Control Valve Handbook | Chapter 6: Special and Severe Service Control Valves

As discussed in previous chapters,

standard control valves can handle
a wide range of control applications.
The range of standard applications
can be defined as being encompassed
by: atmospheric pressure and 414 bar
(6000 psig), -101°C (-150°F) and 232°C
(450°F), flow coefficient C v values of 1.0
and 25000, and the limits imposed by
common industrial standards. Certainly,
corrosiveness and viscosity of the fluid,
leakage rates, and many other factors
Figure 6.1 High-Performance Butterfly Valve
demand consideration even for standard
applications. Perhaps the need for careful
consideration of valve selection becomes High-performance butterfly valves
more critical for applications outside the provide outstanding performance under
standard limits mentioned above. extreme pressure and temperature
conditions. The valve maintains tight
This chapter discusses some special
shutoff and can be specified for a wide
applications and control valve
range of pressure and temperature
modifications useful in controlling them,
conditions. A splined drive shaft
designs and materials for severe service,
combines with a variety of spring-
and test requirements useful for control
and-diaphragm or pneumatic piston
valves used in nuclear power plant service.
actuators to make the valve a reliable,
high-performance butterfly valve
for a variety of throttling and on-off
6.1 High-Capacity Control applications in the various process
Valves industries. One of several dynamic
Generally, globe-style valves larger seals that can be used in a variety of
than NPS 12, ball valves over NPS 24, demanding applications, with the
and high-performance butterfly valves appropriate seal selection and materials
larger than NPS 48 fall in the special of construction, the pressure-assisted
valve category. As valve sizes increase seal provides excellent shutoff.
arithmetically, static pressure loads Components complicate installations
at shutoff increase geometrically. and maintenance procedures.
Consequently, shaft strength, bearing Installation of the valve body assembly
loads, unbalance forces, and available into the pipeline and removal and
actuator thrust all become more replacement of major trim parts require
significant with increasing valve size. heavy-duty hoists.
Normally maximum allowable pressure
Noise levels must be carefully
drop is reduced on large valves to keep
considered in all large-flow installations
design and actuator requirements
because sound pressure levels increase
within reasonable limits. Even with
in direct proportion to flow magnitude.
lowered working pressure ratings, the
To keep valve-originated noise within
flow capacity of some large-flow valves
tolerable limits, large cast or fabricated
remains tremendous.
valve body designs (Figure 6.2) have
been developed. These bodies, normally
cage-style construction, use unusually

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long valve plug travel, a great number design can be designed. They are
of small flow openings through the wall designed in accordance to ASME B16.34
of the cage, and an expanded outlet line with integral flanges.
connection to minimize noise output
and reduce fluid velocity.

Figure 6.3 Black Forged Body for High Capacity

6.2 Low-Flow Cv Control

Valves

Figure 6.2 Large-Flow Valve Body for Noise Attenuation

Naturally, actuator requirements are

severe, and long-stroke, double-acting
pneumatic pistons are typically specified
for large-flow applications. The physical
size and weight of the valve and actuator
components complicate installation and
maintenance procedures. Installation of
the valve body assembly into the pipeline
and removal and replacement of major Figure 6.4 Special Control Valve Designed for Very Low
trim parts require heavy-duty hoists. Flow Rates
Maintenance personnel must follow the
manufacturers’ instruction manuals Many applications exist in laboratories
closely to minimize risk of injury. and pilot plants in addition to the
general processing industries where
Some of the intermediate ratings and control of extremely low flow rates
high capacity can be met with block is required. These applications are
forged bodies. Both globe and angle commonly handled in one of two ways.

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First, special trims are often available be inadequate. For instance, plastics,
in standard control valve bodies. The elastomers, and standard gaskets
special trim is typically made up of a generally prove unsuitable and must
seat ring and valve plug that have been be replaced by more durable materials.
designed and machined to very close Metal-to-metal seating materials are
tolerances to allow accurate control always used. Semi-metallic or laminated
of very small flows. These types of flexible graphite packing materials are
constructions can often handle flow commonly used, and spiral-wound
coefficients as low as 0.03. Using stainless steel and flexible graphite
these special trims in standard control gaskets are necessary.
valves provides economy by reducing Cr-Mo steels are often used for the valve
the need for spare parts inventory for body castings for temperatures above
special valves and actuators. Using 538°C (1000°F). ASTM A217 Grade
this approach also makes future flow WC9 is used up to 593°C (1100°F). For
expansions easy by simply replacing the temperatures up to 816°C (1500°F)
trim components in the standard control the material usually selected is ASTM
valve body. A351 Grade CF8M, Type 316 stainless
The low flow designs feature low steel. For temperatures between 538°C
deadband and hysteresis, high flow (1000°F) and 816°C (1500°F), the carbon
capacity, superb control characteristics, content must be controlled to the upper
tight shutoff and advanced packing end of the range, 0.04 to 0.08%. The
systems to meet demanding service 9%Cr−1%Mo−V materials, such as ASTM
conditions. A217 grade C12a castings and ASTM
A182 grade F91 forgings are used at
These valves often handle flow
temperatures up to 650°C (1200°F).
coefficients as low as 0.000001. In
addition to the very low flows, these Extension bonnets help protect
specialty control valves are compact packing box parts from extremely high
and lightweight because they are often temperatures. Typical trim materials
used in laboratory environments where include cobalt-based alloy 6, 316 with
very light schedule piping/tubing is alloy 6 hardfacing, and nitrided 422 SST. 
used. These types of control valves
are specially designed for the accurate
control of very low flowing liquid or 6.4 Cryogenic Service Valves
gaseous fluid applications. 
Cryogenics is the science dealing with
materials and processes at temperatures
below -101°C (150°F). For control valve
6.3 High-Temperature applications in cryogenic services, many
Control Valves of the same issues need consideration
Control valves for service at as with high-temperature control valves.
temperatures above 232°C (450°F) Plastic and elastomeric components
must be designed and specified with often cease to function appropriately
the temperature conditions in mind. At at temperatures below -18°C (0°F). In
elevated temperatures, such as those these temperature ranges, components
that may be encountered in boiler such as packing and plug seals require
feedwater systems and superheater special consideration. For plug seals, a
bypass systems, the standard materials standard soft seal will become very hard
of control valve construction might and less pliable thus not providing the
shutoff required from a soft seat. Special

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Control Valve Handbook | Chapter 6: Special and Severe Service Control Valves

elastomers have been applied in these Materials of construction for cryogenic

temperatures but require special loading applications are generally CF8M body
to achieve a tight seal. and bonnet material with 300 series
stainless steel trim material. In flashing
Packing is a concern in cryogenic
applications, hard facing might be
applications because of the frost
required to combat erosion. 
that may form on valves in cryogenic
applications. Moisture from the
atmosphere condensates on colder
surfaces and where the temperature 6.5 Valves Subjected to
of the surface is below freezing, the Cavitation and Fluids with
moisture will freeze into a layer of frost. Particulate
As this frost and ice forms on the bonnet
and stem areas of control valves and Pressure and temperatures in today’s
as the stem is stroked by the actuator, process and oil recovery facilities
the layer of frost on the stem is drawn continue to climb. As those pressures
through the packing causing tears and and resultant pressure drops increase,
thus loss of seal. The solution is to use the propensity for cavitation to occur
extension bonnets (Figure 6.5) that allow also increases.
the packing box area of the control valve With that can come additional
to be warmed by ambient temperatures, particulate in the fluid. As the fluid
thus preventing frost from forming on becomes dirtier, the potential for
the stem and packing box areas. The clogging the small holes used for
length of the extension bonnet depends cavitation abatement increases.
on the application temperature and
Special trims are available that can handle
insulation requirements. The colder the
pressure drops in excess of 6000 psig
application, the longer the extension
bonnet required.

Figure 6.5 Typical Extension Bonnet

Figure 6.6 Trim to Handle Cavitation

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 Control Valve Handbook | Chapter 6: Special and Severe Service Control Valves

while still allowing particulate to pass (Figure 6.8) meet the requirements
that is up to 1.27 cm (½-inch) in size. of most applications, often custom
characteristics are needed for a given
Multi-stage, anti-cavitation control valve
application. In these instances, special
trim for use in services where the fluid
trim designs can be manufactured
may have entrained particulate that
that meet these requirements. For
could plug the passages, or cause erosion
contoured plugs, the design of the
damage to conventional anti-cavitation
plug tip can be modified so that as the
trims. DST is frequently used in high
plug is moved through its travel range,
pressure drop applications up to 4200
the unobstructed flow area changes in
psid in the chemical, refining, oil and gas
size to allow for the generation of the
production, and power industries.
specific flow characteristic. Likewise,
Eccentric plug rotary control valve cages can be redesigned to meet
controls erosive, coking, and other specific characteristics as well. This is
hard-to-handle fluids, providing either especially common in noise abatement
throttling or on/off operation. The and anti-cavitation type trims where a
flanged valve features streamline high level of protection may be required
flow passages, rugged metal trim at low flow rates but much lower
components, and a self-centering seat protection levels are required for the
ring.  higher flow rate conditions.
The plants that are being cycled multiple
times daily with particles in the flow
are causing seat erosion. The damage
can occur when there is entrained
particulate that comes from corrosion
occurring in the boiler feedwater
system. This particulate, driven by the
jets exiting the cage holes, can cause
serious damage when the position of
the plug tip is located in front of the
holes for extended period of times. The
damage can occur when controlling
below recommended minimum Cv and
the clearance flow erodes the plug tip.
The protected inside seat design can
extend the service life of the seat and
the plug tip.

Figure 6.7 Trim to Handle Particles

6.6 Customized
Characteristics, Noise
Abatement, and Cavitation
Mitigation Trims
Although control valve characteristics
used in standard control valves

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Control Valve Handbook | Chapter 6: Special and Severe Service Control Valves

by ASME before actual manufacture

100
of the components. All subsequent
Rated Flow Coefficient (%) Quick-Opening
manufacturing materials and operations
are to be checked by an authorized
inspector. All valves manufactured
Linear in accordance with Section III
requirements receive an ASME code
nameplate and an N stamp symbolizing
acceptability for service in nuclear
Equal-Percentage
power plant applications. ASME Section
0 100
Rated Travel (%) III is revised by means of new editions
every three years, which may be used
Figure 6.8 Inherent Valve Characteristic
after date of issue, and which become
mandatory six months after date of
6.7 Control Valves for issue.
Nuclear Service in North ASME Section III defines three code
classes for valves — Class 1, 2, and 3.
America
Class 1 valves are part of the primary
Since 1970, U.S. manufacturers and system pressure boundary, located
suppliers of components for nuclear between the reactor pressure vessel
power plants have been subject to and the outermost containment
the requirements of Appendix B, Title isolation valves. Class 2 valves are
10, Part 50 of the Code of Federal part of the emergency core cooling
Regulations entitled Quality Assurance system and present an integral part
Criteria for Nuclear Power Plants and Fuel of the protection of the public health
Reprocessing Plants. The U.S. Nuclear and safety system. Class 3 valves
Regulatory Commission enforces this are installed in nuclear systems that
regulation. Ultimate responsibility of perform emergency equipment cooling
proof of compliance to Appendix B functions and systems that may contain
rests with the owner of the plant, who radioactive fluids or materials.
must in turn rely on the manufacturers
Section III applies to materials used for
of various plant components to
pressure retaining parts, design criteria,
provide documented evidence that
fabrication procedures, non-destructive
the components were manufactured,
test procedures for pressure retaining
inspected, and tested by proven
parts, hydrostatic testing, and marking
techniques performed by qualified
and stamping procedures. Pressure
personnel according to documented
retaining parts are exposed to or loaded
procedures.
by the process pressure within a pipeline.
In keeping with the requirements of In control valves, these are typically the
the Code of Federal Regulations, most valve body, bonnet, body-bonnet studs
nuclear power plant components are and nuts, and the plug or disc.
specified in accordance with Section III
Section III does not apply to parts not
of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
associated with the pressure−retaining
Code entitled Rules for Construction of
function; to actuators and accessories
Nuclear Facility Components. All aspects
unless they are pressure retaining parts;
of the manufacturing process must
to deterioration of valve components
be documented in a quality control
due to radiation, corrosion, erosion,
manual and audited and certified
seismic or environmental qualifications;

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or to cleaning, painting, or packaging critical control valve applications within

requirements. Customer specifications this plant design originally required the
normally cover these areas. While these use of bellow sealed bonnets to mitigate
parts are not applicable to ASME Section harmful emissions through the stem
III, they may be defined as safety related packing. Packing systems such as Enviro-
Seal are being implemented as utilities
components and subject to 10CFR50
refurbish the CANDU plants to reduce the
Appendix B and reporting requirements
overall height of the valve assembly and
of 10CFR Part 21. Safety related improve seismic performance.
components are items that prevent or
mitigate offsite exposure; and/or enable However, customer specifications
a plant to go to and remain in a safe normally cover these areas. Section
shutdown condition. In control valves, III does apply to materials used for
safety related parts can differ depending pressure retaining parts, to design
on the specific safety function and criteria, to fabrication procedures, to
application of an assembly, but typically non-destructive test procedures for
include the actuator yokes, valve pressure retaining parts, to hydrostatic
stems, stem connector assemblies, and testing, and to marking and stamping
actuator springs as well as the pressure procedures. ASME Section III is revised
boundary valve components. Packing by means of semi-annual addenda,
and gaskets would not generally be which may be used after date of issue,
considered safety related compontents. and which become mandatory six
months after date of issue. 
In the U.S., the two main reactor designs
are Pressurized Water Reactors (PWR)
and Boiling Water Reactors (BWR). In a
PWR, primary coolant water is pumped
under high pressure to the reactor
core where it is heated and flows into
a steam generator, where a secondary
water system generates steam that
drives the steam turbines. In a BWR,
primary cooling water is heated to a
boiling point by the reactor core and
converted to steam that is directly used
Figure 6.9 Pressurizer Spray Valve
to drive the main turbines. A critical
control valve application within a PWR
design is a Pressurizer Spray Valve. This
valve provides primary coolant to the
6.8 Valves Subjected to
pressurizer that controls the coolant Sulfide Stress Cracking
pressure within the reactor. Other NACE International is a technical society
critical control valve applications within concerned with corrosion and corrosion-
both designs include Main and Startup related issues. NACE is responsible for
Feedwater Control Valves, Main Steam a large number of standards, but by
Bypass Control Valves, and Main Steam far the most influential and well known
Dump Valves. is MR0175, formerly entitled “Sulfide
In Canada, the main reactor design Stress Cracking- Resistant Metallic
is referred to as CANDU (Canada Materials for Oilfield Equipment.”
Deuterium Uranium). CANDU is a MR0175 was issued by NACE in1975
Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR) to provide guidelines for the selection
that uses uranium as its fuel source. Many

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of materials that are resistant to failure 6.8.1 Pre-2003 Revisions of NACE

in hydrogen sulfide-containing oil and MR0175
gas production environments. MR0175
The following statements, although
has been so widely referenced that,
based on information and requirements
throughout the process industry,
in the pre-2003 revisions of MR0175,
the term “NACE” has become nearly
cannot be presented in the detail
synonymous with “MR0175.” However,
furnished in the actual standard and do
the situation changed in 2003.
not guarantee suitability for any given
MR0175 was modified significantly in a material in hydrogen sulfide-containing
2003 revision to cover chloride stress sour environments. The reader is urged
corrosion cracking, in addition to sulfide to refer to the actual standard before
stress cracking. Then, in late 2003, the selecting control valves for sour service.
document was revised and released as a  Most ferrous metals can become
joint NACE/ISO document called NACE susceptible to sulfide stress cracking
MR0175/ISO 15156, “Petroleum and (SSC) due to hardening by heat
Natural Gas Industries—Materials for Use treatment and/or cold work.
in H2S-Containing Environments in Oil Conversely, many ferrous metals
and Gas Production.” can be heat treated to improve
resistance to SSC.
In April 2003, NACE also released a new
standard, MR0103, which is entitled,  Carbon and low-alloy steels must
“Materials Resistant to Sulfide Stress be properly heat treated to provide
Cracking in Corrosive Petroleum resistance to SSC. A maximum
hardness limit of HRC 22 applies to
Refining Environments.” This standard is
carbon and low-alloy steels.
essentially the refining industry’s “NACE
MR0175.” MR0103 only addresses  Austenitic stainless steels are most

sulfide stress cracking, and as such is resistant to SSC in the annealed

similar in many respects to the pre-2003 condition; some specific grades and
conditions of stainless steels are
revisions of MR0175. Use of the MR0103
acceptable up to 35 HRC.
standard in the refining industry is
 Copper-based alloys are inherently
accelerating.
resistant to SSC, but are generally
In 2013, the document was revised, not used in critical parts of a
reformatted, and released as an ISO valve without the approval of the
document called ISO 17945, titled purchaser due to concerns about
“Petroleum, Petrochemical, and Natural general corrosion.
Gas Industries – Metallic Materials  Nickel alloys generally provide
Resistant to Sulfide Stress Cracking the best resistance to SSC. Some
in Corrosive Petroleum Refining precipitation-hardenable nickel
Environments. In 2015, this was adopted alloys are acceptable for use in
by NACE as MRO103/ISO 17945. applications requiring high strength
and/or hardness up to 40 HRC.
Note that compliance with certain
 Chromium, nickel, and other types
revisions of NACE MR0175 or NACE
of plating offer no protection against
MR0175/ISO 15156 is mandated by
SSC. Their use is allowed in sour
statute in some states and regions in the applications for wear resistance, but
U.S.A. At this time, NACE MR0103ISO they cannot be used in an attempt to
17945 is not mandated by any protect a non-resistant base material
governing bodies. from SSC.
 Weld repairs and fabrication welds

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 Control Valve Handbook | Chapter 6: Special and Severe Service Control Valves

on carbon and low-alloy steels must of H2S partial pressure, maximum

be properly processed to ensure that temperature, ppm chlorides, and the
they meet the 22 HRC maximum presence of free sulfur.
hardness requirement in the base  316 usage is still allowed but
metal, heat-affected zone (HAZ),
under very limited environmental
and weld deposit. Alloy steels require
conditions. The impact, if strictly
post-weld heat treatment, and post−
followed, is that this material will find
weld heat treatment is generally
very little use.
used for carbon steels as well.
 The standard applies only to
 Conventional identification stamping
petroleum production, drilling,
is permissible in low stress areas, gathering and flow line equipment,
such as on the outside diameter of and field processing facilities to be
line flanges. Low-stress identification used in H2S bearing hydrocarbon
stamping must be used in other areas. service. It does not apply to
 The standard precludes using refineries.
ASTM A193 Grade B7 bolting for  There is clear responsibility placed
applications that are considered
on the buyer or user to specify the
“exposed.” Use of SSC-resistant
correct materials. The manufacturer
bolting materials (such as ASTM
is only responsible for meeting
A193 Grade B7M) sometimes
the metallurgical requirements
necessitates derating of valves
of MR0175/ISO 15156, but not to
designed originally to use B7 bolting.
specify the correct materials.
For example, in a Class 600 globe
valve, 17-4PH H1150 DBL bolting
was often used to avoid derating. 6.8.3 NACE MR0103
As mentioned, NACE MR0103 is similar in
6.8.2 NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 many respects to the pre-2003 revisions
NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 introduced of NACE MR0175. The following are
significant changes to the standard. some major differences:
However, many end users continue to  MR0103 utilizes different,
specify NACE MR0175-2002, feeling refinery-based definitions for what
that it adequately meets their needs in constitutes a sour environment. The
providing good service life. The most user is responsible for imposing the
significant changes in NACE MR0175/ requirements of MR0103 when they
are applicable.
ISO 15156 include:
 The 2002 and older revisions of
 The 17-4PH H1150 DBL bolting that
MR0175 included environmental
was previously used for full-rated
restrictions on a few materials
exposed bolting in a Class 600 globe
that were continued in the latter
valve is no longer allowed.
editions. MR0103 only deals with
 The revision addresses both sulfide sulfide stress cracking. It does not
stress cracking and chloride stress impose environmental limits on
corrosion cracking. Prior versions any materials. Materials are either
simply listed most materials as acceptable or not.
acceptable or unacceptable. Because  Carbon steel base materials that are
its scope was expanded to cover
classified as P-No. 1, group 1 or 2
chloride stress corrosion cracking,
steels in the ASME Boiler and Pressure
the new standard lists all corrosion-
Vessel Code are acceptable per
resistant alloys as acceptable within
MR0103 without base metal hardness
limits, referred to as “environmental
requirements. P-No. 1 groups 1 and
limits or environmental restrictions.”
2 include WCC and LCC castings,
These are typically expressed in terms

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A105 forgings, A516 Grade 70 plate,

and the other common carbon steel
pressure vessel materials.
 MR0103 imposes welding controls
on carbon steels that are more
rigorous than those imposed by
MR0175-2002. MR0103 requires
that P-No. 1 carbon steels be welded
per another NACE document called
RP0472 “Methods and Controls to
Prevent In-Service Environmental
Cracking of Carbon Steel Weldments
in Corrosive Petroleum Refining
Environments.” RP0472 imposes
controls that ensure both the weld
deposit and heat affected zone
(HAZ) in a weldment will be soft
enough to resist sulfide stress
cracking. RP0472 invokes actual
hardness testing of weld deposits
in production, although hardness
testing is waived if certain welding
process/filler material combinations
are employed. HAZ hardness may
be controlled by either post-weld
heat treatment (PWHT) or by base
material chemistry restrictions such
as imposing a maximum carbon
equivalent (CE).
 Like the 2003 and later revisions of
MR0175, MR0103 does not allow
the use of S17400 double H1150
material for bolting. This means that
the 17-4PH H1150 DBL bolting that
was previously used for full-rated
exposed bolting in a Class 600 valve
is no longer allowed.
What is Universal NACE?
Universal NACE is a WCC NACE casting
that complies with all four standards
(MR0175-2002, MR0175-2003,
MR0175/ISO 15156, and MR0103).

160