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SENTENCE

The document discusses various English grammar topics including tenses, conditionals, reported speech, sentence structure issues, subject-verb agreement, modifiers, parallelism, relative clauses, and punctuation. It provides definitions and examples for each concept to explain English grammar rules.

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30 views5 pages

SENTENCE

The document discusses various English grammar topics including tenses, conditionals, reported speech, sentence structure issues, subject-verb agreement, modifiers, parallelism, relative clauses, and punctuation. It provides definitions and examples for each concept to explain English grammar rules.

Uploaded by

wysacad
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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2.

8 Tenses
Tenses indicate the time of action or state of being as shown by the verb. There are three main
tenses, each with four aspects:

 Present Tense:

 Simple Present: She reads.


 Present Continuous: She is reading.
 Present Perfect: She has read.
 Present Perfect Continuous: She has been reading.
 Past Tense:
 Simple Past: She read.
 Past Continuous: She was reading.
 Past Perfect: She had read.
 Past Perfect Continuous: She had been reading.
 Future Tense:
 Simple Future: She will read.
 Future Continuous: She will be reading.
 Future Perfect: She will have read.
 Future Perfect Continuous: She will have been reading.

2.9 Conditionals
Conditionals are sentences expressing factual implications or hypothetical situations and their
consequences. There are four main types of conditionals:

 Zero Conditional: Used for general truths or laws of nature. Example: If you heat water, it boils.
 First Conditional: Used for real and possible situations. Example: If it rains, we will stay
indoors.
 Second Conditional: Used for unreal or hypothetical situations in the present or
future. Example: If I had a million dollars, I would travel the world.
 Third Conditional: Used for unreal situations in the past. Example: If I had known, I would
have acted differently.

2.10 Reported Speech


Reported speech, or indirect speech, is used to relay what someone else said without quoting them
directly. It often involves changes in tense, pronouns, and other words:

 Direct Speech: He said, “I am going to the store.”


 Reported Speech: He said that he was going to the store.

Key changes include:

 Tense shifts (e.g., present to past).


 Pronoun adjustments (e.g., I to he/she).
 Time expressions (e.g., now to then).
2.11 Sentence Fragments and Run-ons
Understanding and avoiding sentence fragments and run-on sentences is crucial for clear and
effective writing.

 Sentence Fragments: Incomplete sentences that lack a subject or verb or do not express a
complete thought. Example: Because I was tired.
 Run-on Sentences: Two or more independent clauses improperly joined without punctuation or
conjunctions. Example: I love to write it is my favorite hobby.

Fix fragments by completing the thought and run-ons by separating them into distinct sentences or
using conjunctions or punctuation.

2.12 Subject-Verb Agreement


Subjects and verbs must agree in number (singular or plural). Key rules include:

 Singular subjects take singular verbs. Example: The cat runs.


 Plural subjects take plural verbs. Example: The cats run.
 Indefinite pronouns (everyone, someone) usually take singular
verbs. Example: Everyone is happy.
 Compound subjects joined by “and” take a plural verb. Example: The dog and the
cat are playing.

2.13 Modifiers
Modifiers are words or phrases that provide additional information about other words in a sentence.
Proper placement is crucial to avoid confusion.

 Adjectives: Modify nouns. Example: The blue sky.


 Adverbs: Modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. Example: She runs quickly.
 Misplaced Modifiers: Placed too far from the word they modify, causing
confusion. Example: She almost drove her kids to school every day.
 Dangling Modifiers: The word they modify is missing from the sentence. Example: Running to
catch the bus, the rain started pouring.

Correct misplaced and dangling modifiers by placing them next to the word they modify.

2.14 Parallelism
Parallelism involves using the same grammatical structure for similar elements within a sentence to
ensure clarity and balance. Examples:

 Incorrect: She likes hiking, to swim, and biking.


 Correct: She likes hiking, swimming, and biking.
 Incorrect: The manager was responsible for writing reports, overseeing projects, and team
supervision.
 Correct: The manager was responsible for writing reports, overseeing projects, and supervising
the team.
Ensure all items in a list or series match in form (e.g., all gerunds or all infinitives).

2.15 Relative Clauses


Relative clauses provide additional information about a noun without starting a new sentence. They
begin with relative pronouns like who, whom, whose, which, and that.

 Defining Relative Clauses: Provide essential information. Example: The book that I borrowed
was excellent.
 Non-defining Relative Clauses: Provide extra information. Example: My brother, who lives in
New York, is visiting.

Non-defining relative clauses are set off by commas.

3. Punctuation
Punctuation marks help clarify the meaning of sentences. Each punctuation mark has specific rules
and uses.

3.1 Period
The period (.) is used to indicate the end of a declarative sentence or a mild imperative.

 Example: She went to the store.

3.2 Comma
The comma (,) is used to indicate a pause between parts of a sentence, separate items in a list, and
more. Some common uses include:

 Separating items in a list. Example: I bought apples, oranges, and bananas.


 Before conjunctions in compound sentences. Example: She was tired, but she finished her
work.
 After introductory elements. Example: After the meeting, we went to lunch.
 To set off non-essential information. Example: My brother, who lives in New York, is visiting.

3.3 Semicolon
The semicolon (;) is used to connect independent clauses that are closely related in thought. It can
also be used to separate items in a complex list.

 Example: She loves reading; her favorite genre is science fiction.


 Example: We visited Paris, France; Rome, Italy; and Berlin, Germany.

3.4 Colon
The colon (:) is used to introduce a list, a quote, an explanation, or to emphasize a point.
 Example: She brought three things: a book, a pen, and a notebook.
 Example: Remember the saying: “Practice makes perfect.”

3.5 Quotation Marks


Quotation marks (” “) are used to enclose direct speech or a quotation. They can also be used to
indicate titles of short works, such as articles or poems.

 Example: She said, “I will be there soon.”


 Example: Have you read “The Road Not Taken” by Robert Frost?

3.6 Apostrophe
The apostrophe (‘) is used to indicate possession or the omission of letters or numbers.

 Possession. Example: The cat’s toy.


 Contractions. Example: Do not becomes don’t.

3.7 Question Mark


The question mark (?) is used at the end of an interrogative sentence.

 Example: Are you coming to the party?

3.8 Exclamation Mark


The exclamation mark (!) is used to express strong emotion or surprise.

 Example: Watch out!

4. Common Errors
Below are some common grammar errors and tips on how to avoid them. Being aware of these
common pitfalls can help improve your writing accuracy.

 Its vs. It’s: “Its” is possessive; “it’s” means “it is.” Example: The dog wagged its tail. / It’s going
to rain.
 There vs. Their vs. They’re: “There” refers to a place; “their” is possessive; “they’re” means
“they are.” Example: The book is over there. / Their house is big. / They’re going to the park.
 Your vs. You’re: “Your” is possessive; “you’re” means “you are.” Example: Is this your car? /
You’re very kind.
 To vs. Too vs. Two: “To” is a preposition; “too” means “also” or “excessively;” “two” is the
number 2. Example: I’m going to the store. / She was too tired. / I have two cats.
 Affect vs. Effect: “Affect” is a verb meaning to influence; “effect” is a noun meaning the
result. Example: The weather will affect our plans. / The effect of the new law was significant.
 Then vs. Than: “Then” is used for time; “than” is used for comparison. Example: We will go
shopping, then we will eat. / She is taller than her brother.
 Who vs. Whom: “Who” is a subject pronoun; “whom” is an object pronoun. Example: Who is
coming to the party? / Whom did you invite?
 Fewer vs. Less: “Fewer” is used with countable nouns; “less” is used with uncountable
nouns. Example: There are fewer apples in the basket. / There is less water in the bottle.
 Me vs. I: Use “I” as the subject and “me” as the object. Example: John and I went to the store. /
The gift was for John and me.
 Who vs. That: Use “who” for people and “that” for things. Example: The person who called
me. / The book that I read.

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