QUESTION BANK ANSWER

Multiple choice Question: (1 mark each)

1. Brownian motion can be observed in

Liquid

2. Defined nucleus can be seen in-

Eukaryotes

3. What are Ultramicroscopic organisms?

Virus

4. Example of a Ureotelic organism-

Bony fishes

5. Division of cell that results in two daughter cells each having the same number and kind of chromosomes as the parent
nucleus is termed as

Mitosis

6. The laws of thermodynamics was postulated by-

Julius Mayor

7. Bird is an example of –

Volant Animal

8. C. elegance is a type of –

Roundworm

9. Cell differentiation helps in –

Increase in cellular complexity, Development of organs and regeneration of cell.

10. Meiosis occurs in –

Germ cell

11. Bacteria having two or more flagella attached at both ends are called-

Amphitrichous

12. Bacteria which grow at very low temperature are-

Psychrophile

13. Bacillus is an -

Rod shaped bacteria

14. Glycolysis is-

Anaerobic breakdown of Glucose

15. The nucleus was discovered by-

Robert Brown

16. One of the following absent in animal cell-

Cell Wall

17. Prokaryotic ribosomes are-

70S type

18. One of the following is semi-autonomous body-

Mitochondria

19. TCA cycle operates in the-

Mitochondria

20. ES complex formation is-

A reversible reaction

21. Amylase is a type of -

Hydrolase enzyme

22. Nitrogenous base present in DNA are-

Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Thymine

23. DNA is composed of repeating units of-

Deoxyribonuleosides

24. Site for Transcription in eukaryotes is-

Nucleus

25. Koshland’s theory of enzyme action is known as-

Induced fit theory

26. The exchange of segments of non-sister chromatids between chromosomes of a homologous pair termed as?

Crossing Over

27. The alternate form of a gene is-

Allele

28. Which of the following is Purine?

A+G

29. Functional group present in an amino acid is-

COO-

30. The proteins that help in the packaging of the DNA are?

Histones
31. This is a correct statement with reference to enzymes-

Holoenzyme = Apoenzyme +Coenzyme

32. Which of the following is true about DNA polymerase?

It can synthesize DNA in the 5’ to 3’ direction

33. Which of the following statements about the genetic code false?

All the 64 codons code for amino acids

34. Which of the following factors is necessary for a healthy person?

Vaccination, Balanced diet and Personal hygiene

35. Crossing over occurs between _________

Non sister chromatids of bivalents

36. Prokaryotic cells lack

Nucleolus, Nuclear membrane and Membrane bound by organelles

37. A virus is made up of _______.

Protein coat and nucleic acid

38. The general mechanism is that an enzyme acts by

Reducing the energy of activation

39. Mode of DNA replication is

Semiconservative and bidirectional

40. Fischer’s ‘lock and key’ model of the enzyme action implies that-

The active site is complementary in shape to that of substance

41. Polydactyly includes

Extra toes and fingers

42. Epistasis is often seen in-

Hair color and baldness

43. A group of gene contributing to the same function are called-

Duplicate gene

44. Mendel chose pea …… as the main character in monohybrid cross.

Color

45. Autoclaving occurs at-

121.8 ºC, 15 psi pressure, 15 minutes

46. Alkaptonuria occurs due to gene deficiency for-

Tryptophan and Tyrosine Synthesis

47. The “Steptococcus lactis NRRL 347”organism is a type of-

Wild Strain

48. Amonotelic organisms excrete-

Ammonia

49. When any second compound having similar structure as the substrate tries to bind with the active site of a enzyme
causing enzymatic inhibition is known as -

Competitive inhibition

50. The dark field microscopy includes-

A dark background

Short answer type Questions: (5 marks each)

1. Discuss the importance of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Escherichia Coli in biology research.

Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae are currently the two most important organisms in synthetic biology. E. coli
is almost always used for fundamental DNA manipulation while yeast is the simplest host system for studying eukaryotic
gene expression and performing large scale DNA assembly. As a rapidly reproducing eukaryote, Saccharomyces cerevisiae
is a widely used model organism that has allowed scientists to better understand molecular, cellular, and biochemical
processes, as well as the pathology and potential treatments to common human diseases.

2. Point out the similarities between human eye and camera.

Similarities between human eye and camera:

• Both the human eye and a camera have a lens that focuses light onto a receptor surface.
• They both have a mechanism to adjust the amount of light entering the system (pupil in the eye and aperture in
the camera).
• Both the eye and the camera have a receptor system that converts light into electrical signals (retina in the eye
and image sensor in the camera).
• They both have a system for image processing and interpretation (brain in the case of the eye and image
processing algorithms/software in the case of the camera).
• Both the eye and camera can form an image of the surrounding environment.

3. Why Mus musculus and Drosophila melanogaster is important?

Mus musculus (commonly known as the house mouse) and Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly) are important model
organisms in scientific research.

Mus musculus: Mice share a high degree of genetic similarity with humans, making them valuable for studying human
biology and diseases. They have a short reproductive cycle, large litters, and are relatively easy to handle and manipulate
genetically. Mice are used extensively in genetics, immunology, toxicology, and biomedical research.
 Drosophila melanogaster: Fruit flies have a well-characterized genome and a short generation time, which allows for rapid
genetic studies. They are used in genetic research to understand various biological processes such as development,
behavior, and aging. Fruit flies also share many genetic similarities with other organisms, including humans, making them
valuable for studying evolutionary biology and disease mechanisms.

4. What are test cross and back cross?

Test cross and back cross are breeding techniques used in genetics:
• Test cross: It involves crossing an individual of unknown genotype (typically expressing the dominant trait) with
an individual that is homozygous recessive for that trait. The purpose is to determine whether the individual of
unknown genotype is homozygous dominant or heterozygous.
• Back cross: It involves crossing an individual of unknown genotype (typically expressing the dominant trait) with
one of its parents that is homozygous for the same trait. The purpose is to introduce or reinforce a specific trait
from one parent into the offspring.

5. Compare test cross and reciprocal cross.

Comparison between test cross and reciprocal cross:

• Test cross involves crossing an individual of unknown genotype with a homozygous recessive individual, whereas
reciprocal cross involves crossing two individuals with different genotypes but with the sexes reversed.
• Test cross helps determine the genotype of the individual with the dominant phenotype, while reciprocal cross
helps determine whether the inheritance pattern is influenced by the sex of the parent.
• Test cross is used to determine the dominance or recessiveness of a trait, while reciprocal cross is used to assess
if there are any sex-linked effects on the inheritance of a trait.

6. Why Mendel selected pea for experiments?

Gregor Mendel selected pea plants for his experiments because they possess several characteristics that make them
suitable for genetic studies:
• Pea plants have a relatively short generation time, allowing for multiple generations to be observed within a
reasonable timeframe.
• They have distinct, easily recognizable traits that can be readily classified, such as flower color, seed shape, and
plant height.
• Pea plants are self-fertilizing, but they can also be cross-fertilized manually, allowing for controlled breeding
experiments.
• Mendel observed that pea plant traits were inherited in a predictable manner, which laid the foundation for his
laws of inheritance and the development of modern genetics.

7. Name three carbohydrates and their respective functions.

Three carbohydrates and their respective functions:

• Glucose: It is a primary source of energy in many organisms. It is broken down during cellular respiration to
produce ATP, which is used for various metabolic processes.
 • Cellulose: It is a structural carbohydrate found in the cell walls of plants. It provides rigidity and strength to plant
cells and serves as a dietary fiber for animals.
• Glycogen: It is the storage form of glucose in animals. It is stored in the liver and muscles and can be broken down
into glucose when energy is needed.

8. Name three lipids and their respective functions.

Three lipids and their respective functions:

• Triglycerides: They are the main form of energy storage in organisms. They provide a concentrated source of
energy and insulation for organs.
• Phospholipids: They are the main components of cell membranes. They form a lipid bilayer that acts as a barrier
between the cell and its environment.
• Steroids: They serve as signaling molecules and play a role in various physiological processes. Examples include
cholesterol, which is a precursor for the synthesis of other steroids, and hormones like estrogen and testosterone.

9. What is Michaelis Menten Equation for enzyme kinetics?

The Michaelis-Menten equation is used to describe the enzymatic reaction kinetics, specifically the relationship between
the substrate concentration ([S]), the rate of the reaction (v), and the maximum reaction rate (Vmax) and the substrate
concentration at half-maximal velocity (Km). The equation is as follows:
v = (Vmax [S]) / (Km + [S])

10. Describe the relationship between enzyme reaction and rate constant using Michaelis Menten Equation?

He Michaelis-Menten equation relates the rate of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction (v) to the concentration of substrate ([S])
using the rate constant Km. When the substrate concentration is much lower than Km, the reaction rate is directly
proportional to the substrate concentration. However, as the substrate concentration approaches Km, the reaction rate
becomes half of the maximum rate (Vmax). The equation demonstrates that the reaction rate is dependent on the
substrate concentration and reaches a maximum value (Vmax) when the enzyme is saturated with substrate.

11. What is RNA catalysis?

RNA catalysis refers to the ability of certain RNA molecules (ribozymes) to catalyze chemical reactions. Ribozymes are RNA
molecules that possess enzymatic activity and can accelerate specific chemical reactions without the need for protein
enzymes. They can perform various catalytic functions, including RNA splicing, peptide bond formation, and RNA cleavage.
RNA catalysis has significant implications in understanding the origin of life and the potential applications of RNA-based
therapeutics.

12. What are ribozymes? What are their functions?

Ribozymes are RNA molecules that can catalyze chemical reactions. They have both structural and catalytic functions.
Some key examples include:
 • Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): Forms the catalytic core of the ribosome and aids in protein synthesis.
• Hammerhead ribozyme: Catalyzes the cleavage or joining of RNA strands. It has been extensively studied for its
potential applications in gene therapy and RNA engineering.
• Group I introns: Found in some RNA molecules, they catalyze their own removal from precursor RNA molecules
during RNA splicing.
The functions of ribozymes include catalyzing chemical reactions, participating in RNA processing and modification, and
playing a role in gene regulation.

13. What are Universality and degeneracy of genetic code?

Universality refers to the fact that the genetic code is nearly identical across all organisms, meaning that the same codons
(triplets of nucleotides) encode the same amino acids. This universality allows for the exchange of genetic information
and the possibility of studying genes and proteins across different species.
Degeneracy refers to the redundancy in the genetic code, where multiple codons can code for the same amino acid. This
redundancy provides a level of error tolerance and protection against mutations, as changes in the third nucleotide of a
codon (wobble position) often do not affect the amino acid encoded.

14. What is triplet nature of genetic code?

The triplet nature of the genetic code refers to the fact that genetic information is encoded in sets of three nucleotides,
called codons. Each codon represents a specific amino acid or a signal for start or stop of protein synthesis. For example,
the codon "AUG" codes for the amino acid methionine and serves as the start codon for protein synthesis. The triplet
nature of the genetic code allows for the encoding of a large number of amino acids and provides the flexibility to generate
a wide variety of proteins.

15. What are exothermic and Endothermic reactions?

Exothermic reactions release energy in the form of heat to the surroundings. They have a negative change in enthalpy
(ΔH) and typically result in an increase in temperature. Examples include combustion reactions and many chemical
reactions that occur spontaneously.

Endothermic reactions absorb energy from the surroundings. They have a positive change in enthalpy (ΔH) and often
result in a decrease in temperature. Examples include the process of photosynthesis, where energy from sunlight is
absorbed by plants to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen.

16. What are Exergonic and Endergonic reactions

Exergonic reactions release energy, usually in the form of ATP, and have a negative Gibbs free energy change (ΔG). These
reactions occur spontaneously and do not require an input of energy. They are associated with catabolic processes, such
as the breakdown of glucose during cellular respiration.

Endergonic reactions require an input of energy to proceed and have a positive Gibbs free energy change (ΔG). These
reactions are not spontaneous and often require the input of ATP or other high-energy molecules. Endergonic reactions
are associated with anabolic processes, such as the synthesis of complex molecules like proteins or DNA.
17. What are the different functions of proteins?

Proteins have various functions in biological systems, including:

• Enzymes: Proteins that catalyze biochemical reactions and accelerate the conversion of substrates into products.
• Structural proteins: Proteins that provide support and stability to cells and tissues. Examples include collagen,
which forms the framework for connective tissues, and actin and myosin, which are involved in muscle
contraction.
• Transport proteins: Proteins that facilitate the transport of molecules across cell membranes or within the
bloodstream. Examples include hemoglobin, which carries oxygen in red blood cells, and ion channels, which
regulate the movement of ions across membranes.
• Hormones: Proteins that act as chemical messengers and regulate various physiological processes. Examples
include insulin, which regulates blood sugar levels, and growth hormone, which controls growth and development.
• Antibodies: Proteins produced by the immune system that recognize and bind to foreign substances (antigens) to
neutralize or eliminate them.

18. Describe the bacterial growth curve.

The bacterial growth curve describes the typical pattern of bacterial population growth over time in a closed environment.
It consists of four distinct phases:
• Lag phase: The bacteria are adjusting to the new environment, synthesizing necessary enzymes, and preparing for
growth. There is little to no increase in cell numbers during this phase.
• Logarithmic (exponential) phase: The bacteria enter a period of rapid growth and reproduction. The population
size increases exponentially, and the rate of cell division is at its maximum. This phase is often used for
experimental studies as the bacteria are metabolically active and highly responsive.
• Stationary phase: The growth rate slows down, and the number of new cells being produced is equal to the
number of cells dying. The population reaches a stable size due to limited resources, accumulation of waste
products, or other factors.
• Death phase: The number of dying cells exceeds the number of new cells being produced. The population size
decreases as cells die off. This phase can occur due to depletion of nutrients, buildup of toxic waste, or other
adverse conditions.

19. Write a short note on Fluorescent microscopy.

Fluorescent microscopy is a technique that utilizes fluorescent probes to visualize specific molecules or structures within
cells or tissues. It involves the following steps:
• Labeling: The target molecules or structures are labeled with fluorescent dyes or fluorescently-tagged antibodies
that bind specifically to the molecules of interest.
• Excitation: The labeled sample is illuminated with a specific wavelength of light that excites the fluorescent
molecules, causing them to absorb energy.
• Emission: Upon absorption of energy, the fluorescent molecules emit light at a longer wavelength. This emitted
light is detected using a specialized microscope equipped with filters to selectively capture the fluorescent signal.
Fluorescent microscopy allows for the visualization and localization of specific molecules or structures within cells,
enabling researchers to study various biological processes, such as protein localization, cell signaling, and intracellular
dynamics.
20. Explain any two Mendelian disorders observed in human.

Two Mendelian disorders observed in humans are:

• Cystic fibrosis: It is caused by mutations in the CFTR gene, which leads to a defective chloride channel protein. This
results in the production of thick and sticky mucus in various organs, primarily affecting the lungs, pancreas, and
digestive system.
• Huntington's disease: It is caused by a mutation in the huntingtin (HTT) gene, leading to the production of a toxic
form of the huntingtin protein. This results in the progressive degeneration of brain cells, leading to movement
disorders, cognitive decline, and psychiatric symptoms. Huntington's disease is inherited in an autosomal
dominant manner.

Long answer type Questions: (10 marks each)

1. Describe the seven kingdom classification.

The seven kingdom classification is a system of grouping living organisms based on their evolutionary relationships and
shared characteristics. The seven kingdoms are:
• Bacteria: The most diverse and abundant group of prokaryotes, which lack a nucleus and membrane-bound
organelles. They can be found in almost every environment and perform various metabolic functions. Some
examples are Escherichia coli, Streptococcus pneumoniae, and Cyanobacteria.
• Archaea: Another group of prokaryotes, which are distinguished from bacteria by their unique cell membranes
and genetic features. They are often adapted to extreme conditions, such as high temperatures, salinity, or acidity.
Some examples are Methanogens, Halophiles, and Thermophiles.
• Protozoa: A diverse group of eukaryotes, which have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. They are mostly
unicellular and heterotrophic, meaning they obtain energy by consuming other organisms. They can be classified
into several subgroups based on their mode of locomotion, such as Flagellates, Ciliates, Amoebae, and
Sporozoans.
• Chromista: A group of eukaryotes that includes algae, diatoms, brown algae, water molds, and slime molds. They
have chloroplasts that contain chlorophyll c, which gives them a brown or golden color. They are mostly
photosynthetic and aquatic, but some are parasitic or saprophytic. Some examples are Kelp, Phytophthora
infestans, and Dictyostelium discoideum.
• Plantae: A group of eukaryotes that includes land plants, green algae, and red algae. They have chloroplasts that
contain chlorophyll a and b, which gives them a green or red color. They are mostly multicellular and autotrophic,
meaning they produce their own energy by using sunlight. They have cell walls made of cellulose and store starch
as a reserve carbohydrate. Some examples are Mosses, Ferns, Conifers, and Flowering plants.
• Fungi: A group of eukaryotes that includes mushrooms, molds, yeasts, and lichens. They are mostly multicellular
and heterotrophic, meaning they obtain energy by decomposing organic matter. They have cell walls made of
chitin and store glycogen as a reserve carbohydrate. Some examples are Penicillium, Saccharomyces cerevisiae,
Agaricus bisporus, and Lichen.
• Animalia: A group of eukaryotes that includes sponges, worms, insects, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and
mammals. They are mostly multicellular and heterotrophic, meaning they obtain energy by consuming other
organisms. They have no cell walls and store glycogen as a reserve carbohydrate. They have specialized tissues
and organs for different functions, such as digestion, circulation, respiration, excretion, movement, sensation, and
reproduction. Some examples are Hydra, Earthworms, Butterflies, Sharks, Frogs, Lizards, Eagles, and Humans.
2. Why Robert Brown and Julias Mayor are famous?

Robert Brown and Julias Mayor are two scientists who made important contributions to the field of biology. Robert Brown
was a Scottish botanist who discovered the nucleus of plant cells in 1831. He also observed the random motion of
microscopic particles in a fluid, which is now known as Brownian motion. Julias Mayor was a German zoologist who
proposed the cell theory in 1838. He stated that all living organisms are composed of cells and that cells arise from pre-
existing cells. He also coined the term metabolism to describe the chemical processes that occur in living cells. Both Brown
and Mayor advanced our understanding of the structure and function of living things at the cellular level.

3. Discuss the differences between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes.

Prokaryotes and eukaryotes are the two main types of cells. Prokaryotes are the simplest type of cell, and eukaryotes are
the more complex type of cell.

Key differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells:

Feature Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells

Size 0.2-2 micrometers in diameter 10-100 micrometers in diameter
Nucleus No nucleus; DNA is located in the nucleoid,
Nucleus; DNA is located in the nucleus, which
which is not surrounded by a membrane is surrounded by a membrane
Organelles Few or no organelles Many organelles, including mitochondria,
chloroplasts, and endoplasmic reticulum
DNA DNA is circular and not organized into DNA is linear and organized into
organization chromosomes chromosomes
Cell division Binary fission Mitosis or meiosis

4. Describe the monohybrid cross using Punnette square.

A monohybrid cross is a genetic experiment that involves crossing two individuals that differ in one trait. A Punnett square
is a tool that helps to predict the possible outcomes and probabilities of such a cross. To use a Punnett square, we need
to know the genotypes of the parents and the dominant and recessive alleles for the trait. For example, if we cross a plant
with yellow seeds (YY) with a plant with green seeds (yy), we can use a Punnett square to show how the alleles segregate
and combine in the offspring. The Punnett square for this cross would look like this:

| |Y|Y|
|---|---|---|
| y | Yy| Yy|
| y | Yy| Yy|

The Punnett square shows that all the offspring are heterozygous (Yy) and have yellow seeds, since yellow is the dominant
allele. This is the F1 generation. If we self-cross two F1 plants, we can use another Punnett square to show the possible
genotypes and phenotypes of the F2 generation:
 | |Y|y|
|---|---|---|
| Y | YY| Yy|
| y | Yy| yy|

The Punnett square shows that there are three possible genotypes in the F2 generation: YY, Yy, and yy. The phenotypic
ratio is 3:1, meaning that three out of four plants have yellow seeds and one out of four plants has green seeds. This is
consistent with Mendel's law of segregation and law of dominance.

5. Describe the dihybrid cross as proposed by Mendel.

A dihybrid cross is a type of genetic experiment that involves two traits controlled by two different genes. The term was
coined by Gregor Mendel, who is known as the father of modern genetics. Mendel performed dihybrid crosses on pea
plants to study how traits are inherited from one generation to the next. He observed that the traits are inherited
independently of each other, following his law of independent assortment .

One example of a dihybrid cross is the cross between pea plants that differ in seed shape (round or wrinkled) and seed
color (yellow or green). Mendel crossed plants that were homozygous for both traits (RRYY and rryy) and obtained only
round yellow seeds (RrYy) in the first generation (F1). Then, he self-pollinated the F1 plants and obtained four different
phenotypes in the second generation (F2): round yellow (9/16), round green (3/16), wrinkled yellow (3/16), and wrinkled
green (1/16). The phenotypic ratio of 9:3:3:1 reflects the independent assortment of the alleles for each trait.

6. Describe the functions of Protein.

Protein is one of the essential macromolecules for life. It has many functions in the body, such as:

• Building and repairing tissues. Protein is the main component of muscles, bones, skin, hair, nails and other
organs. It helps to maintain the structure and integrity of these tissues and to heal wounds and injuries.
• Regulating metabolic processes. Protein is involved in many chemical reactions that occur in the cells, such as
enzyme catalysis, hormone synthesis and secretion, gene expression and signal transduction. It helps to regulate
the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats and other nutrients.
• Transporting substances. Protein can bind to and carry various molecules in the blood and across cell
membranes, such as oxygen, iron, cholesterol, glucose and hormones. It helps to distribute these substances
throughout the body and to maintain homeostasis.
• Defending against pathogens. Protein is a key component of the immune system, such as antibodies,
complement proteins and cytokines. It helps to recognize and eliminate foreign invaders, such as bacteria,
viruses and parasites.
• Providing energy. Protein can be used as a source of energy when other nutrients are insufficient or unavailable.
It can be broken down into amino acids and converted into glucose or ketone bodies by the liver.
7. Describe the functions of amino acids.

Amino acids are organic compounds that contain both an amino group (-NH2) and a carboxyl group (-COOH). They are the
building blocks of proteins, which are long chains of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. Amino acids have different
properties and functions depending on their side chains, which are denoted by the letter R in their general structure.

Some of the main functions of amino acids are :

• Building blocks of proteins: Only L-amino acids are polymerized to form proteins, though both D-amino acids and
non-L-amino acids found in nature. Proteins are involved in many biological processes, such as enzyme catalysis,
transport, signaling, defense, and structure.
• Biological buffers: Amino acids being amphoteric, act as buffers in solutions, resisting changes in pH. They do so
by donating H+ ions as pH increases and accepting H+ as pH decreases.
• Nitrogen storage: Asparagine and glutamine are amide derivatives of aspartic acid and glutamic acid. They serve
as storage of nitrogen.
• Formation of glucose: Some amino acids form glucose by losing amino group. This process is called
gluconeogenesis and occurs mainly in the liver.
• Formation of other compounds: Amino acids can give rise to various molecules that have important roles in the
body. For example:
• Tyrosine produces the hormones thyroxin and adrenaline and the skin pigment melanin.
• Glycine forms heme, which is part of hemoglobin and other proteins that carry oxygen.
• Tryptophan produces vitamin niacin and the neurotransmitter serotonin.
• Histidine found in the active site of enzymes where it causes making and breaking of bonds.
• The aromatic rings of phenylalanine, tyrosine and tryptophan help in electron transfer.
• Cysteine links chains together by forming disulfide bonds.
• Proline forms bends or kinks in polypeptide chains.
• Neurotransmission: Amino acids and their derivatives help in nerve transmission, such as glycine, glutamate,
aspartate, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), and acetylcholine.
• Immune system: Amino acids such as arginine, glutamine, cysteine, and glycine are involved in the synthesis of
antibodies, cytokines, and nitric oxide, which help fight infections and inflammation.

Amino acids can be classified into essential and non-essential amino acids. Essential amino acids are those that cannot be
synthesized by the body and must be obtained from the diet. They are histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine,
phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine. Non-essential amino acids are those that can be synthesized by the
body from other sources. They are alanine, arginine, asparagine, aspartic acid, cysteine, glutamic acid, glutamine, glycine,
proline, serine, and tyrosine.

Amino acids are found in various food sources, such as meat, eggs, dairy products, soybeans, nuts, seeds, grains, legumes,
fruits, and vegetables. The quality of protein depends on the amount and proportion of essential amino acids present in
the food. Animal proteins tend to have higher quality than plant proteins because they contain all the essential amino
acids in adequate amounts. However, plant proteins can also provide all the essential amino acids if they are combined
properly.

Amino acids are vital for life and health. They perform many functions that are essential for growth, development,
metabolism, and homeostasis. Deficiency or excess of amino acids can cause various disorders and diseases. Therefore, it
is important to maintain a balanced intake of amino acids from a varied diet.
8. Elaborate the differences between DNA and RNA.

Feature DNA RNA

Structure Double-stranded helix with two strands of Usually single-stranded. It contains ribose
nucleotides. Each nucleotide contains a sugar, phosphate group, and one of four
deoxyribose sugar, phosphate group, and one bases: adenine (A), uracil (U), cytosine (C), or
of four bases: adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G).
cytosine (C), or guanine (G).
Function Serves as the genetic material in cells and Plays a role in transferring genetic information
carries the instructions for the development, from DNA to the ribosomes, where proteins
functioning, and reproduction of living are synthesized. RNA acts as a messenger
organisms. It is responsible for inheritance. between DNA and the protein synthesis
machinery.
Stability Relatively stable and less prone to Less stable compared to DNA. The presence of
degradation. The double-stranded structure an additional hydroxyl group in the ribose
of DNA provides stability and protects the sugar makes RNA more susceptible to
genetic information. degradation by enzymes and chemical
processes. RNA molecules are relatively short-
lived.
Types Found primarily in the form of chromosomes Three main types: Messenger RNA (mRNA)
within the cell nucleus. carries genetic information from DNA to the
ribosomes for protein synthesis. Transfer RNA
(tRNA) brings amino acids to the ribosomes
during protein synthesis. Ribosomal RNA
(rRNA) is a structural component of
ribosomes.
Replication DNA replication is a highly accurate process RNA molecules are synthesized based on the
that occurs before cell division, ensuring that DNA template in a process called
each daughter cell receives an exact copy of transcription. Transcription is less accurate
the genetic material. compared to DNA replication, leading to
potential errors and mutations in RNA
molecules.
Base DNA uses base pairing rules to maintain the RNA can form base pairs with complementary
Pairing integrity and stability of its double helix RNA or DNA strands. Adenine (A) pairs with
structure. Adenine (A) pairs with thymine (T), uracil (U), and cytosine (C) pairs with guanine
and cytosine (C) pairs with guanine (G). (G). RNA molecules can also fold back upon
themselves, forming complex secondary
structures.
9. Describe the different classifications of enzymes.

Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions in living organisms. They are made of proteins, except
for a few RNA-based enzymes called ribozymes. Enzymes have specific shapes and structures that determine their
functions and interactions with other molecules. Enzymes can be classified into six main groups according to the type of
reaction they catalyze :

• Oxidoreductases are enzymes that transfer electrons from one molecule to another, changing their oxidation
states. Examples of oxidoreductases are dehydrogenases, oxidases, and reductases.
• Transferases are enzymes that transfer a functional group, such as a methyl, phosphate, or amino group, from
one molecule to another. Examples of transferases are kinases, transaminases, and methyltransferases.
• Hydrolases are enzymes that break down molecules by adding water to them. Examples of hydrolases are
proteases, lipases, and phosphatases.
• Lyases are enzymes that cleave bonds in molecules without using water or oxidation-reduction reactions.
Examples of lyases are decarboxylases, dehydratases, and aldolases.
• Isomerases are enzymes that change the arrangement of atoms within a molecule, creating different forms of the
same molecule. Examples of isomerases are racemases, epimerases, and mutases.
• Ligases are enzymes that join two molecules together by forming new bonds, often using energy from ATP.
Examples of ligases are synthetases, carboxylases, and DNA ligase.

These six classes of enzymes can be further divided into subclasses based on the specific substrates and mechanisms
involved in the reactions they catalyze.

10. Describe the six different enzyme classifications.

Enzymes are classified into six different groups based on their specific functions. Here's a simplified description of each
classification:

i. Oxidoreductases: These enzymes help transfer electrons between molecules, which is important for processes
like energy production. They participate in reactions that involve adding or removing hydrogen or oxygen atoms.
ii. Transferases: These enzymes help transfer specific groups (like amino or phosphate groups) from one molecule
to another. This is important for building new molecules and modifying existing ones.

iii. Hydrolases: These enzymes help break down molecules by adding water. They are involved in processes like
digestion, where large molecules are broken into smaller ones through the addition of water molecules.

iv. Lyases: Lyases are enzymes that help break or form new chemical bonds in molecules. They don't use water to do
this, and they often create or eliminate double bonds in the process.

v. Isomerases: Isomerases are enzymes that help rearrange the atoms within a molecule, converting it into a
different form called an isomer. They play a role in converting molecules into their more usable forms in various
biochemical reactions.

vi. Ligases: Ligases are enzymes that help join two molecules together, forming a new chemical bond. They require
energy in the form of ATP to carry out this joining process.
11. What are Nucleosomes? Explain with proper diagram.

Nucleosomes are structures formed by DNA and proteins called histones. They play a crucial role in packaging and
organizing DNA inside the nucleus of a cell.
Imagine DNA as a long thread or strand. To fit this long DNA strand within the limited space of the cell nucleus, it needs
to be condensed and organized. Nucleosomes help in achieving this.
A nucleosome consists of DNA wrapped around a core of eight histone proteins, forming a structure that looks like beads
on a string. The histones are like spools around which the DNA is wound. The DNA strand wraps around each histone core
approximately 1.65 times.

12. Describe the double helical structure of DNA.

The double helical structure of DNA refers to the shape and arrangement of the two DNA strands that make up the DNA
molecule. It is often depicted as a twisted ladder or spiral staircase. Here's a simplified description of the double helix
structure of DNA:

i. Two strands: DNA is composed of two strands that are arranged parallel to each other and twisted around a
central axis. These strands are made up of nucleotides, which are the building blocks of DNA.

ii. Sugar-phosphate backbone: Each strand of DNA consists of a sugar-phosphate backbone. The sugar in DNA is
called deoxyribose, and the phosphate groups are attached to it. The sugar-phosphate backbones run along the
outer edges of the double helix.

iii. Complementary base pairing: The two DNA strands are held together by hydrogen bonds between specific
nitrogenous bases. Adenine (A) pairs with thymine (T), and guanine (G) pairs with cytosine (C). This pairing is
referred to as complementary base pairing. The bases are located on the interior of the double helix, forming the
"rungs" of the ladder.

iv. Antiparallel arrangement: The two DNA strands are oriented in opposite directions, which is referred to as
antiparallel. One strand runs in the 5' to 3' direction (from the sugar end to the phosphate end), while the other
runs in the 3' to 5' direction. This antiparallel arrangement ensures that the complementary base pairing can occur
between the strands.

v. Twisted structure: The two DNA strands are twisted around each other, forming a helical structure. This twisting
gives DNA its characteristic spiral shape. The complete turn of the helix is called one full helical turn, and it occurs
every 10 base pairs along the DNA molecule.
13. Describe the Watson and Crick model of DNA.

The Watson and Crick model of DNA, proposed by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953, is a landmark discovery that
elucidated the structure of the DNA molecule. Their model, often referred to as the double helix model, provided a
blueprint for understanding how DNA carries and replicates genetic information. Here's a simplified description of the
Watson and Crick model of DNA:

i. Double helix: According to their model, DNA consists of two strands that are wound around each other in
a helical structure, forming a double helix. The two strands are held together by hydrogen bonds between
the nitrogenous bases. The double helix resembles a twisted ladder or spiral staircase.

ii. Complementary base pairing: Watson and Crick proposed that the nitrogenous bases on the DNA strands
adhere to specific base-pairing rules. Adenine (A) always pairs with thymine (T) through two hydrogen
bonds, and guanine (G) always pairs with cytosine (C) through three hydrogen bonds. This complementary
base pairing ensures that the two DNA strands are complementary and can serve as templates for
replication.

iii. Antiparallel strands: The DNA strands in the double helix are antiparallel, meaning they run in opposite
directions. One strand runs in the 5' to 3' direction (from the sugar end to the phosphate end), while the
other runs in the 3' to 5' direction. This antiparallel arrangement allows for the proper alignment of the
bases for complementary base pairing.

iv. Sugar-phosphate backbone: Each DNA strand has a sugar-phosphate backbone formed by alternating
deoxyribose sugar and phosphate groups. The sugar-phosphate backbones run along the outside of the
double helix, with the bases oriented inward.

v. Width and spacing: The Watson and Crick model proposed that the double helix has a consistent width
and spacing between the two DNA strands. The width between the two strands is uniform due to the
specific pairing of bases, where a purine (A or G) always pairs with a pyrimidine (T or C), ensuring that the
diameter remains constant.

The Watson and Crick model of DNA provided a foundational understanding of the structure and function of DNA. It
explained how genetic information is encoded, replicated, and passed on to subsequent generations. Their model
revolutionized the field of molecular biology and laid the groundwork for further discoveries and advancements in genetics
and biotechnology.
14. Describe with diagram, the secondary structure of proteins.

15. What are alpha helixes and beta pleated sheet? Explain with diagram.

Alpha helix and beta pleated sheet are secondary structures found in proteins. They are specific arrangements of the
polypeptide chain, which is a long chain of amino acids that make up a protein.

• Alpha helix: An alpha helix is a coiled structure formed when the polypeptide chain twists into a spiral shape. It
looks like a spring or a curly telephone cord. In an alpha helix, the backbone of the polypeptide chain forms the
inner part of the helix, while the side chains of amino acids extend outward. The backbone of the polypeptide
chain is held together by hydrogen bonds between the amino acid residues. This arrangement provides stability
to the structure. Alpha helices are commonly found in many proteins and play important roles in protein
structure and function.

• Beta pleated sheet: A beta pleated sheet is a structure where the polypeptide chain folds back and forth,
forming a sheet-like arrangement. It resembles a folded paper fan or an accordion. In a beta pleated sheet,
adjacent strands of the polypeptide chain run in opposite directions, and the amino acid residues are connected
by hydrogen bonds. The hydrogen bonds form between the backbone atoms of one strand and the backbone
atoms of a neighboring strand. This arrangement creates a stable and rigid structure. Beta pleated sheets are
often found in proteins and can be arranged in parallel or antiparallel orientations.

Both alpha helix and beta pleated sheet are important for the overall structure and function of proteins. They contribute
to protein stability, shape, and the ability to interact with other molecules. The specific arrangement of alpha helices
and beta sheets within a protein determines its three-dimensional structure, which is crucial for its proper functioning,
such as enzyme activity or molecular recognition.
16. What are the different types of Light microscopy?

There are several different types of light microscopy techniques. Here are some commonly used ones:

i. Brightfield Microscopy: This is the most basic and widely used form of light microscopy. It involves passing white
light through a sample, and the image is formed by the differences in absorption and scattering of light by the
sample's components. It is suitable for observing stained or naturally pigmented samples.

ii. Phase Contrast Microscopy: This technique enhances the contrast of transparent, unstained specimens. It exploits
differences in refractive index within the sample to produce contrast in the image. It is useful for observing live
cells and other transparent specimens without the need for staining.

iii. Fluorescence Microscopy: This technique involves using fluorescent dyes or proteins to label specific structures
or molecules within a sample. The sample is illuminated with light of a specific wavelength, and the labeled
structures emit light of a different color. This allows for the visualization of specific molecules or cellular
components with high sensitivity and specificity.

iv. Confocal Microscopy: Confocal microscopy uses a laser to scan a sample point by point, creating a high-resolution,
three-dimensional image. It provides optical sectioning, meaning it captures only the in-focus light from a thin
plane within the specimen, resulting in improved resolution and contrast.

v. Differential Interference Contrast (DIC) Microscopy: DIC microscopy utilizes differences in refractive index and
interference patterns to create contrast in the sample. It provides a three-dimensional appearance to the
specimen, making it useful for visualizing structures with subtle variations in refractive index.

vi. Polarized Light Microscopy: This technique utilizes polarized light to examine samples with anisotropic properties,
such as crystals, fibers, and birefringent materials. It can reveal structural details and orientation information
based on how the sample interacts with polarized light.

17. What are the different types of Electron microscopy?

There are several different types of electron microscopy techniques. Here are some commonly used ones:

i. Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM): TEM is a technique that uses a focused beam of electrons to pass
through an ultra-thin sample. It produces a high-resolution, two-dimensional image by detecting the electrons
that are transmitted through the sample. TEM provides detailed information about the internal structure of cells,
tissues, and materials at the nanoscale.

ii. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM): SEM involves scanning a sample surface with a focused beam of electrons.
The interaction between the electrons and the sample produces various signals, including secondary electrons,
backscattered electrons, and characteristic X-rays. These signals are collected and used to generate a three-
dimensional image of the sample's surface topography and composition. SEM is commonly used for imaging the
surface of cells, tissues, and materials.
 iii. Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy (STEM): STEM combines the principles of TEM and SEM. It involves
scanning a focused electron beam across a thin sample, similar to SEM, but it also collects transmitted electrons
to create high-resolution images with both structural and compositional information. STEM is particularly useful
for studying nanomaterials, nanoparticles, and complex biological samples.

iv. Environmental Scanning Electron Microscopy (ESEM): ESEM is a variation of SEM that allows imaging of samples
in a gaseous environment, such as air or water vapor. It enables the observation of samples that are not
compatible with traditional vacuum-based electron microscopy. ESEM is especially valuable for studying hydrated
and non-conductive samples.

v. Cryo-Electron Microscopy (Cryo-EM): Cryo-EM is a technique that involves freezing samples in a vitrified state to
preserve their natural structure. It allows high-resolution imaging of biological macromolecules, such as proteins
and viruses, in their native state. Cryo-EM has revolutionized structural biology and has been instrumental in
determining the structures of many complex biomolecules.

18. How sterilization of media is performed?

Sterilization of media, which refers to the process of killing or eliminating all microorganisms present in the growth
medium, is crucial to ensure aseptic conditions for microbiological and cell culture work. There are several methods
commonly used for sterilizing media. Here are some of them:

i. Autoclaving: Autoclaving is the most common method used for sterilizing media. It involves subjecting the media
to high-pressure saturated steam at temperatures typically around 121°C (250°F). The combination of high
temperature and pressure effectively kills all microorganisms, including heat-resistant spores. Autoclaving is
suitable for most types of culture media, but it may not be suitable for some heat-sensitive components.
ii. Filtration: Filtration sterilization involves passing the media through a membrane filter with a pore size small
enough to trap microorganisms. This method is commonly used for sterilizing heat-sensitive or nutrient-rich media
that may be damaged by high temperatures. Filtration is typically performed using a vacuum filtration setup or a
sterile filtration system.
iii. Dry Heat Sterilization: Dry heat sterilization involves subjecting the media to high temperatures in the absence of
water or steam. This method is suitable for sterilizing glassware, metal instruments, and other equipment that
can withstand high temperatures. It typically requires longer exposure times compared to autoclaving.
iv. UV Radiation: UV (Ultraviolet) radiation can be used to sterilize surfaces and equipment, but it is less commonly
used for sterilizing media. UV radiation damages the DNA of microorganisms, effectively killing them. However, it
has limited penetration, so it is primarily used for surface sterilization and in laminar flow cabinets or biosafety
cabinets.
v. Chemical Sterilization: Chemical sterilization involves using chemical agents to kill or inhibit the growth of
microorganisms. Examples of chemical sterilants include ethylene oxide, hydrogen peroxide vapor, and chlorine
dioxide gas. Chemical sterilization methods are typically used for sterilizing heat-sensitive materials or equipment
that cannot be subjected to high temperatures.

19. Describe the five kingdom classification.

The five kingdom classification is a system of categorizing living organisms into five broad groups based on their
characteristics and evolutionary relationships. The five kingdoms are:
 i. Kingdom Monera: This kingdom includes unicellular organisms without a nucleus, known as prokaryotes. It
encompasses bacteria and archaea, which are diverse in their characteristics and can be found in various
environments. They are typically small, single-celled organisms and play important roles in nutrient cycling and
other ecological processes.

ii. Kingdom Protista: The kingdom Protista comprises unicellular eukaryotic organisms. These organisms are more
complex than prokaryotes as they have a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. Protists exhibit a wide
range of forms and lifestyles, including protozoa, algae, and slime molds. Some protists are capable of
photosynthesis, while others are heterotrophic.

iii. Kingdom Fungi: Fungi are multicellular eukaryotic organisms that obtain nutrients by decomposing organic matter
or through symbiotic relationships. They possess cell walls and reproduce through spores. Fungi include familiar
organisms such as mushrooms, yeasts, and molds. They play important roles in nutrient cycling, decomposition,
and symbiotic associations with other organisms.
iv. Kingdom Plantae: The kingdom Plantae includes multicellular, eukaryotic organisms that are photosynthetic and
primarily terrestrial. Plants have specialized structures such as roots, stems, and leaves. They play a crucial role in
the ecosystem by producing oxygen, providing food, and serving as habitats for other organisms.

v. Kingdom Animalia: The kingdom Animalia encompasses multicellular, eukaryotic organisms that are heterotrophic
and capable of locomotion. Animals exhibit diverse forms, from microscopic invertebrates to large mammals. They
possess specialized tissues and organs and typically reproduce sexually. Animals play various ecological roles and
are characterized by their ability to respond to stimuli and exhibit complex behaviors.

20. What is autoclaving? How it is performed?

Autoclaving is a method of sterilization that uses high-pressure saturated steam to kill microorganisms.

It is performed by following these steps:

• Preparation: Gather the items to be autoclaved and ensure they are suitable for autoclaving.
• Load the autoclave: Place the items to be sterilized inside the autoclave chamber, ensuring they are arranged in
a way that allows steam to penetrate all surfaces.
• Add water: Add distilled or deionized water to the autoclave chamber. The amount of water required may vary
depending on the autoclave model.
• Close the door: Close and seal the autoclave door securely to prevent steam from escaping during the
sterilization process.
• Set parameters: Set the desired sterilization parameters, including temperature, pressure, and sterilization time.
These settings may depend on the type of material being autoclaved.
• Start the cycle: Start the autoclave cycle. The chamber will be heated, and steam will be generated, creating high
pressure and temperature within the chamber.
• Sterilization process: The items inside the autoclave will be exposed to the high-pressure saturated steam for a
specific period. The combination of heat, pressure, and moisture effectively kills microorganisms.
• Cool down: Once the sterilization cycle is complete, the autoclave will gradually cool down. Some autoclaves
have a built-in cooling system to expedite this process.
• Safety precautions: Wait until the autoclave reaches a safe temperature before opening the door. Follow proper
safety protocols, such as wearing appropriate protective equipment, when handling autoclaved items.