relative to the arm under the action of the measuring plunger. Once out of balance is
caused in the bridge, it is measured by a galvanometer graduated to road in units of linear
movement of plunger. This circuit is operated by battery. For the bridge to balance, the ratios of the
resistances in two arms must be equal.
If alternating current is applied to the bridge, the inductance and capacitance of the arms must
also be accounted for along with resistance. In actual measuring instruments, one pair of inductances
is formed by a pair of coils in the measuring head of the instrument. The movement of the plunger
displaces an armature, thus causing a variation in the inductance of a pair of coils forming one arm of
a.c. bridge. The arm carries the armature (Fig. 3-a) and the inductance in the coils is dependent upon
the displacement of the armature relative to the coils. There are other refinements in actual
instrument such as an electrical method of zero adjusting and a switch to change the
magnification. The amount of unbalance caused by movement of measuring plunger is amplified
and shown on a linear scale. Magnifications of the order of x 30,000 are possible with this system.
Commonly used instruments are Electrichek, Electricator, Electrigage, Electrolimit and Electronic
Measuring Equipment.

Electrical Comparators:
Electrical comparators are also known as electromechanical measuring systems as these employ an
electro-mechanical device which converts a mechanical displacement into electrical signal.fig3-a.

Fig3-a. Fig.3-b.
This is a LVDT (Linear- Variable-Differential This simplified bridge circuit is similar to those
Transformer). Linear movement of the core used in electronic comparators.
changes the Impedance. The electrical output
changes in proportion to the core movement.
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Advantages of Electrical Comparators:

i. The electrical comparators have got small number of moving parts.
ii. It is possible to have a very high magnification and the same instrument may have two or
more magnifications. Thus the same instrument can be used for various ranges.
iii. The mechanism carrying the pointer is very light and not sensitive to vibrations.
iv. As the instrument is usually operated on A.C. supply, the cyclic vibration substantially
reduces errors due to sliding friction.
v. The measuring unit can be made very small and it is not necessary that the indicating
instrument be close to the measuring unit, rather it can be remote also.

Disadvantages:

i. It requires an external agency to operate i.e., the A.C. electrical supply. Thus the
variations in voltage or frequency of electric supply may affect the accuracy.
ii. Heating of coils in the measuring unit may cause zero drift and alter the calibration.
iii. If only a fixed scale is used with a moving pointer then with high magnifications a very
small range is obtained.
iv. This is usually more expensive than mechanical instrument.

4- Pneumatic Comparators
Air gauging has rapidly increased during some past time due to the following important
characteristics.
i. Very high amplifications are possible. It can be used to measure diameters, length,
squareness, parallelism, and concentricity, taper, centre distance between holes and other
geometric conditions.
ii. As no physical contact is made either with the setting gauge or the part being measured,
there is no loss of accuracy because of gauge wear. For this reason, air spindle and air snap
gauges last very long. Also very soft parts which are easily scratched can be gauged.
iii. Internal dimensions can be readily measured not only with respect to tolerance boundaries
but also geometric form. In other words, while measuring a bore it can reveal complete story
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of size, taper, straightness, camber and bell mouth etc.

iv. It is independent of operator skill.
v. High pressure air gauging can be done with cleansing of the parts which helps to
eliminate errors due to dirt and foreign matter.
vi. Gauging pressures can be kept sufficiently low to prevent part deflection.
(In general, high pressure gauges are suitable for those parts in which tolerances are
relatively large and low pressure air gauges are preferable for highly precise work.)
vii. Dimensional variations throughout the length of shaft or cylinder bore can be explored for
out of roundness, taperness, concentricity, regularity and similar conditions.
viii. Not only it measures the actual size, but it can also be used to salvage oversized pieces for
rework or to sort out for selective assembly, i.e., it is suitable both for variable inspection
(measurement of size) and attribute inspection (GO and NO GO) gauging and limits.
ix. The total life cost of the gauging heads in much less.
x. It is accurate, flexible, reliable, universal and speedy device for inspecting parts in mass
production.
xi. It is best suited for checking multiple dimensions and conditions on a part simultaneously
in least possible time. It can be used for parts from 0.5 mm to 900 mm diameter having
tolerance of 0.05 mm or less. It can be easily used for on line measurement of parts as
they are being machined and take corrective actions.

Systems of Pneumatic Gauges:

Based on the physical phenomena on which the operation of pneumatic gauges is based,
these may be classified as:
i. Flow or velocity type,
ii. Back pressure type.
Flow or velocity type pneumatic gauges operate by sensing and indicating the momentary
rate of air flow. Flow could be sensed by a glass tube with tapered bore, mounted over a
graduated scale. Inside the bore a float is lifted by the air flow.

i. Free Flow Air Gauges:

(Flow or velocity type): In this case the compressed air after the filtering and pressure reducing
unit flows through a tapered glass tube containing a small metal float and then through a plastic
tube to the gauge head having two diametrically opposed orifices for air escapement into atmosphere
.The position of the tube is dependent upon the amount of air flowing through the gauge head,
which in turn is dependent upon the clearance between the bore to be measured and the gauge
head.
The flow velocity type pneumatic comparator with zero adjustment and magnification
adjustment is shown in Fig. 4-a. Magnification can be changed by passing some of the air supply,
using a screw at the inlet to the tapered glass tube. The float can be zeroed by a bleed valve installed
at the top of the tube. Size is measured by the velocity of air in a tapered glass tube which is
measured by the height of the float in tube.
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Fig 4-a. zero and magnification adjustment

in flow type of pneumatic comparator.

It is possible to read accurately up to microns depending upon scale length, or classify the
sizes quickly and accurately. The amplification can be changed by quick change of tube, float and
scale. Air gauge amplification and range are based on the tooling and instrument standards of
manufacturer. The amplification and instrument are selected by considering the total tolerance
spread and choosing the instrument that covers the range. About 50 to 100 mm of column is
usually allowed for the actual tolerance spread.
In the gauging head, the air escapement orifices are recessed below its cylindrical surface so
that the orifices never contact the part being gauged. Thus the surface wear will not affect the
accuracy till it is worn down to orifice level. Also the orientation of gauge or the way operator holds
the gauge is of no consequence and same readings will be obtained for given diameter. On the
gauge, knobs are also provided for adjusting float position and calibration. Air gauge is set by
placing masters for maximum and minimum tolerances on spindle alternatively and adjusting the
float position for each master by turning the knurled knobs at the base of the instrument.
Free-flow column type gauges are usually assembled together side by side and thus multiple
interrelated readings can be seen at a glance. This is the big advantage of air gauging that the
multiple dimensions and conditions can be inspected with great ease, accuracy and speed.
Pneumatic circuits can be arranged to determine dimensional differences like taper
(comprising the diameter of bore at different points along a part), bore centre distance and also to
select parts to assemble to predetermined clearances or interference fits.

ii. Back Pressure Gauges: The air pressure variation system is based on the use of a two-
orifice arrangement, as shown in Fig. 4-b. Air is passed at controlled pressure into the
measuring head, and provides the source pressure, Ps. It passes through the control orifice O1
into the intermediate chamber. Orifice O1 is of constant size, but the effective size of O2 may be
varied by the distance d. As d varies, pressure Pb also changes, and thus provides a measure of
dimension d. Thus the indicating device is a pressure gauge or manometer recording the pressure
Pb between the orifices.
By suitably matching the diameters of O 1 , and O2 and controlling Ps, the pressure at Pb
may be made to vary linearly with the effective size of O2, over a limited portion of the curve
obtained by plotting the relationship of the ratios A 2 / A1, and Pb / Ps as shown in Fig. 4-c,
where A1 and A2 are the areas of orifices O1, and O2 respectively.
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For values of Pb / Ps between approximately 0 and 0 , the curve is linear within 1 %, and it
is these values that are used in the design of such comparators for the relative diameters of
orifices.

If we consider the linear portion of the curve, i.e. between the values of 0 and 0 for
Pb /Ps its law may be written as:

The pneumatic magnification is proportional to the input pressure, and inversely proportional
to the area, or the square of the diameter, of the control orifice.
It is clear that an essential operating requirement is that pressure Ps is constant. It is thus
necessary to have a simple pressure regulator controlling the pressure of the air from the normal
supply line, and if necessary reducing it from about 55 N/cm2 to 1 N/cm2. Fig. 4-c shows the
circuit diagram of the instrument produced by Solex Air Gauges Ltd., the instrument being
arranged for internal measurement.
The air from its normal source of supply, say the factory air line, is filtered, and passes
through a flow valve. Its pressure is then reduced and maintained at a constant value by a dip tube
into a water chamber, the pressure value being determined by the head of the water displaced,
excess air escaping to atmosphere.

The air at reduced pressure then passes through the control orifice, and escapes from the
measuring orifice. The back pressure in the circuit is indicated by the head of water displaced
in the monometer tube. The tube is graduated linearly to show changes of pressure resulting
from changes in dimension d, Fig. 4-b. Amplifications of up to 50 000 are obtainable with
this system.

Another back-pressure comparator is produced by Mercer Air Gauges Ltd., but this
operates at the much higher pressure of 27 N/cm2 gauge. The constant pressure input is
produced from the line pressure by a diaphragm type regulator and passed to the control
orifice and thence to the measuring orifice.
Interesting features are:
(a) Magnification adjustment. It has been shown that the magnification can be varied by
varying the diameter of the control orifice. This is achieved by means of a taper-needle valve in
the control orifice and enables a single scale to be used for all work by adjusting the
magnification and zero settings.
(b) Zero adjustment. An air bleed, upstream of the measuring orifice and controlled by a
taper-needle valve, provides a zero adjustment.
The pressure measuring device is a Bourdon tube type pressure gauge, the dial being
graduated in linear units, i.e. 0 01 mm, 0 01 mm, or inch units.
As with all other comparators, initial setting is by means of reference gauges. In this
case, it is important that the reference gauges, and the part being measured, are of the same
geometric form. For example, slip gauges are applicable as setting gauges for flat work pieces,
while circular section work requires the use of cylindrical setting gauges. For work of the type
shown in Fig. 4-d, a pair of reference ring gauges is necessary for setting purposes. If this
precaution is not taken, the expansion characteristics of the air escaping from the measuring
orifice, O2, are changed and affect the accuracy of pressure readings on the manometer tube.
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A possible disadvantage of the back-pressure type of instrument is its relatively slow

speed of response under some conditions of use. It is clear that as the volume of air in the system
increases, its response to changes of pressure will, due to its compressibility, be reduced.
This characteristic is of no great concern when the total length of the circuit is short, but in
applications to dimensional control in the operation of machine tools for example, this
length may be considerable, and give rise to passivity.
The basic back- pressure system shows changes in the gauging pressure in respect to
atmospheric pressure. There is no control over the later. In the balanced system Fig.4-e the
changes in the measuring channel pressure are shown in respect to the reference channel pressure.
Both channels are subject to careful control by the restrictors.
By these means some of the difficulties with back- pressure systems are eliminated and some
desirable features obtained. Unlike the other systems, this one requires only one master and one
adjustment, zero setting.

Fig.4-b. Essentials of a back- pressure pneumatic gauging system.

Fig.4-c. Characteristic curve of back- pressure

pneumatic system.
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Fig.4-d. Application of back- pressure air gauging system used by Solex Air Gauging Ltd.

Fig.4-e. The balanced system has fixed amplification. The only adjustment is zero setting.
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Advantages of Pneumatic Comparators:

i. The gauging member does not come into contact with the part to be measured and hence
practically no wear takes place on the gauging member.
ii. It has usually very small number of moving parts and in some cases none. Thus the accuracy
is more due to less friction and less inertia.
iii. Measuring pressure is very small and the jet of air helps in cleaning the dust, if any, from the
part to be measured.
iv. It is possible to have very high magnification.
v. The indicating instrument can be remote from the measuring unit.
vi. It is very suitable device for measuring diameter of holes where the diameter is small compared
with the length.
vii. It is probably the best method for determining the ovality and taperness of the circular
bores.
Disadvantages:
i. It requires elaborate auxiliary equipment such as accurate pressure regulator.
ii. The scale is generally not uniform.
iii. When indicating device is the glass tube, then high magnification is necessary in order to
avoid the meniscus errors.
iv. The apparatus is not easily portable and is rather elaborate for many industrial
applications.
v. Different gauging heads are required for different dimensions.