Introduction to Microwave Engineering and

Transmission line theory

Prof. Ratnajit Bhattacharjee

IIT Guwahati
 Contents

 Telegrapher’s Equations

 Wave Propagation on a Transmission Line

 Lossless Line

 Terminated Lossless Transmission Line

 Special Cases of Lossless Terminated Line

 Telegrapher’s Equations
𝑖 𝑧, 𝑡 𝑖 𝑧 + ∆𝑧, 𝑡
𝑅∆𝑧 𝐿∆𝑧
+ +
v 𝑧, 𝑡 G∆𝑧 C∆𝑧 v 𝑧 + ∆𝑧, 𝑡
- -
∆𝑧
Fig. 1. Lumped element circuit model of transmission line

On applying KVL and KCL on the circuit given in Fig. 1, we get:

𝜕𝑖 𝑧, 𝑡
𝑣 𝑧, 𝑡 − 𝑅∆𝑧𝑖 𝑧, 𝑡 − 𝐿∆𝑧 − v 𝑧 + ∆𝑧, 𝑡 = 0
𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝑣 𝑧 + ∆𝑧, 𝑡
𝑖 𝑧, 𝑡 − 𝐺∆𝑧𝑣 𝑧 + ∆𝑧, 𝑡 − 𝐶∆𝑧 − 𝑖 𝑧 + ∆𝑧, 𝑡 = 0.
𝜕𝑡
 Telegrapher’s Equations
On rearranging the previous equations, we get:
𝜕𝑖 𝑧, 𝑡
𝑣 𝑧 + ∆𝑧, 𝑡 − 𝑣 𝑧, 𝑡 = −𝑅∆𝑧𝑖 𝑧, 𝑡 − 𝐿∆𝑧
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑣 𝑧 + ∆𝑧, 𝑡
𝑖 𝑧 + ∆𝑧, 𝑡 − 𝑖 𝑧, 𝑡 = −𝐺∆𝑧𝑣 𝑧 + ∆𝑧, 𝑡 − 𝐶∆𝑧
𝜕𝑡
Dividing both the equations by ∆𝑧 and taking the limit as ∆𝑧 → 0, the following equations can be rearranged as:
𝑣 𝑧 + ∆𝑧, 𝑡 − 𝑣 𝑧, 𝑡 𝜕𝑖 𝑧, 𝑡
lim = − 𝑅𝑖 𝑧, 𝑡 − 𝐿
∆𝒛→𝟎 ∆𝑧 𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝑣(𝑧, 𝑡) 𝜕𝑖 𝑧, 𝑡
⇒ = −𝑅𝑖 𝑧, 𝑡 − 𝐿
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
Similarly, we can get,
𝜕𝑖(𝑧, 𝑡) 𝜕𝑣 𝑧, 𝑡
= −𝐺𝑣 𝑧, 𝑡 − 𝐶
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡

These equations are known as Telegrapher’s equations.

 Wave Propagation on a Transmission Line
• The voltage 𝑣 𝑧, 𝑡 and current 𝑖 𝑧, 𝑡 are functions of both position 𝑧 and time 𝑡 .

• Instantaneous line voltage and current can be expressed as

𝑣 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝑅𝑒{𝑉 𝑧 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 }

𝑖 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝑅𝑒{𝐼 𝑧 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 }
where, 𝑉 𝑧 and 𝐼 𝑧 are phasors.

• Thus, the voltage and current on the transmission line can be expressed in phasor form as:

𝜕𝑣(𝑧, 𝑡) 𝜕𝑖 𝑧, 𝑡 𝑑𝑉(𝑧)
= −𝑅𝑖 𝑧, 𝑡 − 𝐿 ⇒ = − 𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 𝐼 𝑧
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑖(𝑧, 𝑡) 𝜕𝑣 𝑧, 𝑡 𝑑𝐼(𝑧)
= −𝐺𝑣 𝑧, 𝑡 − 𝐶 ⇒ = − 𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶 𝑉 𝑧
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡 𝑑𝑧
 Wave Propagation on a Transmission Line
• Thus, the voltage and current on the transmission line can be expressed in phasor form as:

𝑑𝑉(𝑧) 𝑑𝐼(𝑧)
= − 𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 𝐼 𝑧 and = − 𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶 𝑉 𝑧 , respectively.
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧

• The decoupled wave equation for both 𝑉(𝑧) and 𝐼(𝑧) can be obtained as :
𝑑 2 𝑉(𝑧) 𝑑
= − 𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 𝐼 𝑧 Similarly,
𝑑𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧
𝑑 2 𝑉(𝑧)
⇒ = − 𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 × −(𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶) 𝑉 𝑧 𝑑2 𝐼 𝑧
𝑑𝑧 2 − 𝛾 2𝐼 𝑧 = 0
𝑑2 𝑉 𝑧 2𝑉 𝑧
𝑑𝑧 2
⇒ = 𝛾
𝑑𝑧 2

𝑑2 𝑉 𝑧
⇒ −0𝛾 2 𝑉 𝑧 = 0
𝑑𝑧 2

where,𝛾 = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶 , is the complex propagation constant and a function of frequency
 Wave Propagation on a Transmission Line
The wave equations for 𝑉(𝑧) and 𝐼(𝑧) can be written as:
𝑑 2 𝑉(𝑧) 2𝑉 𝑧 = 0
− 𝛾
𝑑𝑧 2
𝑑 2 𝐼(𝑧)
2
− 𝛾2𝐼 𝑧 = 0
𝑑𝑧

where, 𝛾 = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶 , is the complex propagation constant and a function of frequency.

The solution to these wave equations are of the form:

𝑉 𝑧 = 𝑉0+ 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 + 𝑉0− 𝑒 𝛾𝑧

𝐼 𝑧 = 𝐼0+ 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 + 𝐼0− 𝑒 𝛾𝑧

where, 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 and 𝑒 𝛾𝑧 represent wave propagation in +z and –z direction, respectively.

 Wave Propagation on a Transmission Line
We find an alternative expression for 𝐼 𝑧 as follows: On comparing with∶
𝑑𝑉(𝑧)
= − 𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 𝐼 𝑧
𝑑𝑧 𝐼 𝑧 = 𝐼0+ 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 + 𝐼0− 𝑒 𝛾𝑧

𝑑 𝑉0+ 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 + 𝑉0− 𝑒 𝛾𝑧 The characteristic impedance (𝑍0 ) of a transmission

⇒ = − 𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 𝐼 𝑧
𝑑𝑧 line is given by:
𝑉0+ −𝑉0−
⇒ 𝛾 −𝑉0+ 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 + 𝑉0− 𝑒 𝛾𝑧 = − 𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 𝐼 𝑧 = 𝑍0 = −
𝐼0+ 𝐼0
𝛾
⇒𝐼 𝑧 = 𝑉0+ 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 − 𝑉0− 𝑒 𝛾𝑧 and
𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿
𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿
1 + −𝛾𝑧 𝑍0 = =
⇒𝐼 𝑧 = 𝑉0 𝑒 − 𝑉0− 𝑒 𝛾𝑧 𝛾 𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶
𝑍0
 Wave Propagation on a Transmission Line
In time domain the voltage waveform can be expressed as:
t=0
𝑣 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑉 𝑧 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡

t= T/4
= 𝑅𝑒 𝑉0+ 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 + 𝑉0− 𝑒 𝛼𝑧 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡

= 𝑅𝑒 𝑉0+ 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧 𝑒 𝑗 𝜔𝑡−𝛽𝑧+∅+ + 𝑉0− 𝑒 𝛼𝑧 𝑒 𝑗 𝜔𝑡+𝛽𝑧+∅

− t= T/2

= 𝑉0+ cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧 + ∅+ 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧 + 𝑉0− cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛽𝑧 + ∅− 𝑒 𝛼𝑧 t= 3T/4

Travelling wave along +z Travelling wave along -z

Fig. 2. Voltage waveform of
forward wave along +z direction
where, ∅± is the phase angle of the complex voltage, 𝑉0± . on transmission line for 𝛼 = 0 and
∅+ = 0.
 Wave Propagation on a Transmission Line
• The phase velocity is given by:

𝑑𝑧 𝑑 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝜔
𝑣𝑝 = = = = λ𝑓
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝛽 𝛽

• The wavelength on the line is given by:

2𝜋
λ=
𝛽
 Lossless Lines.
For a lossless transmission line:

𝑅=𝐺=0
and
𝛾 = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽 = 0 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 0 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶 The general solutions for voltage and current
on a lossless transmission line can expressed
⇒ 𝛾 = 𝑗𝜔 𝐿𝐶 as:
i.e.
𝑉 𝑧 = 𝑉0+ 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 + 𝑉0− 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧
𝛼 = 0 and 𝛽 = 𝜔 𝐿𝐶
𝑉0+ −𝑗𝛽𝑧 𝑉0− 𝑗𝛽𝑧
𝐼 𝑧 = 𝑒 − 𝑒
The characteristic impedance, wavelength and phase velocity 𝑍0 𝑍0
of a lossless line can be expressed as:
𝐿 2𝜋 2𝜋 𝜔 𝜋
𝑍0 = , λ= = and 𝑣𝑝 = =
𝐶 𝛽 𝜔 𝐿𝐶 𝛽 𝐿𝐶
respectively.
 Terminated Lossless Transmission Line
• The problem illustrates a fundamental property of distributed
𝑉 𝑧 , 𝐼(𝑧) 𝐼𝐿
systems; wave reflection in transmission lines.
+
𝑍0 , 𝛽 𝑍𝐿
• Assumption: a voltage source at 𝑧 < 0, generates an incident
𝑉𝐿
waveform of 𝑉0+ 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 .
-
• The transmission line is terminated by an arbitrary load, 𝑍𝐿 .
𝑧=0 𝑧
𝑙 • The general solutions for voltage and current on a lossless
transmission line can expressed as:
Fig. 3. Terminated lossless transmission line
𝑉 𝑧 = 𝑉0+ 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 + 𝑉0− 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧
𝑉0+ −𝑗𝛽𝑧 𝑉0− 𝑗𝛽𝑧
𝐼 𝑧 = 𝑒 − 𝑒
𝑍0 𝑍0
 Terminated Lossless Transmission Line
• At 𝑧 = 0, 𝑉 𝑧 , 𝐼(𝑧) 𝐼𝐿
+
𝑉(0) 𝑉0+ + 𝑉0− 𝑍0 , 𝛽 𝑉𝐿 𝑍𝐿
𝑍𝐿 = = 𝑍 -
𝐼(0) 𝑉0+ − 𝑉0− 0
𝑧

• Solving for 𝑉0− , we get 𝑙 𝑧=0

𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍0 +
𝑉0−= 𝑉
𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍0 0
• Thus, the voltage reflection coefficient, Γ can be obtained as:

𝑉0− 𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍0
Γ= +=
𝑉0 𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍0
 Terminated Lossless Transmission Line
• The voltage and current on a lossless line can be expressed as:

𝑉 𝑧 = 𝑉0+ 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 + Γ𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧

𝑉0+ −𝑗𝛽𝑧
𝐼 𝑧 = 𝑒 − Γ𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧
𝑍0

• It can be observed that the voltage and current on the line is a superposition of incident and reflected
wave, which gives rise to standing wave.

• The reflected waves will vanish for Γ = 0.

• And the condition to achieve Γ = 0 is given by:

𝑍𝐿 = 𝑍0 (matched load condition)

 Terminated Lossless Transmission Line
• The average power flow along the line at z, is given by:

1
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑉 𝑧 𝐼(𝑧)∗
2

∗
1 𝑉0+ −𝑗𝛽𝑧
= 𝑅𝑒 𝑉0+ 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 + Γ𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧 𝑒 − Γ𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧
2 𝑍0

1 𝑉0+ 2
= 𝑅𝑒 1 − Γ∗ 𝑒 −2𝑗𝛽𝑧 + Γ𝑒 2𝑗𝛽𝑧 − Γ 2
2 𝑍0

1 𝑉0+ 2 2
= 1− Γ
2 𝑍0
 Terminated Lossless Transmission Line
• Return loss is the power lost due to the load mismatch and is given by:

𝑅𝐿 = −20 log10 Γ dB

• For a matched load, Γ = 0 ⇒ 𝑅𝐿 = ∞ dB (no reflected power).

• While for |Γ| = 1 ⇒ 𝑅𝐿 = 0 dB (all incident power is reflected).

• For a passive network, return loss is a nonnegative number.

 Terminated Lossless Transmission Line
For a mismatched load,

𝑉 𝑧 = 𝑉0+ 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 + Γ𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧

⇒ 𝑉 𝑧 = |𝑉0+ | 1 + Γ𝑒 2𝑗𝛽𝑧
At a distance z= −𝑙,

⇒ 𝑉 𝑧 = −𝑙 = |𝑉0+ | 1 + Γ𝑒 −2𝑗𝛽𝑙

⇒ 𝑉 𝑧 = −𝑙 = |𝑉0+ | 1 + Γ 𝑒 𝑗 𝜃−2𝛽𝑙

where, θ is the phase of the reflection coefficient.

 Terminated Lossless Transmission Line
• The voltage magnitude oscillates with position along the line

• From 𝑉 𝑧 = −𝑙 = |𝑉0+ | 1 + Γ 𝑒 𝑗 𝜃−2𝛽𝑙 , 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = |𝑉0+ | 1 + Γ and 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 = |𝑉0+ | 1 − Γ

• VSWR, voltage standing wave ratio is a measure of mismatch of the line and can be defined as:

𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 1 + |Γ|
VSWR = =
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 1 − |Γ|

• VSWR is a real number, lies in the range of 1 ≤ 𝑉𝑆𝑊𝑅 ≤ ∞.

λ
• The distance between successive maxima (or minima) is 𝑙 = , while the distance between a
2
λ
maximum and minimum is 𝑙 = .
4
 Terminated Lossless Transmission Line
• At a distance 𝑙 = −𝑧 from the load, the input impedance towards the load can be given by
𝑉(−𝑙) 𝑉0+ 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑙 + Γ𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑙
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = = + 𝑗𝛽𝑙 −𝑗𝛽𝑙
𝑍0
𝐼(−𝑙) 𝑉0 𝑒 − Γ𝑒
• Putting the value of Γ , we get
𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍0 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑙 + 𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍0 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑙
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑗𝛽𝑙 −𝑗𝛽𝑙
𝑍0
𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍0 𝑒 − 𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍0 𝑒
𝑍𝐿 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑙 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑙 + 𝑍0 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑙 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑙
= 𝑗𝛽𝑙 −𝑗𝛽𝑙 𝑗𝛽𝑙 −𝑗𝛽𝑙
𝑍0
𝑍0 𝑒 + 𝑒 + 𝑍𝐿 𝑒 − 𝑒
𝑍𝐿 cos 𝛽𝑙 + 𝑗𝑍0 sin 𝛽𝑙
= 𝑍0
𝑍0 cos 𝛽𝑙 + 𝑗𝑍𝐿 sin 𝛽𝑙
𝑍𝐿 + 𝑗𝑍0 tan 𝛽𝑙
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍0
𝑍0 + 𝑗𝑍𝐿 tan 𝛽𝑙
• This equation is also known as transmission line impedance equation.
 Special Cases of Lossless Terminated Lines
Case 1: Short Circuit case, 𝑍𝐿 = 0
𝑉 𝑧 , 𝐼(𝑧) 𝐼𝐿 0−𝑍0
+ • Γ= = −1 and VSWR = ∞.
0+𝑍0
𝑍0 , 𝛽 𝑉𝐿 = 0 𝑍𝐿 = 0
• The voltage and current on the line can be obtained as:
-

𝑧
𝑉 𝑧 = 𝑉0+ 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 − 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧
𝑙
𝑉0+ −𝑗𝛽𝑧
Fig. 4. Terminated lossless transmission line 𝐼 𝑧 = 𝑒 + 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧
𝑍0
Input impedance is:

𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑗𝑍0 tan 𝛽𝑙

 Special Cases of Lossless Terminated Lines
𝑉(𝑧) 𝐼(𝑧)𝑍0
2𝑗𝑉0+ 2𝑉0+ 𝑋𝑖𝑛
1 1 𝑍0

−3λ −λ −λ −λ −λ - −3λ −λ −λ
-λ -λ −3λ
-λ 2 4 λ 4 2 4
4 2 4 -1 4 -1

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 5. (a) voltage (b) current and (c) impedance variation along short circuit
transmission line
 Special Cases of Lossless Terminated Lines
Case 2: Open Circuit case, 𝑍𝐿 = ∞
𝑉 𝑧 , 𝐼(𝑧) 𝐼𝐿 = 0 • Γ=1 and VSWR = ∞.
+
𝑍0 , 𝛽 𝑉𝐿 𝑍𝐿 = ∞ • The voltage and current on the line can be obtained from as:
-

𝑧 𝑉 𝑧 = 𝑉0+ 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 + 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧

𝑙 𝑉0+ −𝑗𝛽𝑧
𝐼 𝑧 = 𝑒 − 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧
𝑍0
Fig. 6. Terminated lossless transmission line

• Input impedance is:

𝑍𝑖𝑛 = −𝑗𝑍0 cot 𝛽𝑙
 Special Cases of Lossless Terminated Lines
𝑉(𝑧) 𝐼(𝑧)𝑍0
2𝑉0+ 2𝑗𝑉0+ 𝑋𝑖𝑛
1 1 𝑍0

−λ −λ -λ −3λ −λ −λ
-λ −3λ -λ −3λ −λ −λ
2 4 4 2 4
4 4 2 4 -1
-1

(b) (c)
(a)

Fig. 7. (a) voltage (b) current and (c) impedance variation along open circuit
transmission line
 Special Cases of Lossless Terminated Lines
Case 3: Junction with two different characteristics impedance
Γ T
𝑍1 −𝑍0
• Reflection coefficient is given by, Γ=
𝑍1 +𝑍0
𝑍0 𝑍1 • The voltage wave on the line can be represented as:
𝑉 𝑧 = 𝑉0+ 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 + Γ𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧 for 𝑧 < 0
0
𝑧 𝑉 𝑧 = 𝑉0+ 𝑇𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 for 𝑧 > 0
where, T is the transmission coefficient and is given by
Fig. 8. Junction of two transmission lines 𝑍1 − 𝑍0 2𝑍1
T=1+Γ=1 + =
with different characteristic impedance 𝑍1 + 𝑍0 𝑍1 + 𝑍0
• Transmission coefficient between two points in a line is
termed as insertion loss and given as:
𝐼𝐿 = −20 log10 T dB.
 Special Cases of Lossless Terminated Lines
λ
• For a transmission line, 𝑙 = , we get 𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍𝐿 .
2
Γ T
• A half-wavelength line (or any multiple of λ/2) does not
transform the load impedance, regardless of its
𝑍0 𝑍1 characteristic impedance.
𝑛λ
• For a transmission line with 𝑙 = , for n= 1, 3 ,5 ,…..
4
𝑧 (odd integers), we get
𝑍02
𝑍𝑖𝑛 =
𝑍𝐿
Fig. 8. Junction of two transmission lines
with different characteristic impedance • Such transmission lines are known as quarter-wave
transmission lines and can transform the load impedance
in an inverse manner depending on its characteristics
impedance.
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Lossy lines.

Distortion-less lines

Terminated lossy lines