Topic 1: Human factors and ergonomics

Essential idea: Designers consider three human factors to ensure products meet ergonomic needs.

1.1a Anthropometrics
Nature of design: Concept and principles: International-mindedness:

Design is human centred and, • Anthropometric data: static and • A wide selection of
therefore, designers need to ensure dynamic data, structural and anthropometric data is published
that the products they design are functional data and regionalized, for example,
the right size for the user and • Primary data versus secondary Asian data versus western
therefore comfortable to use. data European data. The designer
• Percentiles and percentile ranges must work with data appropriate
Designers have access to data and • Range of sizes versus to the target market.
drawings, which state adjustability
measurements of human beings of • Clearance, reach and adjustability Theory of knowledge:
all ages and sizes. • Do the methods of data collection
Guidance: used in design technology have
Designers need to consider how • Collecting anthropometric data more in common with disciplines
users will interact with the product considering reliability and in the human sciences or the
or service. Use and misuse is an limitations natural sciences?
important consideration. (1.5, 1.18, • Interpreting percentile tables for
1.20) user populations Utilization:
• Design contexts where different • Design technology topic 7
percentile ranges are used
Aims:
• Aim 6: Anthropometric data sets
can vary significantly between
populations. Particularly in the
fashion industry, the variance in
these data sets impacts the size
range of clothes for particular
markets.

Anthropometric Data

All human beings have the same basic form, but we each have our own unique set of dimensions and
proportions.

Anthropometric data is used to determine these common limits and is based on measurements collected from a
wide variety of people. These sizes will be suitable for use with the majority of our population.

Factors affecting ergonomics not only include anthropometric data but also psychological and physiological
factors.
Static Data (Structural Data) and how it is used in design.

It is data that is not moving and is recorded using standardised equipment such as calipers. It is used to
determine measurement between joints, height and weight.

Data is collected by using a range of instrument shown below.

Instrument Name Use Design Context

Sliding Calipers

Stadiometer

Sitting Height Table

Cloth Tapes

Torso Calipers

Harpenden
Anthropometer

Page 2 of 15
Dynamic Data (Functional Data) and how it is used in design.

Consists of data that is obtained while the subject is moving. Examples include reaction times, grip strength or
reach arcs. This data is more difficult to obtain but it is often of greater use than static data.

Quantitative data is anything that can be counted or measured; it refers to numerical data.

Qualitative data is descriptive, referring to things that can be observed but not measured—such as colors or
emotions.

Primary data versus secondary data

Primary data is collected by the researcher or designer themselves. This would be carried out if there is a
specialised group of people that may not have been studied.
Secondary data is collected from national databases.

The designer must work with data appropriate to the target market.

Percentile ranges

Percentiles are used to measure the ranges in a sample population. Percentiles refer to 100 equal groups into
which a sample population can be divided into. For example if you scored an IB result in the 70th percentile you
scored as well or better than 70% of those in the total sample population.

Percentiles are used in Anthropometric data and relate to the average person, or someone who is below average
or someone who is above average. If the height of a group of adults are sampled the data will show many will be
around the same height while some will be much taller or smaller. Those at the same height are known as the
average or mean and will be shown in the Anthropometric data sheets as the 50th percentile.

Percentage Ranges for Males and Female Heights in the US.

Page 3 of 15
Often designers will cater for the 5th – 95th percentile ranges to include the majority of the population. This allows
maximum potential to sell products. Only the extremes will not be included and they may need to seek custom
designs.

Within a gender sample the 5th – 95th percentile will cover 90% of the people. In a mixed population sample
where half the group is male and the other female, the 5th to 95th covers 95% of the population. This occurs
because only the top 5% of men and the bottom 5% of women are excluded. If only half the sample are men and
half are women then 5% of the total sample is excluded. This range would be 2.5th to 97.5th.

Complete the table below for common designs/products which fit into the percentile ranges stated.

Product 5th Percentile 5th – 95th Percentile 50th Percentile 95th Percentile

Crash Test Dummy

Doorway

Aviation Testing

Childs Restraint

School Desk

Motorbike Helmet

Pushbike

Toilet

Motorcar

Page 4 of 15
Range of Sizes v Adjustability

Designing for adjustability means that provision is made in a design for adjustments to accommodate a range of
different users in a group. Adjustment can be made through mechanical, hydraulic, electrical or pneumatic
means. An example is a car seat, office chair or ironing board.

An alternative is to design for a range of sizes ie 5th to 95th which includes the majority of the population.

Clearance, Reach and Adjustability.

Clearance Reach Adjustability

Definition Design Context.

Clearance
……………………………………………………………………………….. ………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………….. ………………………………………………………………………………..

Reach
……………………………………………………………………………….. ………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………….. ………………………………………………………………………………..

Adjustability
……………………………………………………………………………….. ………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………….. ………………………………………………………………………………..

Do the methods of data collection used in design technology have more in common with disciplines in the human
sciences or the natural sciences?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Page 5 of 15
1.1b Psychological factors
Nature of design: Concepts and principles: International-mindedness:

Human beings vary psychologically • Psychological factor data • The origin of psychology (as a
in complex ways. Any attempt by • Human information processing mainly western academic subject)
designers to classify people into systems along with recent neurological
groups merely results in a statement • Effect of environmental factors insights on a global scale need to
of broad principles that may or may • Alertness be taken into account in applying
not be relevant to the individual. • Perception any psychological factors to global
design problems.
Design permeates every aspect of Guidance:
human experience and data • Data in relation to light, smell, Theory of knowledge:
pertaining to what cannot be seen sound, taste, temperature and • How might the collection and
such as touch, taste, and smell are texture as qualitative or interpretation of data be affected
often expressions of opinion rather quantitative (ordinal/interval) by the limitations of our sense
than checkable fact. (1.5, 1.18, • Methods of collecting perception?
1.20, 2.9) psychological factor data
• Representing the human Utilization:
information processing system • Design technology topic 7
using flow diagrams • Biology option A
• Applying the human information • Psychology part 1: core
processing system to a common
task Aims:
• Evaluating effects and reasons for • Aim 3: The analysis of the human
a breakdown in the human information processing system
information processing system requires a designer to critically
• User responses to environmental analyse a range of causes and
factors effects to identify where a
• How environmental factors induce potential breakdown could occur
different levels of alertness and the effect it may have.
• The importance of optimizing
environmental factors to
maximize workplace performance
• Assessing the impact of
perception in relation to the
accuracy and reliability of
psychological factor data

Psychological Data

Psychological factors are those that impact operations including effects of environmental conditions such as
stress, lighting, temperature, humidity, noise, vibration, etc

Psychological human factors data are used in the design and improvement of many products.

Page 6 of 15
Psychological considerations

Psychological Factors Product Design Factors

Sight Computer Screen Ease of visibilty, readability.

Hearing Mobile Phone

Touch Dentist Tool

Taste Children’s Toy

Smell Workspace

Human Information- Processing System.

Human information processing system is how a person gathers information, analyses and processes for the
correct response.

Information about our surrounding s is continually being supplied by our senses of sight, hearing, touch, smell
and taste. This information is sent to the brain for integration and processing. The brain then provides signals to
the body's muscles to take the required action

The arrows represent the flow of information through the system

The boxes represent functional elements in the processing chain, where information is processed.

E.g. Drop Saw

E.g. Turning on the television

Page 7 of 15
Outline 3 methods of collecting psychological factor data.

1. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

3. ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Breakdown in Human information processing system.

An individual's ability to draw information from their surrounding s and successfully process this is limited. This
limitation in humans is due to 'cognitive bottlenecks' occurring because of the finite number of resources
available to be allocated to the process.

When information processing capacity is exceeded, overload may occur leading to decreased response rates. One
of an individual's coping mechanisms when dealing with an overabundance of information is the 'filtering'
process. Filtering reduces inputs to a manageable capacity. The filtering process varies with individuals but is
primarily derived from past experience, past practice and cultural background (including customs).

Pilots in training are taught to "Aviate, Navigate, Communicate". This helps prioritise tasks during crises and
prevent a cascade of problems. First see that the aeroplane is flying safely. Next, make sure you are not lost.
Finally, pay attention to the radio and other people.

A breakdown in the information processing chain, however, could occur at any stage. The information inputs may
be incompatible with the sensory receptors.

At the central processing stage, the incoming information may be incorrect or no suitable responses to it are
available. The motor output stage may be unable to perform the actions specified by the central processing unit.

Stress is a major factor which affects human processing.

Page 8 of 15
Data Scales

There are 4 types of data measurement scales which were developed by Psychologist Stanley Smith in 1946.

1. Nominal Scale
Classifies objects into discrete categories. Nominal means “by name”, and so labels are used.

This is weak, as they do not tell you anything other than one category is different to another e.g. food groups.

2. Ordinal Scale
Ordinal scales use words, symbols, letters or numerals. When numerals are used, they only indicate sequence or
order e.g. someone placing “third” in a competition rather than giving them a score.

3. Interval Scale
An interval scale is a more powerful scale, as the intervals between points or units are of equal size.
Measurements using an interval scale can be subjected to numerical or quantitative analysis e.g. temperature
scale.

4. Ratio Scale
Unlike the interval scale, the ratio scale has a “true zero”. E.g. On the temperature interval scale 0°C still exists
as the freezing point of water, whereas 0 grams is truly zero and there is no mass

Rating scales in a design context can be used to receive consumer feedback or wants.

Effect of environmental factors

User responses to environmental factors

Research shows employees who are dissatisfied with their work environment are less productive. Negative effects
on their physical health and mental disposition lead to higher absenteeism, lower quality worker production
outcomes and unsatisfactory customer service.

How environmental factors induce different levels of alertness.

Environments are affected by factors such as sound, light, temperature.

Page 9 of 15
Complete the table below.

Factor Affect on Alertness

Noise – Above 85dB
Noise – Less than 50dB
Noise – 50dB to 70dB
Dim Light
Bright Light
Red light at Night
Natural Light
Humid Weather
Cool/Dry
Hot
Closed Space
Open Space

Assess the impact of perception in relation to the accuracy and reliability of psychological factor data

Accuracy …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Reliability ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

How might the collection and interpretation of data be affected by the limitations of our sense perception?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Page 10 of 15
1.1c Physiological factors
Nature of design: Concepts and principles: International-mindedness:
• Physiological factor data • It is important that the
Designers study physical • Comfort and fatigue physiological factor data are
characteristics to optimize the • Biomechanics either regional/national data or
user’s safety, health, comfort and great care is taken when applying
performance. (1.5, 1.18, 1.20, 2.9) Guidance: data from one source to a
• Types of physiological factor data potentially inappropriate target
available to designers and how market.
they are collected
• How data related to comfort and Theory of knowledge:
fatigue informs design decisions • This topic is about human factors.
• The importance of biomechanics How do ethical limitations affect
to the design of different products the sort of investigations that can
considering muscle strength, age, take place where human subjects
user interface and torque are involved?

Utilization:
• Design technology topic 7
• Biology topics 6 and 11
• Physics topic 2
• Sports exercise and health topics
1, 2 and 4

Aims:
• Aim 8: Understanding complex
biomechanics and designing
products to enable full
functionality of body parts can
return independence and
personal and social well- being to
an individual.

Physiological Factor Data

Physiological data refers to information gathered focusing on the functioning of an individual's major organ
systems.

Bodily tolerances such as fatigue and comfort affect ergonomics. If tired, one may not be able to undertake as
much physical work or discomfort which decreases efficiency.

Page 11 of 15
Some of the data gathering that takes place are shown in the table below

System Data Gathering

Heart Measuring heart activity, blood pressure, heart rates etc
Brain Measuring responses with respect to central and peripheral nervous system
Sight Eye movement tracking
Respiration Lung capacity and oxygen exchange
Hearing Audiology and balance information.

Comfort and Fatigue

Design contexts are often purposely designed to provide only basic comfort for short periods of time. This is
known as design for discomfort.

For public seating areas, the furniture is designed specifically for basic comfort, in order to ensure that people do
not stay in these seats for extended periods of time.

Airports and fast food chains are quoted as regularly providing limited customers, mainly to facilitate the
movement of customers and discourage long-term use of facilities.

Areas for public seating, train stations, bus stations etc, must be low in cost to start with. Furthermore, they must
be low in maintenance. This includes for graffiti, and need for repair.

Biomechanics

Biomechanics is the research and analysis of the mechanics of living organisms.

The biomechanics of any given artifact are crucial to its design, as there are human factors that have significant
effects on the ease of use of the product. The varying factors include muscle strength, age, user interface and
torque. E.g. a can opener, valve wheel, corkscrew, door handle, jam jar lid.

Page 12 of 15
Complete the table below for the Physiological Aspects of design.

Physiological aspects Designs/Products & Significance to Ergonomics

Pilot cockpit – designs must consider performing many tasks for a long time,
Comfort
with many instruments to manipulate.

Fatigue

Strength Of The User

Age Of The User

User Interface

Torque

How do ethical limitations affect the sort of investigations that can take place where human subjects are
involved?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Page 13 of 15
SAMPLE QUESTIONS

1. Human factors design is also known as:

A ergonomic design
B ergonome design
C workplace design
D. anthropometric design.

2. Ergonomics involves

A designing new products

B designing for aesthetic appeal
C testing products in extreme environments
D designing for people and their interaction with products.

3. Four types of data measurement scales are

A nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio

B normal, ordinary, scattered and ratio
C natural, ordinal, relative and comparative
D categorical, continuous, nominal and ordinal.

4. Designing for adjustability provides

A for arthroscopic investigations

B caters for ergonomic adjustability
C designs that consider anthropomorphic variations
D means for adjustments to accommodate anthropometric variability.

5. Design for comfort is aimed primarily at

A older population groups

B individuals with a disability
C products that are difficult to use
D improving productivity or efficiency.

6. Compare and contrast static and dynamic data gathering techniques.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Page 14 of 15
7. Discuss approaches to data gathering such as using a Likert scale.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

8. Explain how culture may influence psychological responses to product design?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

9. Explain how perception can affect the reliability of psychological human factors data.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

10. Under what circumstances may a breakdown in the human information processing system occur?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Page 15 of 15