Overview

◼ Productivity
◼ Productivity improvement techniques
◼ Work study
◼ Work measurement
◼ Work measurement techniques
◼ A time study for a multi machine assignment set
up (Work sampling, GTT)
Productivity
◼ Productivity is the amount of products or services
produced with the resources used. A comparative
tool.
◼ Productivity = Quantity of products or services
produced Amount of resources used

Productivity varies with the amount of production

relative to the amount of resources used.
Productivity Variables
◼ Labour - contributes about 1/6 of the annual increase

◼ Capital - contributes about 1/6 of the annual increase

◼ Management - contributes about 4/6 of the annual increase

 Factors Affecting Productivity
Enterprise Productivity factors

Internal factors External factors

Hard factors Soft factors Structural Natural resources Govt. and

adjustments infrastructure

•Product •People •Economic •Manpower •Policies and strategies

•Plant and Equipment •Organization and systems •Social •Land •Infrastructure
•Technology •Work methods
•Materials and Energy •Management styles
 Productivity improvement techniques
◼ Productivity improvement is not just doing things better; It is doing the right thing
better.
◼ Productivity is often measured as the output of goods/services in a given number
man hours / machine hours.(Time)
◼ Total time of a job is made up of

Basic Work content Work content added Work content added by Ineffective time due to Ineffective time
by defects in design inefficient methods shortcomings of
worker
management

Total work content Total Ineffective time

Productivity improvement techniques
Technical approach Human approach

Work study
Bain storming
Value analysis
Organization development
JIT / KAIZEN / KANBAN
Force field analysis
Cellular Manufacturing
Pareto analysis
Product development
Cost benefit analysis
OM tools
Process Planning
 Work Study
◼ Work study is a generic term for those techniques particularly method study and work
measurement which are used in the examination of human work in all its contexts and which lead
systematically to the investigation of a all the factors which affect the efficiency and economy of
the situation being reviewed, in order to effect improvement

Work study

Method study Work measurement

Simplify a method To find how long it takes

Higher Productivity
 Work Measurement
◼ Frank and Gilberth developed
work measurement

Work measurement is the application of techniques designed

to establish the time for a qualified worker to carry out a
specified job at defined level of performance.
Work Measurement
Purpose of Work measurement

Compare the efficiency of alternative methods

Balance the work of the team members
Determine the number of machine one can operate
Effective planning and scheduling of production
To set standards of machine utilization and labor performance
Provide information on which selling prices and delivery
promises can be based
Existence of ineffective / unproductive time
Change in method of working
Work Measurement
(Procedure)
SELECT

RECORD

EXAMINE

MEASURE

COMPILE
Work measurement techniques

DEFINE
 Determining standard time
Standard time – Amount of time required to complete a unit of work under
existing working conditions using the specified method and machinery by an
operator able to do the work in a proper manner and at a standard pace.

Performance Allowance
Rating Fraction

Observed Normal Standard

Time Time Time
Performance rating

◼ Gauging the performance of a worker against a standard

performance level
◼ Rating is the assessment of the worker’s rate of working
relative to the observer’s concept of the rate corresponding
to standard pace.
◼ A rating of 100 represents standard performance.
◼ Accuracy in rating can be achieved through experience and
practice on many types of operation
◼ Make sure correct methods are being used to perform the
operation being studied
◼ Break the operation down into basic tasks (elements).
Performance rating
◼ Determine how many cycles to time. A cycle is one
complete set of the elemental tasks.
◼ Observe and record the elapsed time for each element for
the number of required cycles.
◼ For each element, estimate the observed worker’s
performance rating.
◼ Rating factor is applied to observed time to give the
normal time

Normal time = Observed time X Rating

100
Allowances
◼ An amount of time added to the normal time to provide for
personal delays, unavoidable delays and fatigue of the
operator.
◼ Personal allowance
◼ Fatigue allowance
◼ Delay allowance
◼ Special allowance (Periodic activity, Interference)
◼ Standard time = Basic time + Allowances
Standard time calculation
Example 1
◼ In a time study of a manufacturing operation, the
average time observed to complete a product was
8.6 minutes. The performance rating applied to
the observed worker was 0.95 and the allowance
during an 8-hour shift were 12.5% or 60 minutes.
◼ Compute the standard time.
 Standard time calculation
◼ Observed time = 8.6 minutes
◼ Performance rating = 0.95
◼ Allowance fraction = 0.125
◼ Normal time = Observed time x
Performance rating
= 8.6 x 0.95
= 8.17 minutes
◼ Allowance =60 min. for 480 min.
◼ % of allowance = 60 / 480 X100 =1/8 %
◼ Standard Time = Normal time + Allowance
= 8.17 + 1 / 8 * 8.17
= 9.19 minutes
 Example 2
◼ The following data refers to the study conducted for an
operation. Table shows actual time for elements in
minutes.
Cycle- 1 2 3 4 5
elements

1 2.5 2.1 2.2 5.4 2.5

2 6.2 6.00 6.1 5.9 5.9
3 2.3 2.0 2.1 2.1 2.2
4 2.4 2.1 2.8 3.0 2.3

◼ Consider the observations as abnormal and delete the

same if they are more than 20% of average time of that
element.
◼ Take performances rating as 120.
 fatigue allowance – 15%,
contingency allowance – 2%.
◼ Estimate the standard time of operation.
◼ Estimate the production per 8 hours shift taking
personal allowance 30 minutes in a shift of 8 hrs.
◼ Estimate the number of operators required to
produce 500 jobs.
Solution:
Cycle- 1 2 3 4 5 Averag
elements e time

1 2.5 2.1 2.2 5.4 2.5 2.325

2 6.2 6.00 6.1 5.9 5.9 6.02
3 2.3 2.0 2.1 2.1 2.2 2.14
4 2.4 2.1 2.8 3.0 2.3 2.52
Total observed cycle time 13.005

The cycle time 5.4 is neglected.

Total observed time/cycle = 13.005 min
◼ Normal time for the cycle= observed time / cycle x
rating
= 13.005 x 1.2
=15.606 min
Total allowance = fatigue allowance + contingency
allowance
Standard time = 15.606(1+0.15+0.02)
=18.259 minutes.
◼ Production rate per shift
Total time per shift of 8 hrs. = 8 x 60 =480 min
Less personal allowance = 30 minutes
Effective production time = 450 minutes
Production in 8 hrs. shift =
time available for production
standard time
=450/18.259
=24.64 =25 jobs.
◼ No. of operators required to produce 500 jobs =
500/25 =20
Work measurement techniques

Time study
Synthesis synthetized time standards
Predetermined motion time standards (PMTS)
Work sampling
Analytical estimating
Group Timing Technique
Time study

◼ Developed by F.W. Taylor

◼ Concerned with direct observation of work.
◼ Records times and rates of working for the elements of a
specified job carried out under specified conditions.
◼ Used only for repetitive work and
◼ For checking time standards obtained by other methods
Time study (Contd.)
◼ Selecting job , worker for time study
◼ Preparing study sheets
◼ Break the job into elements
Repetitive element, Occasional element, Constant
element, Variable element, Manual element,
Machine element
Establish Number of observations
Record observations and estimate standard time
Standard data
◼ Is a catalogue of normal time values for different
elements of a job or minute movements involved
in different jobs.
◼ Types
◼ Macro data or element standard data (elements of a
job)
◼ Micro data (Based upon minute movements)
Standard data (procedure)

◼ Decide the range of applicability of standard data

◼ Break the job into elements
◼ Conduct time studies for wider varieties of jobs
◼ Using statistical methods calculate avg. standard
time
◼ Compile standard data.
Standard data
◼ To estimate standard time for a new jobs
◼ To find standard time for short runs of customer order
products
◼ Repair and maintenance
◼ Building constructions
◼ Machining and assembly
◼ Avoids conducting time studies again and again
Work sampling
◼ Large number of observations are made over a
period of time of one or group of machines,
processes or workers.
◼ Percentage of observations recorded for a
particular activity or delay is a measure of the
percentage of time during which that activity
occurs.
◼ Activities of very long duration can be timed with
work sampling
◼ Probability of occurrence of an event represented
by normal distribution.
Work sampling has three main application:
◼ activity and delay sampling
◼ Performance sampling
◼ Work measurement

Procedure of conducting work sampling study

◼ Decide on the objective of the study
◼ Obtain approval of the supervisor
◼ Decide upon work & delay elements
◼ Decide upon the duration of the study
◼ Determine the desired accuracy of results
• Design the study

a) Determine the number of observation to be made

b) Determine the number of observation needed
C ) Determine the number of days or shifts needed
for the study
d) make detailed plan for observation
e) Design the Observation form
• Make the observation according to the plan
• Check the accuracy or precision of the data at the
end of the study
• Prepare the report and state conclusion
Design of work sampling

➢Determination of required number of observation

The number of observation depends upon:
• Activity percentage(P)
• Limit of accuracy(A)
• Confidence level(C)
•Number of observation (N)

C= 1,2,3 for confidence level of 68%, 95% and 99% respectively.

Number of observation at the confidence level of 95% is given by:

 Setting performance standards with work
sampling
◼ Rating index : average of individual performance
rating
◼ Production quantity: Number of pieces produced during
the period of the study are determined from the
production report
◼ Overall time per unit (To): dividing production time
(duration of the study) by number of pieces produced.

◼ Effective time per unit (Te)

To = overall time per pieces
N = total number of observation
Np = observation of production activity
= Nm + Nh
Nm= observation of machine controlled work
Nh= observation of hand controlled work
Effective time per unit (Te) =
overall time per unit x Production activity%
= To x Np/ N
◼ Machine controlled effective time (Tm)
= Te x Nm/Np
= Te x Nm/(Nh+ Nm)
◼ Manual controlled effective time (Th)
= Te x Nh/Np
= Te x Nh/(Nh+ Nm)
Or (Te - Tm)
◼ Normal time per piece
= ((Th x R)/100) + Tm

◼ Standard time per piece:

It is calculated by adding relevant allowance to
the normal time.
◼ Ex1: Pilot study showed the percentage of occurrence of
an activity as 50%. Determine the number of observations
for 95% confidence level and an accuracy of 2%.

◼ Ex2: A job order shop has 12 general purpose machine. A

work sampling study has been designed to know the
ineffective time of the entire shop. The study conducted
revealed that ineffective time is to the extent of 30%.
Compute the number of observation that are required to
have the accuracy of 2% with confidence level of 95%.
◼ Ex1:
N=4 *(1- 0.50) / 0.50 * (0.02)2
= 10000

Ex2:

N=4 *(1- 0.30) / 0.30 * (0.02)2

= 23333
 Problem 1
◼ A work sampling study was conducted to establish the
standard time for an operation. The observations of the
study conducted is given below:
total no of observation (N)= 160
manual (hand controlled work) (Nh) = 14
m/c controlled work (Nm) = 106
m/c idle time = 40
average performance rating (R)= 80%
no. of parts produced= 36
allowance for the personal need and fatigue =10%
study conducted for 3 days .
available working hour/day = 8 hrs
calculate the standard time /piece.
Solution:
N= 160 ; Nh = 14 ; Nm = 106 ; Np =(Nm + Nh) = 120 ; R=
80%
duration of study = 3 days = 1440 minutes
no. of parts produced = 36

➢ Overall time per unit(To)

= (Duration of study)/no. of pieces produced
= 1440/36=40 min
➢ Effective time per pieces(Te)
Te = overall time/pieces x % of time spent on productive
activity
= To x (Np/N)
= To x (Nm+Nh) /N = 40 x (106+14)/160
= 30 min
➢ Break down of effective time per piece into m/c controlled
and hand controlled portion:

Tm = m/c controlled portion of the effective time per piece

Tm = Te x (Nm/Np)
= Te x Nm/(Nm+Nh)
= 30 x 106/(106+14) = 26.5 min

Th = hand controlled portion of effective time/piece

= Te x Nh/(Nm+Nh)
= 30 x 14/(106+14) = 3.5 min
Normal time/piece = Tm + (Th x R)
=26.5 + (3.5 x 0.8 ) = 29.3 min.

Standard time/piece= Normal time + Allowances

= 29.3(1+0.1) = 32.23 minutes
Problem 2:

◼ A work study was conducted in a machine shop. The data

has been recorded.
Observations of production Activity=2000
No activity= 500
The ratio between manual to machine = 3:1 Portion of the
activities
Average performance rating = 85%
Total number of pieces produced = 120 During study
Duration of the study = 60 hrs.
Calculate the standard time / piece assuming 15% relaxation
allowance.
To = (60 x 60)/120 = 30 min.
Te = To x Np/N = 30 x (2000/2500) = 24 min.
Tm = 24 x (1/4) = 6 min.
Th = Te- Tm = 24 - 6 = 18 min.

◼ Normal time per piece

= 6 + (18 x 0.85) = 21.3 min

◼ Standard time per piece

= Normal time + allowances
=21.3 (1 + 0.15)
= 24.495 min
Advantages of work sampling compared to time study:
Economical
• Many activities are difficult or uneconomical to measure by time
study can be measured by work sampling

• Two or more studies can be simultaneously made of several

operators or machines by a single observer

• It usually requires fewer man-hours to make a work sampling

study than to make a continuous time study

• No stopwatch or other time measuring device is needed for work

sampling studies

• It usually requires less time to calculate the results of the study

Flexible :
• A work sampling study may be interrupted at any time without
affecting the result

Operators Like It:

• Operators are not closely watched for long period of time. Some
people do not like to be observed continuously for long periods of
time.

Observers Like It :
• Work sampling studies are less fatiguing and less tedious to make
on the part of time study engineer.
 LIMITATIONS

• Work sampling is not economical for the study of a single

operator or operation or machine

• Work sampling study does not provide elemental time data

• The operator may change his work pattern when he sees the
observer

• No record is usually made of the method being used by the

operator

• Compared to stop watch time study, the statistical approach

of work sampling study is difficult to understand by workers
Predetermined motion time system
◼ Time established for basic human motions are used to
build up the time for a job at a defined level of
performance. (Micro)
◼ All manual tasks are made up of basic human movements
like reach, grasp, move etc.,
◼ Useful in method analysis
◼ Short cycle highly repetitive operations.
◼ For timing short and repetitive motions which cannot
be measured by stop watch.
Predetermined motion time system
◼ Select large number of workers doing varieties of jobs
under normal working conditions
◼ Record the job operations on a movie film
◼ Analyze the film, note down the time for each element
◼ Compile the data to form a table.
Predetermined motion time system
◼ Assembly jobs
◼ Machining work
◼ Maintenance work
◼ Servicing

MTM and Work factor

Human movement is broken down and classified
For each movement there is an associated time, usually
expressed as a Time Management Unit (TMU).
Predetermined motion time system
Method time measurement Work factor

1 TMU = 0.0006min. 1 TMU = 0.0001min.

Grasp E.g. Electronic industries

Reach Light hand assemblies
Move
Release
Eye travel Eye focus
Analytical Estimating

◼ Determines time either by using the synthetic data or on

the basis of the past experience of the estimator
◼ To estimate time for one time large project
◼ Tool rooms
◼ Non repetitive jobs
◼ Relies upon judgment of estimator
Group Timing Techniques
◼ Work measurement technique for studying men and
machine
◼ Most suitable for multiple activities that enables one
observer to make a detailed time study on from 2 to 15
men and /or machine at the same time
◼ To provide quick information on idle time, waiting time
and best crew size
◼ To measure percentage delay
◼ To measure scattered worker (load on groups of workers)
Group Timing Techniques
◼ Requires less time
◼ A GTT observer timing five operators can take 800 * 5 =
4000 observations in 8 hours and have his final results in
less than 12 hours
◼ A work sampling observer making 16 rounds per day
would require 50 days to make 4000 observations on 5
men
◼ Need no special training
Group Timing Techniques
Statistical accuracy of GTT
Group Timing Techniques
 Work measurement of multi
machine assignment
◼ More than one machine is operated by a single operator
◼ Calculation of machine interference idleness and operator idleness

Operator idleness

High Low

High Type 1 Type2

Machine Interference
Type3 Type4
Low
Work measurement of multi
machine assignment

◼ Optimal allocation of man machine ratio

◼ Uniform distribution of work load across groups
◼ Minimum machine interference
◼ Minimum Operator idleness
Work measurement in a multi machine
assignment( E.g.)
◼ Study carried out at an industry in Hosur during the year
1998.
◼ Study carried out at Auto turning shop
◼ Sliding head automatic lathe for the production of small
screws, studs
◼ Objective of study is to evaluate the man machine ratio
in the present system and to find the optimal man machine
ratio.
Work measurement in a multi machine
assignment( E.g.)
◼ To measure men and machine simultaneously
◼ To get quick information on machine interference,
operator idleness and machine working etc.,
◼ Suitable techniques are
◼ Group Timing Techniques
◼ Work sampling

Queuing theory is applied to find traffic intensity

based on data observed and this is cross checked
w i t h s t u d y r e s u l t s .
Work measurement in a multi machine
assignment( E.g.)
◼ Group timing techniques
◼ Objective is to measure
◼ machine interference and operator idleness
◼ A pilot study is conducted
◼ Activities of both men and machine are
identified
◼ Study sheets are prepared for data recording
Work measurement in a multi machine
assignment( E.g.)
Work measurement in a multi machine
assignment( E.g.)
Work measurement in a multi machine
assignment( E.g.) Data recording
Work measurement in a multi machine
assignment( E.g.) Data recording
Work measurement in a multi machine
assignment( E.g.)
◼ Results of GTT
Observation Machine

70 P – Production,
60
MI – Machine interference
50
AL – Avoidable losses
Percentage

40

30 S – Setting
20
M - Maintenance
10

0
P MI AL S M
Activities
Work measurement in a multi machine
assignment( E.g.)
◼ Results of GTT

Activities man

45
On M – On the machine
40
Off M – Off the Machine
35

30 In – Inevitable losses
Percentage

25

20 W– Welfare
15

10
M - Avoidable
5

0
On - M Off- M In Wel Avoid
Activities
Work measurement in a multi machine
assignment( E.g.)
◼ Work sampling
◼ Objective is to measure
◼ Machine Working and operator idleness
◼ A pilot study is conducted
◼ Machine Working is observed
◼ Study sheet is prepared
Work measurement in a multi machine
assignment( E.g.)
Work sampling
Date: Study No.
Shift: Machine No.

Sl.No. Observation time Total

Activities
1 2 … n
Work measurement in a multi machine
assignment( E.g.)
◼ Results Work sampling

Activities machine

70
P – Production,
60 MI – Machine interference
AL – Avoidable losses
50
Percentage

40

30
S – Setting
20 M - Maintenance
10

0
P MI AL S M
Activities