1.

6 Scope of the study

The research will cover Akwanga town of Akwanga LGA of Nasarawa state

only. Only youths who live in these areas who abused substance will be the

target of the research, and the categories of youths aged 18-35 both male

and female, so the data and information will be gathered from this target

which will be of

relevance to the study.

1.7 Definition of terms

1.7.1. Drugs:- A Leyman, taught drugs as tablets/capsules while taught

substance as any things powdered but drug by French word drogue, means a

medicinal plants that involves with psychoactive properties, which has an

influence in the central nervous system (CNS), the central nervous system

regulates the brain activity and which brings changes in the way we act or do.

Drugs is any substances that has psychoactive, chemical, medicinal, which

when taken it result the changes in central nervous system which will socially

affects the brain and which is socially define.

Drug is any foreign chemicals that poses a change in the human body by

whatever means, mode etc. drug is any chemical substance whether of a

natural or synthetic in origin which can be use to alter perception, mode and

other physiological state, drugs are substance including herbs, cigarettes,

1
food, beverages, etc. which are eaten, inhaled smoked, or injected into the

body to stimulated or slow down body activities.

1.7.2. Substance:- Are materials other than foods which due of their chemical

nature affects the structure or functioning of the living organism. Virtually the

two (2) that is drug /substance are meaning the same, but the only slight

demarcation

is the social demarcation within the society because there is no

any

pharmacological difference existed between the two, substance include,

cocaine, heroin, inhalants, solvents, marijuana alcohol, tobacco, vicodine,

xanax, etc. 1.7.3. Substance abuse:- (UNICEF) and world health organization

(WHO 2006), defines drug abuse as the self-administration of a any drug in a

manner that divert from approved medical or social patterns within a given

culture, legal or licit drugs and substance are socially accepted and their uses

does not constitute any criminal offences. In Nigeria, these include alcohol

and nicotine. Substance abuse refers to the misuse of any psychotropic

substance restricting changes in the body functions, those affecting the

individual, physical, psychological, economic, political, health and medical

system of body. Some social effects includes marital disorder, sexual abuse,

violence, and criminal activities, moral derailment, and mal adjustment of

students to school activities. Drug abuse is a pattern use of a substance or

drug in which the user consumes the substance in mouth or with methods

2
either unapproved or unsupervised by medical professional. Drug abuse is

not limited to mood altering or psycho-active drug. If an activity is performed

using the objects against the rules and policies of the matter (as in steroids

for performance enhancement in sport) it is called drug abuse. Therefore,

mood altering and psycho-active substance are not the only types of drug

abuse but also using illicit drugs like narcotic, stimulant, depressant,

hallucinogen, sedative, solutions and even glues and paints, are also

considered to be as drug abuse. Drug abuse often includes problems with

impulse control and impulsive behaviors.

The term "drug abuse" does not exclude dependency, but is otherwise use in

a similar manner in non medical contexts. The term have a huge range of

definitions related to taking a psycho active drugs or performance enhancing

drug for a non therapeutic or non medical effect. All of these definitions imply

a negative judgment of the drug use in question (compare with the term

responsibility drug use for alternative views). Some of the drug must often

associated with this term include alcohol, amphetamines, barbiturates,

benzodiazepines, (particularly temazepam, nimetazapam and flunitratzepam),

cocaine, Metaqualone, and apioids. Other definition of drug abuse according

to national agency for food drug administration and control (NADAC 1998) is

that drug said to be abuse when;

• It is use, when it is not medically necessary

• It is use, when not recommended by a health worker

3
• It is use is forbidden by law or is socially un acceptable example marijuana,

cocaine, heroine etc

• When it is excessively taken beyond the recommended usage or

prescription.

Drug abuse, consist of the use of substances in a manner, amounts, or

situations such the drug use cases problems or greatly includes the chances

of problems occurring. The problems may be social (including legal),

occupational, psychological or physical once again, this definition gives us a

good idea of what are talking about, but it is not precise, for example some

would consider any se of an illicit drug to be abuse because of the possibility

of legal problems, but any people who have take marijuana on occasion

would argue that they had no problems and therefore did not abuse it.

Another problem is that the use almost any drug, even under the orders of a

physician, has at least some potentials for causing problems, the question

may come down to how great the risk is and 'whether the user is recklessly

disregarding the risk How does cigarette smoking fit this definitions? In

popular opinion, should all cigarette smoking be considered drug abuse?

Drug abuse definition is in various forms such as public health, and medical.

1.7.4. Public Health Definition

Public health professional have attempted to work at drug abuse from a

broader perspectives than the individual, emphasizing the role of society,

culture and availability. Rather than accepting the loading terms alcohol or

4
drug 'abuse" many public health professionals have adopted phrases such as

"substances and alcohol type problems" or harmful / problematic use " of

drugs. The health

officers councils of British Columbia- in their 2005 pore discussion paper, a

public the approach to drug control Canada has adopted a public health

model of choactive substance use that challenges the simplistic

black-white construction of binary (or complementary) anonyms "use" us

"abuse" this model explicitly recognized a spectrum of use, ranging from

beneficial use to chronic Dependence.

1.7.5. Medical Definition

In the modern medical professions, the three most used diagnostic tools in

the

world, the Americans psychiatric Association Diagnoses and statistical

manual of

nental disorders (DSM), the world Health organization (WHO), international

statistical classification of disease and (ICRIS) medical organization related

health

5
)problem (ICD), no longer recognized drug abuse as a current medical

diagnosis.

instead, DSM has adopted substance abuse as a blanket term to include

drug

abuse and other things. ICD refrain from using either substances abuse or

drug

abuse instead using the term "harmful use "to cover physical or psychological

learn to the user from use. Physical dependence, abuse of and withdrawal

from

drugs and other miscellaneous substance is out lined in the diagnosis and

statistical manual of mental disorder (DSM-IV-TR). Its section

substance

dependence being with : when an individual persists in use of alcohol and

other

drugs despite problems related to use of the substance, substances

dependence maybe diagnosed, compulsive and repetitive use may result in

tolerance to the effect of the drug and withdrawal symptoms when use is

reduce or stopped. These along with substance abuse are considered

substance use disorders. However, other definition differ, they may entail

psychological or physical dependence, and may focus on treatment and

6
preventive in terms of the social consequence of substance use.

En.wikkipedia. org/substance abuse.

Substance abuse refers to the use of all chemicals drugs, and industrial

solvents that can produce dependence {psychology and physical) eysenck,

2002,

Cheryl/and Gert, 2003). It can also refers to repeated medical use of

potentially

additive chemical and organic substance. According to (UNICEF and WHO

2006), substance abuse includes the use of chemical in excess of normal

prescribed treatment, dosage, and frequency, even with knowledge that they

may cause serious problems and eventually lead to addiction. Drug when

used according to accepted medical practice will always licit the desired

therapeutic response, while if use inappropriately with result in adverse effect

or even worsen a pre-existing disease condition.

Prescription and over the counter drugs are abuse when taken without the

specified medical condition and/or proper prescription. Some of these drugs

can be mood elevations pain killers or anti depressants prescription drugs

include pain killers with codeine, phenorbariture, valium, preton and sleep

control drugs. A study by Rew (2005), found that these psycho-active

substance can produce filings of surplus energy, euphoria, stimulation,

depression, relaxation, Hucinations, a temporary feeling of well being,

drowsiness, and sleepiness, the

7
abuse of such drugs lead to "abuse". Recently the amphetamines

and

barbiturates had become an addendum to the drug problem, this student use

it in

(examination period, long distance drivers and people with hard labour began

abuse the use of amphetamines which they usually obtained, without medical

prescription. The use of tranquilizer is not a forgotten issue though its

medically

evant, tranquilizer is well known due to its medical need to sedate and control

otional problems, its abuse grew out of proportion this requiring the notoriety

[being the most domestically abused psychotropic agents especially amongst

middle class population. Valium has become a popular and widely use

tranquilizer is today the most widely used drug in the world.

Drug of cocaine and heroine come into Nigeria in 1980's and bringing with its

new tension to the influx of hard drug and usage. Presently, the two drugs

Bstitute the psychotropic substances being abuse. Psychotropic drugs are

fierally classified into hard and soft drugs. Hard drugs are these drugs

considered extremely dangerous they consist of heroine, morphines, cocaine,

medical opium etc.

1.8 Forms of substance abuse

L8.1 Drug addiction:- substance abuse comes in many form. Ray and ksir

(1996)

8
submit that forms of substance abuse include:-

IDrug Addiction:- this has to do with a condition of period or chronic

intoxication

(of a drug natural or synthetic. This is characterized by an over whelming

desire to continue taking the drug and obtain it by all means. Drug addition is

a very controversial term. Ample evidence abounds to show that the scientific

view of addiction has changed over the past several years, It is must current

to use the term in its original dictionary sense, to give oneself up to a habit".

1.8.2. Deviant drug use:- it drug use that is not common within a social

group and that is disapproved by the majority. Causing members of the group

to take some form of corrective action when it occurs. The corrective action

may be informal (making fun of the behavior, criticizing the behatviour) or

formal (incarceration, treatment). Obviously, this definition is some what

contextual some examples of drug use may be deviant in the society at large

but accepted or even expected in particular sub-cultures.

1.8.3 Drug misuse:- generally refers to the use of prescribed drugs in greater

amounts than, or for purposes other then, those prescribed by a physician or

dentist.

1.8.4. Drug dependence:- Drug dependence can have physical

manifestation as in withdrawal systems such as vomiting due to

discontinuation of the use of the drug there may also be psychological

9
dependence as a result of the effects produced by drugs have become

necessary for the survival and well being of the drug dependence person.

1.8.5. Drug addict:- according to web star dictionary "is one who habitually

uses and has an un controllable craving for an addictive drugs"

1.8.6. Drug trafficking:- this refers to the illegal trading of dangerous (illicit)

drugs, it is the smuggling of dangerous hard drugs from one country to

another in view of getting profit or making money quick.

1.8.7. Drug tolerance:- This is both physical as well as psychological

adaptation to an increasingly dosage of drug. At the stage the body needs

more dosage of the drug to achieve the same effect and be comfortable.

1.8.8. Drug Habituation:- this has to do with regular consumption of a drug

for it pleasing effects, that the person does not feel happy without it.

1.9, Other definition of terms.

1.9.1 Youths

Youth in Nigeria context is often seen as those who fall within the age bracket

ito35 years. But on general usage the word "youth" connot a category of ople

that are induced with super abundant vigor and vitality who are in veen the

period of child hood and old age. The distinctive characteristic of

age is strength just as the beauty is wisdom .... Another striking feature

(the youthful age is an open display of what is called youthful exuberance.

},2. Deviance:- this has to do with any behavior which is contrary to the norms

ues of a society one belong to. A person is said to be a "deviance" when he or

10
behave contrary or not accordance to the stipulated norms and values of the

society that person belong to. A behavior is said to be regarded as devious

when riolates normative rules and regulations of the society one belong to.

(.3, Crime:- this is the violation of the criminal law. According to Paul tappan

60) define crime as "an act of commission or commission in violation of

criminal (committed without defence or justification and sanctioned by the

state as a

felony or misdemeanor".

1.9.4. Criminal:- a person is regarded as a criminal when or she violate

criminal law and when he or she has been tried in the court of law and proved

beyond every reasonable doubt to guilty and found to have committed the

offence.

1.9.5. Drug misuse:- this differs from drug abuse because here there is no

activity on the primary nervous system, as in the case of rampant use of

penicillin to treat common cold.

1.9.6. Factor:- circumstance that cause something or event to occur.

1.9.7. Influence:- the power to affect or bring change in somebody or action.

1.9.8. Self medication:- this is an act of obtaining medicine from any source

and administering them by self without consultation with the appropriate

health worker (marshak 2000).

11
1.9.9. Hard and soft Drugs:- these are drug that are capable of making an

individual non functional member of the society. The continuous use of hard

drugs leads to hard use where the drugs is central in the users life (menshak,

2000). Hard drugs are capable of producing emotional and physical

dependence (e.g. tobacco, alcohol, cocaine, and heroine) (Nkowane

andjansen, 1999). While Soft drugs are less dependence inducing drugs.

They have little or no physical dependence except in heavy dose (Lawrence

and bannette, 1987).

1.9.10. Drug use:- this refers to any taking of psychoactive substance the

term simple use is sometimes used to distinguished experimentation or

occasional use that does not reach the point of abuse or dependence

CHAPTER TWO

Literature review and theoretical frame work

2.1. Introduction

12
This chapter deals with the examination of the various related theories and

matter related to the subject under study. The aim is to critically review some

works done on drug/substance by different scholars. However, since a lot of

scholars have worked on substance abuse, this chapter will be exhaustive not

selective.

2.2. Literature Review

Akers RL (1992) said drug is any substances that has psychoactive, chemical

or medicinal effect when ingested and which is socially define as drug. The

inclusion of a social dimension to the definition of drug is necessary because

there is no common pharmacological property distinguishing drugs from other

substances, the distinction is social (Goode 1989 a: 22-26). All of substance

include here have been socially define as a drug by the majority of the

population common culture, or by segment of society powerful enough to

have their drug definition prevail in public policy. Drug use is the general term

used to refer to both legitimate and illegitimate use of substances and the foil

range of use pattern from the lightest to the must habitual. Drug abuse means

the misuse of the legal and illegal drug.

13
21 Use of substance that are legally and/ or law socially disapproved is

referred to as deviant use. Ubom (2004), Ibiamaka (2004) Okorodu and

Okorodu (2004) in their research work indicated that the problem of drug

abuse knows no boundaries or social class. It impedes the development

of any social as it is a threat to life, health, dignity, and prosperity of all

individuals. According to "world Book medical encyclopedia" drug abuse is

the harmful use of mind altering drugs which also include harmful use legal

prescription drugs such as self medication.

Oshikoya and Alii (2006) in their study in perception of drug abuse

amongst Nigerian undergraduate identified dependence and addictions

as one of the major cause process of drug abuse, characterized by

compulsive drug craving seeking behavior even in the face of negative

consequence. These changes are maladjustment and in appropriate to the

social or environment setting therefore may place the individual at risk of

them.

Abdullahi (2009) viewed drug abuse as the use of drug to the extent

that interfaces with the health and social function of an individual. In

essence, drug abuse may be define as the arbitrary over dependence or

misuse of one particular drug with or without a prior medical diagnosis

from qualified health practitioners.

14
Drug abuse is a major public health problem all over the world by united

nation office of disease control (UNODC 2005). The use and abuse of

drugs by people

have become one of the most disturbing health related phenomena in

Nigeria and other part of the world (NDLEA) national drugs law

enforcement agency. Must drug abusers experience mental health

problem either temporarily or for a long period of time. Some become

insane, maladjusted to school situations and eventually drop out of

school. Report from all over the world about this menace (drug abuse) for

instance is grim.

A drug refers to a substance that could bring about a change in the

biological function through its chemical actions Okaya (2001). This also

considered as a substance that modifies perceptions, cognition mood,

behavior and general body function balogu (2006).

According to fawa (2003) "drug is define as any substances which is used

for treatment or prevention of a disease in man and animal. Drug alters

the body functions either positively or otherwise depending on the body

composition of the user, the type of drug use, the amount used and

whether used or with other drugs at the same time. NAFDAC (2000) as

cited by Haladu (2003) explain the term drug abuse as excessive and

persistent self administration of a drug without regard to the medically or

15
culturally accepted patterns. It could also be viewed as the use of a drug

to the extent that it interfaces with the health and social function of an

individual world Book encyclopedia (2004) define drug abuse as the non-

medical use of a drug that interferes with a healthy and productive

life. Mambe (2008) define drug abuse as the excessive maladaptive or

addictive use of drugs for non-medical propose. Olajide (2000) warned

that drug abusers who exhibit symptoms of stress, anxiety, depressions,

behavior changes, fatigue and loss of increase in appetite should be treated

by medical experts and councilors to save them from deadly disease. In

defining drugs, emphasis is usually placed either in the legal, social,

medical, or pharma cological effects. In law, drug refers to a chemical

substance whose possession and use is against the law of the society.

Thus, all narcotics (cocaine, heroine, opium, morphine's) as well as the

non-medical use of amphetamines, barbiturates and codeine are

considered drugs (Goode, 1973).

In pharmacology, drug is any substance, other than food, that by its

chemical and physical nature alters structure of function in living organism

(Sambo, 1991). This definition is similarly to that in medical practice which

regards it as chemical use in medical therapy {Goode, 1973).in sociology,

drug are collectively define as substance, prescribed by the medical

profession or by medicine man which include other drugs, the production

and which are sanctioned by customs and law The may always good for

16
one health, yet there are substance must people regarded as beneficial,

fell comfortable with or believe they can control, (Enrich, 1974). However,

the term is associated with substance, such as heroine, cocaine, cannabis,

marijuana and to less degree with depressants and tranquilizer

commonly prescribed by physician, in hospitals. To such person alcohol,

coffee, cigarettes, which are among the widely used. All social drugs are

not regarded as drugs. The point is that there is no uniform and standard

definition, which covers all substances that every opinion would consider

being a drug. However, all the definition are useful for the various

purposes they seek to achieve, must people to think of illicit substance as

drugs and legal substances as beverages (e.g liquor) on medicine (e.g

barbiturate pills) or simply as habit (e.g cigarette). Because someone use

a chemical which the society consider illegal does not make that person

different from the other people that used the chemical which might have

the same similar effect, but the society has decided to keep legally

available (Goode, 1973).

However, Goode, (1973) explains that drug includes all licit and illicit

substance that when this swallowed, smoke, sniffed, or ingested into the

body does to change or influence the body function of the process of the

mind, mood, emotion. This definition is likely to the social definition of drug

by Erich (1974), to the effect that a drug is a substance that when taken

into the body it influence central nervous system.

17
2.3. Concept of substance

Drug has been define my many scholar in their different perspectives

which includes; Oleweieke (1990) define drug as any chemical substance

which may be liquid solid or vapour given to a human being or animal or

treatment, prevention and diagnosis of an illness.

Ige (2000) and A wake (2001) define drug as any chemical substance

whether natural or synthetic which can be used to alter perception, mood

or other psychological states. The national agency for food and drug

administration and control (NAFDAC) act cap 1, law of the federation of

Nigeria (LFN) 2004) has said that:- "Drug include any substance of

vegetables, animal or mineral origin or any preparation or a mixture that are

manufactured, solid or advertised for use in.

a. The diagnosis treatment mitigation or prevention of any disease,

disorder, ab

normal, physical state or the symptom there of, in man or animal.

b. Restoring, correcting, modifying organic function in man animal.

c. Disinfection or control of vermin insect or pest or contraception.

Similarly, the

blocks law dictionary define drug as substance intended for use in

18
diagnosis,

cure, treatment or prevention of disease. A natural or synthetic substance

that

alter one's perception or consciousness."

According to national drug law enforcement agency (NDLEA 1989) defined

drug abuse in the following ways:-

i. A drug is abuse it use is not medically necessary.

ii. A drug is abused when a health workers does not recommend it.

iii. A drug is abused when law forbids its use or it is socially un

acceptable.

World health organization (WHO, 1969) defines drugs as any substance

that when taken into living organism modifies its function. Pharmacologist

defined drugs as any chemical substance that affects the psychology or

behavioral function of

living organism.

To physician, a drug might be any substance used as a medicines in the

treatment of physical or mental disease, it is also used to treat, prevent or

diagnosis the on set of a disease.

19
A wake magazine (July 8, 2001) defined drugs as any chemical substance

whether natural or synthesis origin which can be used to alter perception,

mood or other psychological state.

Ogunsakin (1982) state that drug substance however when property taken,

contributed to life controlling disease, prevention pain and adding physical

and mental function. In this case the recognition of these drug/substance is

beneficial and base on biological and physical facts. While abuse or

misuse of such the chemical can produce negative influence on that well

being. Also {Adama, 2003) define drug abuse as the excessive

maladaptive use of drug for non-medical purpose despite social,

psychological and physical problem that may arise from such use. To Pela

(1985), drug abuse is define as excessive or inappropriate use of a

substance by a person such use being considered or judged to be illegal,

immoral by the culture and also resulting in harm to the person or society.

In Nigeria, it is very different to give precise statistical data of the number

of drug misuse or addicts due to scarcity or reliable ways of obtaining and

under taking the census.

Olayemi (1982) state that the problem of drug abuse goes beyond the

individual abusers, some of the crucial factors in drug abuse include:-

a. Personal factor:- they are those factor that motivate an individual

to join the path of drug abuse and remain in it. This become

20
 dependent curiosity i.e to win acceptance due to the way you

perceived it by other expression of independent need for relaxation

are all causes of drug abuse. Each member of a group have

different way in which they perceive the use of drug/substance use

of drug substance half in attaining sense of belong to his/her group

while other doesn't see it that way but harmful to health and the

society at large.

B. Socio-cultural environmental factor:- which include the peer

group mobility, to gain social acceptance in which young people

learn the use of drugs from their group. Die to this factor, they learn

from their peer and the group make their perception in the use of

drug/substance as helpful.

2.4. Drug use behaviors

There are five (5) types of drug using behaviours

i. Experiential use.

ii. Recreational use.

iii. Situational use.

iv. Intensified use.

21
 v. Compulsive use.

Experimental use:- is define as occasional short term trial of one or more

drugs, those use this drugs are carious about the drugs/substance and

they want to test its feeling and effects example, tobacco, Indian hemp

alcohol, among the natural ones are gadagi, Zakami, Angur, suck and die

(sukodaye).

Recreational use:- it in valves the use of drugs for purpose of having

fun, especially during parties, when compare with experimental use here

individual who use the drugs have the knowledge about drug use.

 They use drugs more often

 They have knowledge of the drugs they use

 They do not escalate into uncontrollable level of drug/substance use.

Situation use:- the use of drugs for coping with specific situation, like LDD,

long distance driving, the users take drugs to manage themselves with the

distance they are to cover, wresters, athletes, students, soldiers, police

especially if they are on operations, the armed robbers are not left

behind in this groups the house wives takes these drugs so as to avoid

tension, frustration, boredone, especially when they are in comprontative

situation.

22
Intensified use:- is the outcome of drugs use escalation among the

small minorities of two (2) or three (3) users and above, those are the

drug taker for every day in order to get out of persistent problems

examples:-

- Sacked peoples.

- Unemployed people.

This groups of people are capable of carrying out their daily activities, they

are family peoples and they relates to their family they use drugs to get

out of problems they found themselves.

Compulsive use:- represent the deepest involvement with drugs the

types or users under this categories, the users are dependants drug use

here is at level of dominant factor in their lives, such that failure to take

the drug/substance will expose to experience of withdrawal symptoms.

2.5 Classification of Drug/Substance

As with the issue of the definition of drugs, the classification could be

done for specific depending on who is making the classification. Chilaka

(1987) classified drugs into two (2) main groups. The first group is

23
referred to as general drugs. These drugs are anti-biotic and anti-malaria

used to relief pains and aches. The second group, the psychoactive drugs,

which refers to a drugs that influence the process of mind and how people

think and react to them. These drugs include the depressants, stimulants,

hallucinogens, sedatives and tranquilizers.

According to Erich (1974) the sedative e.g alcohol and barbiturates,

stimulants e.g coffee, morphine's, cocaine, these classification are

based on the wide ranging effects of implication of drugs.

This drugs are classified to a category, but that does not mean that, the

specific action that put them into one or another category is the only

action they have. Therefore all the forms of drug classification are

arbitrary.

Hopkin (1983) gives the following classification of what refers to as

principal drugs. Amphetamines power nervous system stimulant,

barbiturate a group of hypnotic drugs exemplified by butobarbitone,

cocaine, one of the alkaloid of opium. Heroine diamorphine adeactuate

or morphine with a more powerful and cough suppressant action.

Generally, substance/drug are classified into the following subheadings.

i. Stimulants.

ii. Sedatives.

24
iii. Narcotics

iv. Hallucinogen.

v. OTC drugs (cover the counter drugs).

vi. Traditional drugs.

vii. Mordern drugs.

viii. Prescription drugs.

ix. Inhalant/solvents.

The stimulants :- it reduce temporary improvement in either mental or

physical function e.g any things that enhance alertness, wake fullness or

up feeling, energetic, they are referred to as "uppers" because they can

give extra energy

Examples:-

- Cocaine.

- Lipton.

- Cola nuts.

- Indian hemp (marijuana)

Those are things that can alleviant fatigue and increase alertness, they are

called performance enhancers, they can make person tract faster than

usual, this is because it can alter the (CMS) central nervous system and

25
the (CMS) alter the brain and if the brain is alter then it can give changes

in behavior, Indian hemp (marijuana), cocaine, amphetamine, when taken

they will go directly into the blood stream and this can alters behavior

faster. The users are laborers and ever business men.

Depressants

They are the social opposite to the stimulants this are drugs that slows the

body vital function, they are the types of drugs which has slowing effects

they are called (downer) opposite to stimulants. Example

- Alcohol.

- Beryline with codeine.

- Dizopharm.

Sedatives :- the types of drug that relieves us from stress, and anxiety

these types of drugs they performed the following:-

- - They ease tension. Cause relaxation.

- They induce sleeps.

- Help users to forget their problems.

Example of sedatives are:-

26
 - Alcohol.

- Varium (dizorpharm).

- Chloroform.

- Beryline.

Narcotics :- the Greek term is narcosis, simply means to make "numb",

deaden, it is originally know as any psychoactive compound with sleep

inductive properties, because narcotics drugs is one that can have the

tendency to make "numb or deaden" or cause loss of feelings united nation

(UN) define narcotics in 1961 as substance and preparation that induce

sleep, drowsiness and insensibility e.g of narcotics.

- Heroine,

- Cocaine.

- Morphines.

- Opium.

- Methadone.

All of this has the effects of bringing insensibility in person

Hallucinogen:- is a general group/category of pharmacological agents

that can cause psychoactive effects in person, it can change persons:-

27
 - Perception.

- Taught.

- Emotion.

- Consciousness.

- Trance.

Un like stimulants hallucinogens induce experience inform of.

- Insanity.

- Dreams.

- Meditation.

- Trance.

This subjects users to meditations, there is historic of use of hallucinogens

 Medicinal

use

 Religious

use.

 Traditional

use.

28
These substances, they alters the sensory processing unit in the brain, this

lead to distortion in prescription and feeling (see things different).

Uses

- Ritual healings.

- Divination activities.

- Initiation right.

- Religious.

- Traditional.

Over The Counter Drugs (OTC)

Drugs that are sold directly to consumers without the prescription of the

health care professionals, this drug are sold in retails to the users by

vendors in the small shops (chemist), e.g of drugs sold are the anti-malaria,

analgesics, cough syrups, etc.

Prescription Drugs

Licenced medicine drugs that are regulated by legislation, such drugs

require medical prescription before they can be obtain.

Inhalants/solvents

29
These are drugs/substance administered through the nostrils mouths, this

can cause euphorbia and perpetual distortion when use, they are volatile

liquids example

- Superglue.

- Paint thinner.

- Sport removal.

- Solution.

- Petrol.

- Gasoline.

- Nail polish remover (dissolver).

- Robin blue.

Traditional drugs :- those are un synthesized drugs, usually taped directly

from the sources (plants tree/roots) and suck inside water, oil and use, they

are said to be natural drugs, they are been use in large quantity and most

of them can either be stimulants or depressants the users are mostly the

labourers, or business men like in sabongari, market in Kano, Okadas,

tailors, and even students. Example of these drugs are:-

- Angur.

- Zakami.

- Gadagi.

30
 - Hankufa.

- Sukudaye etc.

One of the distinguishing characteristics is that they have high

psychological dependency (intensified use),

They can cause damage to lungs, liver, brain, and it can lead to blindness. 2.6.

Factors Influencing Substance Abuse Among Youths.

There so many factors which predispose youths into substance abuse,

generally the factors include:-

1. Individual factor.

2. Socio-cultural and social structure factor.

3. Environmental factors.

4. Medical factors.

5. Government plan.

6. Genetics.

1. The Individual Factor

According to WHO (2003), .the individual factor which predispose the

youths into substance abuse are, individual

1. Want to feel grown up.

31
 2. Want to relax and feel good.

3. Want to fit in.

4. Want to take risk and rebel.

5. Want to satisfy curiosity.

Individual factor for predisposing someone (youth) into drug

misuse/abuse is as a result of pleasure, reward psychologically this is to

reduce tension.

Curiosity and experimentation:- for instance, people take drugs in order

to experiments what it is.

Fit in:- the youth some times because they want to fixed themselves

into another group they must followed their behavior of drugs example

armed robbers groups, thief's, or even those in legitimate business like

okada riders, drivers, tailors etc.

Idleness frustration:- because an idle mine is a devil work shop, people

will be easy push to drugs, if they remain idle example disengaged youth.

Emotional stress:- issue like office work marriage problem can push

someone to drug abuse youth especially the young ladies in a polygamy

system, this is because of anxiety, depression, low self esteem and

low tolerance to frustration.

Physiology and psychology period:- the period of transitions this has to

do with age 18-35 that is at puberty, this period the youth are bold

32
 enough they don't listen to advise, they don't hear and see, so they can

easily be pushed to drug abuse. There is a tendency of useful

exuberance "that is I can do it period" it is called disposition, youth can

do any things at that time like violence, and crime.

2. Socio-cultural and socio-structural factor:- this deals with the issue

of un

 Employment like of supervision of drug entry into the country, lack

of proper

housing accommodation ambition to get rich quick. The influence of

peer

groups-peers can strongly pushed some youth into drugs

abuse.

Economic depression, poverty:- can serve as factors that can push

the society member (youth) into drug abuse (social strain) societal

goal to achieve, while the legitimate ways of achieving them is

limited, this push the youth in the society into drugs abuse for them to

achieves the goals, because of the pressure on them to achieve

that goals. Also desire to achieve more goals every youth desire to

meet up and achieve material success.

33
  Urbanization:- struggle to make it, and this situation can push youth

in the society into substance abuse particularly if his job is more

labour intensive, he may require drugs and he must do more in order

to maximize profit, and must do more to meet up. E.g the long

distance drivers, students, those in labour intensive job.

 Party politics:- politician recruits youth in the community to

performed for them, they provide drug for them.

 Parents-lack of parental care for young (deprivation, broken

home:- in ability to cope with problem of life, lack of confidence.

The type of socialization among the parents aids drug/substance

abuse, we may have abusive parents, parents that are use to drugs,

weak family ties where by every member of the family can decide

on himself and this can give freedom to youth to join the gangs of

drug abusers, poverty can also pushed youth in the family to

substance abuse. The working class parents who usually abondone

their children uncared, the children will become very vulnerable to

substance abuse especially when contact with peers/neighborhoods.

 Block opportunity:-lack of jobs, to the youth and this is cause of

blocking the opportunity by the upper class through cultural,

political societal and economic factor, and because of the need

by the youth to achieve success through legitimate means (Job)

and there is no way, then the youth may be pushed to follow

34
 illegitimate ways and it can be through violence and the youth

use drugs as a support in the commission of such violence.

3. Psychological Factor

This amount the frustration and emotional stress due to failing

sermons or miseries of life, divert youth to join the company of drug

abusers. For them drugs or alcohol is a medicine for their problem.

More so, frustrated youth can involved in drug abuse because according

to them they consider themselves as marginalized people of the society.

4. Environmental Factor

- Broken home.

- Schools.

- Work place.

- Community, neighbourhood.

Youth from the broken home are more vulnerable to substance abuse

because the parental care is at zero level, because the parents are

separated and no guidance to the youth of such family so he/she can

easily be pushed by the peers to join the group of substance abuser and

criminality. School children can be substance abusers if they coincidently

join with those who are into the business of drug abusing, likewise the

working place if the youth find himself in the place of work to those who

35
 are drug abusers and it coincide with their job like those of hard labour

this can easily push young person to substance abuse.

> Community neigbourhood, is another area that youth can acquire

skills or

drug abuse, this is due to frequent contact with those who are into it

and they

happen to be intimates (Sutherland theory of learning behavior of

crime and

drug abuse).

> Location, e.g inner-city of the town because of the type of life they

have

(slum) ghetto life they are bound to form a gang of drug abusers and

even

criminal, more so this group have easy access to drug like Indian hemp

gadagi

zakami etc.

> Family type, family polygamy-sibling rivalry all can push one to drug

abuse if

there is conflicts within the family, witch craft is also a contributing

factor.

5. Government policy

> This is the ways of addressing the increased drugs abuse government

36
 plans may easily pushed or reduce and even stops the rates of drug

abuse among members of the society (youth), Government plan, may

have negative plans toward drugs supply, demand, we

misuse which may influence the rate of drug abuse to the youth, where

there

is rampant supply of any drugs there likely for the drugs to be so

cheap and

which give easily accessible to anyone. Other negative plans which can

push

youth to substance abuse are like banning of commercial motor

cyclist

(Okada). Demolishing of market structure which render the youth

jobless and

this may influence the drug/substance abuse,

> Media is another factor which influence the drug/substance abuse

among the

youth recently, this is through the watching of films where drug

use is

advertised like alcohol and others or show how the drugs

increases the

performance of the youth in the film and a host of others.

6. poverty

37
7. Study slows that poverty is another factor influencing the

drug/substance abuse in the study area, because majority of the

families in the area are extended family who are poor so the children

(youth) move out in order to survive because the person must survive,

they must eat and go to school and there is no means to cater for that

through their parent, this will make them to go out and associate with

others especially the peers on the street and they will easily learned

how to take and abuse substances. Illiteracy:- due to lack of knowledge

about the effect and the consequence of

substance abuse among youth may influence substance abuse for

instance

those interviewed at the round about Akwanga indicates that majority of

them

are illiterate about the knowledge/effects/consequence of the

substance in

which they abuse.

8. Illness, idleness, and bore done:- there is a saying that "an idle mine is a

devil

workshop", so majority of the people in the study area especially the youth

are

un employed, they stay idle or being alone therefore this may push them

to

38
 deviance behaviours like political thugs or rather criminal and this may

easily

influence his drug abuse in order to be able to perform such behavior.

2.7. The commonly abuse substance in Nigeria

this study shows there are some drugs that are commonly used,

misuse and abuse by youth in the study area this include not limited to the

following:-

i. The stimulants:- they are psychoactive drug that promote

temporary physical and mental dimension, they body activity, they

affects the central nervous system, these drugs when taken they

stimulate and increase body function, alleviate fatigue, they

increase alertness and enhance performance. Study Drugs,

alcohol and society, social structure and policy (Ray and Ksir, 1987;

Abadinsky 1989; Goody 1989a), indicate that majority of the youth

took or use cannabis sativa (marijuana) in order t feel high alleviant

fatigue and reduce tension. More so this types traded almost

everywhere, others taken as stimulus include nicortine and

amphetamine (Aji garau). This cannabis sativa is in form of raw,

(Genye) they called it as taba, hashish, stone, and egbo the side

effect of it is that it cause.

39
 - Dry mouth.

- Feeling of anxiety.

- Cause red eye.

- It affect memory.

- It in faired skills.

- Increase alertness.

- Enhance performance.

ii. Sedative:- they are a group of drugs used to relax the central

nervous system and induce sleep they are called "downers", when

taken in small doses, they reduce day time tension and anxiety, they

are social opposite to the stimulants this are drugs that slows down

the body vital function, they are the type of drugs which has slowing

effects. Barbiturates are largest subgroup of sedative. Some of

barbiturates are short acting and fast starting, while some are

slow-acting and long acting. The slow starting and long acting are

most abused. Medically recommended doses of barbiturate are used

to induce sleep, relieve tension, treats, ulcer, hyper tension in

Somnia, convulsion and variety or mental disorders. They can be use

for pre-surgery medication to calm patients whose mental of

psychological condition may be adversely affected by fear of surgery.

Excess doses take over an extended period causes physical

psychological dependence on the drug.

40
 Majority of the people of the study area use such drugs for

relaxation such as the cough syrup (benylin codeine), syrup,

solution, robinblue, petrol, chloroform, vallum and alcohols. Due to

availability of the bear parlow, the alcohol joints, bush canopies in the

area where such depressants are sold majority of the youth in the

evening time took such drugs for relaxation. Typical area include

ungwan sabo,.AIushi, keffi bye-pass, to mention few.

iii. Necrotic:- the word is from the Greeks (narcosis) it is any type

of drugs with sleep indusive capacity it called narcotics. This drug

simply means to make numb, deaden, it is originally known as any

psychoactive compound with sleep indusive properties it cause loss

of feelings, UN define narcotics in 1961 as substance and preparation

that induce, sleep, drowsiness, and insensibility example of such

drugs are:- heroine, cocaine, opium, methadone, codein, and

cannabis. Due to availability of drug shops (chemist) in the area

such drug can be easily obtain by the young persons and at cheaper

prices and this influence their predisposition to substance abuse. It

affect human system because it

- Induce sleep.

- Drowsiness.

- Cause insensibility.

41
iv. Sedatives:- the types of substance that relieves someone from stress,

and anxiety, this types of substance help the users to ease tension,

relax and as well induce sleeps e.g alcohol, varium (dizorpharm),

chloroform, benylin. It affect the body system through the following

- They ease tension.

- it cause relaxation.

- it induce sleep.

- it help the users to forget their problems.

This type of substance is being abused by the youth in the study

area, majority of youth who are truant to schools use this drugs so as

not attend to school, some house wives due to frustration in the

house they took such substance in order for the drug to help them

subside from their problems. v. Hallucinogen:- is a general

group/category of pharmacological agents that cause psychoactive

effect to human body, it alters the, perception, taught, emotion and

consciousness of the uses, un like stimulants hallucinogens induce

experience inform of, dream, insanity, meditation, trance, there is

historic use of such drugs as medicinal, religious, and traditional

use, the traditional use includes the ritual healings, divination

activities, initiation right.

- They alter the sensory processing unit in the brain, this lead to

distortion in perception and feeling (see things different).

42
vi. Over the counter drugs (OTC):- this are the over the counter

drugs the drugs that are sold directly to consumers without

prescription by the health care officer or the professionals

(doctors/pharmacist), youth patronized such drugs because of the

availability of the sales location, and at a cheeper rates more also

because of fear of parents and law enforcement, the youth did not

patronized the prescription drugs this is because of fear of arrest

during the transaction, so they prepare to visit small retail chemist

and obtain the drugs easily.

vii. Inhalants/solvents:- the substance that recently been abuse

at the high rate, solution for example majority of the juveniles and

young persons are into the use of rubber solution, which can be

obtain easily and it makes them down, it slows down their body

vital functions because it has slowing effects. Due to its low price

and availability it influence many youth to abuse it.

2.8. Substance abuse demography

The substance abuse demography in Akwanga town of Akwanga LGA,

Nasarawa State. Study on causes effects and solution to drug abuse in

Nigeria, A case study of Sanga L.G.A, Kaduna State July 2014 shows that

the substance abuse is high among the young person (youth) of the age

between 18-35 years and must of such abusers are generally male, but

43
only small portion of young female youth are involve into drug abuse due to

prostitution, poverty, unemployment, peers, and family breakage.

To the male (youth) the drug abusing is as a result of influence of peers,

poverty, poor parental care, unemployment, politics, and risk of making

money quickly. The menace is highly associated with low income

persons and among the illiterate who are mostly school dropout.

2.9. Methods use to abuse substance

Substance can be abused through the following ways;- i. Ingestion

(swallowing) is the most common way of taking substance to

abuse into the body, substance which include the tablets like

Paracetamol anti malaria dizopharm etc, the capsules like,

tetracycline, contact, and others, the syrups like benyline with

codeine, alcohol, opium etc are taken through swallowing of the

entire substance.

ii. Inhalation:- enters through the respiratory system, inhalant

(anesthetic gases) like aerosols, petrol, solvents, solutions are

inhaled or sniffed into the body through the nostrils. When this

inhaled it affects the central nervous system of the user.

iii. Smoking:- substance are abuse through this way like tobacco,

marijuana are taken through smokes by the users and it influence

44
 his central nervous system and when it is taken beyond the blood

capacity it change the body system/action and it is said to be abused

by the user.

iv. Oral:- drugs are abuse through the oral ways such include the

capsule, tablets, syrup etc. into the body example valium, cough

syrup, cocaine, morphine's, opium, etc.

v. Chewed:- some drugs are being chewed into the body in order to

affects the body system example refnol. vi. Eye drop;- some other

drugs are abuse through the injection of the substance into the

eyes, example gentamycine when use un recommended or

beyond recommended doses.

vii. Absorption through the skin:- drugs used in this form are mild

body cream. Some are used to maintain skin while some are used to

treat skin disease, this drugs can be misuse and abuse when it is

use when not necessary, or it has not been recommend to be use

for such person by health worker.

45
2.10. The consequence, implication and challenges of substance abuse

Substances/ drugs are mainly use for the medical reasons either to relieve

pain, or to cure diseases by affected individuals. But when the substance

where use on the other ways it is produce to or for, then it have been said

to be "abuse".

This abuse of drug/substance has a lot of consequences, implications

and challenges to the life of the abuser, the table below is use to explain

the consequences, implication and challenges of substance abuse which

cost a lot to the life of users in different ways such as the physical,

psychological, socio-economic, political medical and health implication

etc2.11. Trend in Drug Abuse in Nigeria

The history of substance abuse has dated back since the period of second

world war (II) in which during the war people engage in drugs abuse for

acquiring strength, in a simple form the trend of drug abuse is as follows;

1. World war is-manifestation

2. 1935 - Dangerous drugs ordinance was enacted

3. 1984 - decree No, 20 section 3(2)K, clears in sell, smoke, inhale drug

shall

be guilty under sections 6{3)K, of a offence liable to on committing to

suffer

death sentence by firing squad.

46
 4. 1988 - signatory to the UN connections against illicit trafficking in

in drug taking substance 1989 - Decree 48 - two (2) years to life

imprisonment

5. 1990 - National Drug policy (NDP) adopted and launch

6. 2004 - Act CAP N30 Laws established NDLEA

7. Before the establishment of NDLEA the board of custom and excuse

now

Nigeria custom service, the Nigeria police force, federal welfare

providing

counseling, treatment, rehabilitation of drugs abusers (NDLEA

(1989) the

nations Drug force, vol.5 No. 2).

8. 2.12. The health and socio-economic implications of substance abuse:-

Substance use and abuse is in-the fore front of societal problems it is a

pervasive problem, affecting directly or indirectly the overwhelming

majority of persons. The deleterious impact of alcohol and drug is

devastating. The involvement of some children and adolescents in

substance abuse often lead to different consequences. Such

consequences include physiological, psychological effect of drug abuse

depends on the drugs that has been used. Substance abuse under

47
mines physical health for example, chronic alcohol abuse is

associated with disease of the liver, central nervous system, and heart,

often, as in the case of the brain disorder korsakorfs syndrome, the

damage resulting from alcohol abuse is irreversible. Additional health

problems stemming from the use of the substance are well documented

(colby, 2004). Well-know examples are long cancer caused by smoking,

and pervasive central nervous system damage resulting from the

inhaling of solvents, cardiovascular diseases and neurological damage

(NCCDPHP, 2000). In addition, many substances are toxic in excessive

doses, resulting in numerous acute and chronic effects on physical

health, potentially leading to permanent disability or death. Finally,

substance abuse increase the risk for acquiring other health related

problems such as HIV, sexually transmitted diseases, or trauma

secondary to accidents while under the influence of psychoactive

substance (NCCDPHP, 2000). Mental health disorder often occurs with

substance abuse. Co-mobidity is relatively common, with up to one third

of individuals with psychiatric disorder reporting a life time history of

substance abuse disorder as well. In some instances, psychiatric

disorder precedes or even contributes to the development of substance

abuse, where as in others, emotional and behavioral disturbances arise

within the context of alcohol drug use problems. A large body of research

has delineated the disproportionate representation of psychological

48
dysfunction in substance abusers. Included are problems in personality,

mood, self esteem, coping, behaiour, and social functioning. Once again,

some of these psychological difficulties may be evident prior to the onset

of substance abuse, although psychological functioning often worsens

over time in individuals with substance use disorder (MC whiter, 2004).

In addition, children and adolescents who are involved in substance abuse

may also be affected in term of their educational status. Abuse of specific

substance may also contribute to relatively unique psychological

presentations. Such as they a- motivational state that has been linked to

chronic marijuana use. Other psychological effects of substance abuse

are directly linked to the biological impact of psychoactive substances

(such as anxiety and irritability stemming from withdrawal) and the behavior

that result from dependence and drugs and alcohol and alcohol (such

as Graving and pre-occupation with obtaining desired substance).

The health and socio-economic implication of drug abuse can be view

asfollows:-

- Problem for the user:- these include impairment of

functioning, in

adequate nutrition, possible damage to tissues and control

nervous

system, in efficiency increase risk of liver, cirrhosis and certain

49
 cancer,

deterioration in inter personal relation, working and

increase in

absenteeism, mental disorder, premature death and accidents.

- Problem for the user family:- these are marital disorder, loss of

esteem,

child and spouse abuse, fetus defects and growth anomalies and

youth

violence

Problem for the general population:- these include a rise in road traffic

and industrial accidents, premature death, loss of manpower, diseases,

working efficiency, reduced economic and industrial output, disruption of

public order e.g violence, criminal activities, increase economic cost of

health, welfare and law enforcement services.

2.13. Theoretical Frame Work

There are many definitions of the theory but in short term theory is

simply means as the systematic arrangement of empirical data for the

purpose of analysis, interpretation, or explanation of phenomena from which

a prediction is

derived.

50
In this case, just as there are many definition of deviance likewise there are

various theories to the way we study it effect one say that each theory has

its own definition.

However, the term deviance is generally refers to as those activities which do

not conform to the norms and values and expectations of members of

particular society. Hence, deviance differs from one society to another and

from one time frame to another, that is why referred to as a relative concept.

Nevertheless, the many theories involve in the study of this concept include

the following, differential association theory, labeling theory, anomie/strain

theory, social bonding/control theory, selective interaction/socialization

theory.

Although there are different in the ways in which these sociological theories

explain drug use, they share common features. All agree that the effects of

drug on behavior are the result not just of the pharmacological properties of

drugs or their impact on the nervous system but also of what zinberg and

harding (1979) refers to as the act "set and settings" that is the effects

of the drug are conditioned by the mental and emotional set that the

individual brings to the drug-using episode and both the immediate and

larger social setting in which the drug taking occurs. When ingested alcohol

and drugs effect the central nervous system and have other direct

physiological effects on the body. The way people actually behave while or

51
after drinking or taking drugs, however is only partly a function of these

direct physical effects. Overt behavior while under the influence of

drugs depends also on how person have learned to behave while drinking

in the setting and with whom they are drinking at the time. Variations in

individual experience, group and social customs, and the social setting

produce variation in observable drug and drinking behavior. Some

actions reflect impairment of coordination and perception as direct

physical effects of drugs in the body. Cross-cultural studies, surveys, and

social psychological experiment have shown that behavior while "under

the influence" is more a function of socio-cultural and individual

expectations and attitudes than of the purely physiological effects of the

substance taken (langand michalea 1990).

Sociological theories share this emphasis on social, cultural, and social

psychological variable not only in understanding the way people act when

they are under, or think they are under, the influence of drugs and alcohol

but also in understanding difference in drinking and drug taking pattern at

both the group and individual levels. Sociologists see all such behavior as

socially patterned, from abstinence, to moderate use, to abuse. Alcohol and

drug behavior very systematically across societies, and variation in group

rates within a society indicate that persons are subject to different group

and cultural influence, depending on the communities in which they reside,

their group membership, and their location in the social structure as define

52
by their age, sex, class, religion, ethnic background, race, and other

statuses in society, whatever other biological or personality factors and

mechanism may be involved, both conforming and deviant substance use

are explain sociologically as products of the general social structure and

culture and the more immediate groups and social situations with which

individuals are confronted. Difference in rates of drinking and alcohol across

group in the same society and cross-nationally reflect the varied cultural

traditions regarding the functions alcohol serves and the extent to which it

is integrated into eating, ceremonial, leisure, and other social contexts. No

other substance has become integrated into a range of societies across time

as has alcohol. But society and subgroup practices and setting provide

learning and control that effect cross-cultural and group variations in the use

and abuse of other substance as well.

1, Anomie /strain theory

Anomie refer to a condition of disequilibrium, disorder, social

disorganization, lack of social integration, or lack of normative consensus

in a society. Under condition of anomie, high rates of drug abuse and

other form of deviant behaviors are expected, under conditions of

strong social integration, lower rates are predicted.

53
 The lower-class slum areas of large cities are described as anomie or

socially disorganized because of lack of neighborhood cohesion

breakdown of informal social controls, in complete and broken families,

physical decay, poor housing, and unstable shifting population of

various and often conflicting groups. Whole communities may be

described as being more or less anomie or socially disorganized. And

societies may be seen as having differing condition of anomie. These

conditions may result from rapid social change, urbanization and

industrialization.

The best know theory in the anomie tradition was originally stated by

Merton (1938, 1957) and is often referred to as strain theory. In strain

theory, the form of anomie that produces deviant behavour results

from the malintegration of cultural ends (goals) and societal means.

The theory views all of American society as over stressing high

achievement and material success while under emphasizing that this

success should be attained through socially approved educational and

occupational means. In addition to this disjunction between means and

ends that permeates all of American society, anomie affects certain

segments of society more than others, result from the fact that while all

are taught to aspire to their dream of success those at the bottom of

the social-class structure and members of disadvantaged minority

groups have unequal access to the legitimate educational and

54
 occupational opportunities and means to fulfill those aspirations.

This places disproportionate train in lower-class and ethnic minorities

to make use of deviant means to get ahead. Anomie theory expects

higher rates of deviant drug use in the lower class then in the middle or

upper class. This train does not always result in utilizing criminal or

deviant means, and some individuals will adopt to the strain in other

ways. One of these, according to Merton, is a "retreatist" adaptation in

which the person gives up unsuccess goals, as well as the socially

approved means, and retreats or escapes into drug abuse or

alcoholism. Merton theory has been modified by cloward and Ohlin

(1961) to apply to lower-class delinquent gangs and subcultures. They

view delinquent gangs as developing collective solution to problem of

access to both legitimate and illegitimate opportunities in lower class

and minority nieghbourhood. The type of delinquent subculture

develops depends on the extent to which the neighborhoods are

socially integrated, even if this integration is around criminal and

deviant values. Adolescents neighborhood which both

conventional and criminal opportunities are unavailable will become

involved in retreatist or escapist gangs in which the principal activity is

getting high on drugs and maintaining drugs habits.

Anomie theory explains the high rates of drug use and abuse in Nigeria

and the high rate of use and abuse in certain segments of Nigeria

55
societies, then by reference to social malintegration and

disorganization. This same perspective has also been applied to cross-

cultural and ethnic group difference in rates of alcoholism as well as high

rate of alcoholics in lower-class urban areas. Socially integrated societies

and groups are predicted to have low rate of alcoholism, where as those

which have non integrated cultures with conflicting and ambivalent

drinking norms experience high rates of alcohol abuse. At the individual

level, those who are under stress or experience alienation, whether from

a social condition of anomie or other cause, are felt to be more likely to

develop drinking problem (ullman 1958, snyder 1964, seeman and

Anderson 1983). 2. Social cultural/bonding theory

In social control theory, drug use and abuse can be expected to the

extent that social controls break down or are weekend. The individual who

has been in adequately socialized into conformity in the family so that

internal control is weak and who so ever is subject to weak external control

is the one who is most likely to begin drug use develop patterns of abuse.

The major version of control theory is social bounding (Travis Hirschi

1969). There are four main elements in social bounding theory

"attachment" refers to the effects and emotional ties that one has with

others in the family, peer group, school, and elsewhere, "commitment"

refers to the individual investment of time, energy, and ambitions in

conventional activities and pursuits. Engaging in deviant act such as

56
drug or alcohol abuse would jeopardize that investment, and the risk or

cost of doing so would forestall or prevent such acts "involvements" refers

to engagement in conventional activities so that one (especially in

adolescence) stayed for long period so that an opportunity for engaging in

deviant activities are reduced. "Beliefs" refers to the individuals

internalization of the general moral beliefs, and values of society, respect

for the law, and sharing the principles and standard of parents family,

and other groups. The stronger these bond the more the individual

behavior will be controlled in the direction of conformity. The weaker

they are, the more likely the person is to commit deviant acts such as

taking up illegal drugs or abusing legal drugs.

3. Labeling theory

The unique feature of labeling theory is the proposition that when

stigmatizing legal or social labels are applied to persons believed to have

committed deviant acts they may contribute to the causation of the

very behavour they are meant to control. That is defining certain drugs

use as deviant and labeling users as "addicts" "alcoholics" or "junkies"

often results, paradoxically, in those so labeled becoming even more

committed to the deviant role of substance abuser. Society's attempt to

control drug use, then may have the unintended consequence of

making matter worse rather then successfully controlling drugs use.

57
 There are two ways in which labeling theory states that this may

happen,

First, this approach views deviance as essentially an interactive process

between those who commit or are believed to have committed deviants

acts and other who define and react to the acts and people as deviant

(Becker 1963). Some individual accepts the right of others to enforce the

norms, become ashamed of their actions and respond to the punishing

reactions such that they are less likely to repeat their action. But the key

point here is that the disgrace of people who are labeled as deviant often

furthers rather than discourage their deviant behavior (Schur 1965). The

stigmatized persons may come to adopt a stabilized deviants role and

self-identity and may begin to see themselves as others have labeled

them, as irrevocably deviant. 4. Social learning theory

Drug and alcohol behavior are viewed as socially influence behavior

of individuals acquired and sustained through a learning process.

Behvaiour is learned by instrumental conditioning and by imitation or

modeling of others behavior. The probability that behavior will occur is

increased by actual or anticipated reward or positive consequence

(positive reinforcement) and avoidance of punishment or negative

consequence (negative or direct punishment) and is decreased by

aversive consequence (positive or direct punishment) and lack of

reward (negative punishment). Whether individuals will abstain from or

58
 take drugs (and whether they will continue or desist) depends on the

past, present, and anticipated future reward and punishments

perceived to be attached to abstinence and use (differential

reinforcement) the person learns attitudes, orientations and evaluative

knowledge that are favourable or unfavourable to using drugs

(definitions). These are themselves verbal and cognitive behavior that

can be directly reinforce and can also act cue stimuli for drug use. The

more individuals define drug behavior as good or at least as justified or

excusable rather than holding to general beliefs or specific attitudes

counter drug, the more likely they are to use that drug.

The reinforcers and punishers can be non social, as in the direct physical

effects of drug and alcohol. The principal behavioural effects however,

come from interaction in or being under the influence of those groups

(primary groups of family and friends but also secondary groups and the

media) with which one is in differential association these groups provide

reinforcement and exposure to norms and behavioral models. Drug use is

predicted to the extent that it has been differentially reinforced over

abstinence and is defined by the individual as desirable or justified when

he or she is in a situation discriminative for the behavior. Although all the

behavioral and cognitive mechanisms of learning are recognized in the

theory, the application of the theory here focuses on the processes

59
mentioned here differential association, favorable and unfavorable

definitions, limitation, and differential reinforcement.

5. Selective interactional/socialization theory

Selective interaction / socialization is an elaboration on the nation of

drug use as the result of participation and socialization in a drug

subculture. According to (Goode, 1974) "selective interaction"

refers to the fact that potential drug users do not randomly "fall into"

social circles of users, they are attracted to certain individuals and

circles subculture groups-because their own values and activities are

compatible with those of current users" (1989a:71). That is there is

anticipatory socialization in which a person attains a certain readiness

to indulge in drugs prior to involvement with drug subcultures. A

process of "selective recruitment" brings him or her into contact with

and under the influence of drug users. These values which the recruit

shares with the sub cultural users are not confined to similar views and

use of drugs, indeed, these values precede drug use. They include

religious alienation, leftist political opinions, and sexual

permissiveness. One in the group, the person is further socialized

60
 through interaction with group members into drugs as heroine and

advanced stages of drug abuse. However, at these stages other factors

that were previously less important come into play, such as alienation

from the family, psychological stress and closer relationships with only

one specific drug-using and abusing friend.

2.14. Social Bonding and Social Learning Theories a Tool for Analyzing

Substance Abuse Behaviors.

A principle mechanism of social control adequate socialization, so that

individuals develop strong internal or self controls - is not given much

attention in Hirsch's social bonding theory, although other versions of

control theory incorporated it. In later developments of control theory,

however, Micheal Gottfredson and Travis Hirsch's (1990) have made self

control the central factor in the tendency for persons to maintain

conformity or commit deviance under a variety of circumstances. In this

theory, the person with strong self control will not succumbs to the

temptations reward and opportunity for deviance drug and alcohol

behaviors, the person who has low self control will be more likely to use

alcohol and drugs. This deviance in individuals level of self control is

essentially established early in life and remain throughout life.

In essence what the social bonding theory is all about is, individuals likely be

into the deviance behavior of alcohol and drug abuse, that if he is not

61
engage in the above element of attachment, commitment, involvement, and

beliefs as earlier mention, such element above can make an individual to

desist from involving into alcohol and substance abuse by being committed

on other issues which will occupy his time of being in alcohol and drug use,

also his belief in the norm and values of his society will make him to

internalize the good culture of society and maintain it in his life, there are

other issues which may likely push individual into substance abuse such

as temptation, reward and opportunity, if an individual lack self control

he/she may be influenced by temptation from others like parent/family or

the peer groups and being there is an opportunity and he may likely to have

a reward for his deviance behaviors he may then push into alcohol and

drugs abuse.

Social bonding theory is used to study substance abuse behavior committed

by individual, the key point here is that, if an individual lack support of

parental guidance, by not being monitored by his parent and with the peer

groups influence and lack of either of commitment, belief, involvement and

attachment to any meaningful job, the temptation, opportunity and

reward of being abusing of alcohol and drug abuse is possible. So alcohol

and drug abuse is possible in the absence of self sanctioning.

Criticism of the theory

62
The criticism about social bonding is that in the social there are individuals

who imbibe the good culture of respecting the norm, values of society

internalized the good culture of maintaining law and orders like the

religious leaders and are found taking alcohols and drugs, so the social

bonding cannot explain why this happen to these particulars group of

people, in the sense that there are other group of individuals who have

the opportunity to be into alcohol and drug abuse but they decide not to

do and they are not bonded to anything like commitment, involvement

and belief.

Another theory use to explain the behavior of substance abuse by an

individual is the social learning theory the alcohol behaviors according to

the theory, the alcohol and drug using behaviors is learned, by imitating of

parent/family and peer groups, the behaviors is learned like any other

behaviors, by obtaining skills, an individual whose parents are drugs

takers, that individual may likely fall into substances abuse because

he/she may imitate his parent or any member of the family who is into drug

and alcohol behaviors.

An individual may also learn the behaviors through, copying from his friend

who are into substance abuse, he may not only learned how to abuse the

substance but also the learned the skills of alcohol and drug behaviors.

Criticism

63
A critics about the theory is that it cannot explain why some individuals

who associates live and work together with those one who are into the

substance abuse, are not into the substance abuse, and those individual

who was born in the substance abuse family are not into the behaviors.

CHAPTER THREE

3.1. Introduction:-

There are several techniques that are used by researchers to generate

either qualitative or quantitative information. These methods vary in

selection to the nature of research problem.

3.2. Methodology

This chapter focuses on the procedure and strategies applied in carrying

out the study. The chapter is going to describe the history of the study area,

64
the research design, the target population of the study area, sample of the

study, sample size, sampling techniques, questionnaire design, procedure

of data collection, sampling techniques, data collection and problems

encountered.

3.3. Geographical location of the study area

Akwanga town of present Akwanga local government area in Nasarawa

state has been in existence since colonial era. It was referred to as

Akwanga native authority". Akwanga is located in the northern part of

Nasarawa state. This local government is located and shared a boundary

with Sanga local government area Kaduna state in the north, the kokona

local government area in thewest, lafia local government in south and

Wamba local government in the east. It covers a land area of about 3.413

km2.

The ethnic groups in the local government area consist of the mada, who

are predominant tribe. The Eggon people, Rindre, Hausa, Fulani, Yoruba,

Igbo and many others. The physical feature in the local government

include:- Rivers, like river Gudi and river Gbuku the hills like mada hills.

Source: HIV/AIDS and Muslims Youth in Akwanga its implication and

education. J.SSabo, July 2010.

3.4. Climate

65
The climate condition of the area is similar to other areas of the middle belt,

it has the maximum temperature of 34 OC. The highest temperature is

experience in the month September of March to August, the lowest

temperature ranges from September to February, the hottest months are

March and April and the coldest months are December and January every

year.

The climate change of the area is apparent movement of the sun, the

summer solstice which marked by rainfall while the winter solstice is

marked by winter called hamattan. There are two (2) major seasons in the

area the rainy and dry seasons. Source: HIV/AIDS and Muslims Youth in

Akwanga its implication and education. J.SSabo, July 2010.

3.5. Vegetation

The vegetation of Akwanga local government area has undergone several

modifications due to exploitation by man as a source energy and farm

land, however, its vegetation has the characteristics of guinea savannah

types and of the park land savanna. The coast of rivers. The common

plants in this area, are the palm trees, locust bean trees, elephant grass,

kyasuwa grass, and other types of grasses for animal grazing.

66
Source: HIV/AIDS and Muslims Youth in Akwanga its implication and

education. J.SSabo July 2010.

3.6. Economy of the area

The mada people who are the predominant tribes are well known for their

large agricultural venture and as crafts men of great refute. Agricultural

remains the main stay of the economy. It must be noted that a mada

man productive comprises both a system of productive forces and a

system of relations and means of production, it is an association of

producers and means of production and distribution. The mada were

predominantly farmer in their pursuit, they may have engaged in other

industrial sectors but this must have been a no specializing basis, they

cultivate crops like guinea corn (kpu), maize (Kpumkapa), Acha (berchi)

rice (bisika) and yam (kri) all in considerable amount. The organization of

production was simple, division of labour was not strictly based on sex,

except for activities such as making yam heeps, hunting or games, and

war. It is also important to mention that both men and women are

livestock farmers, they rear sheeps, goats, pigs and chicken. Other

settles of the areas like Hausa's are traders, the Fulani reared cattle's, the

Yoruba are majority hand crafts, mechanics and business men and

women, the igbo's are the owners of the restaurants, canteen, bear

parlows and motor spare parts vendors. The second largest ethnic groups

67
are the Eggon people who are more into the yam farming, business and

palm wine tapping. This study does not include all the town and villages

of Akwanga LGA but the scope is to Akwanga town only and in some

locations like Jos motor park (Round about), ungwan sarkin noma, Hayin

mada, ungwan sabo, ungwan pandom, kurmin Tagwaye, ungwan Loko,

ungwan Tiv, Alushi. Where the researcher gathered his data through the

interview of the respondents in the area for the purpose of this study. The

youth male and female of age bracket 18-35 years where the target

respondents and majority of them located in that areas. Source: HIV/AIDS

and Muslims Youth in Akwanga its implication and education. J.SSabo,

July 2010.

3.7. Research design

The research design for the study is survey research. Researcher gather a

wide range of information related to the study. Again, the survey design is

relevant to this study because it has provided an opportunity for the

researcher to sample the opinion and views of the large number of

respondents in order to gather relevant information for the study.

3.8. Population of the study area

The population of this research consist mainly the youth being the

vulnerable group of risk being involved in substance abuse behavior. Youth

68
in the context of this research involve the category of people within the

productive age. i.e within the range of 18-35 years who involve most in

the substance abuse behavior. However both sex i.e male and female part

of the study.

3.9. Sampling techniques

The technique used by the researcher here is non-probability and this

present unequal representation of the elements under study, the non

probability sampling was chosen because there is no list containing the

names of those that abuse or take drugs as such it will be difficult to

develop. The research also use snow boll sampling as one of .the types of

non-probability sampling in selection appropriately because it is difficult to

identify the drug abusers, the kind of drugs they take.etc this method is

the most suitable because of the different attitude of youths who depend

on drugs, they can be aggressive, hostile, high tempered and they are

difficult to get in one place, and the researcher needs to gain confidence of

the youth before they agrees to answer the questions he asked them.

Hence snow ball method was adopted to reach out to those who provide

the researcher with his sources of information.

3.10. Target population and sample size

69
The population used in the study consist of the youth both male and

female of age bracket of 18-35 years who live in Akwanga town, of

Akwanga local government area of Nasarawa state. The settlers who are

majority farmers, cattle rearers, palm wine tapers, as well as traders who

have their origin from Eggon tribe, mada, Hausa, Fulani, Igbo and Yoruba

settlers. Due to large population of the settlers living in the area, ranging

from hundred of thousands of people, only selected some among the

people were sampled to get the research data.

In all a total number of fifty (50) respondents were sampled for the study.

In the process of data gathering a questionnaire is used and

distributed to fifty respondents and all the fifty (50) questionnaire were

filled and returned to the

researcher.

3.11. Questionnaire design

The researcher decided to use a self developed and validated survey

questionnaire. A technique of data collection which is generally used in

social research project. By its nature, the questionnaire is less expensive.

In fact, it can be easily handed to respondents with minimum explanation;

furthermore, questionnaire can be administered to large number of

individuals simultaneously. Another reason for using questionnaire is that

70
respondents may have greater confidence in their anonymity, therefore,

the kind of questions that are asked will not make the respondent fell

different or will not feel as if he is implicated.

Also, this design is a formulated schedule for gathering data from

respondents. The front page contained letter explaining the purpose of this

research work and soliciting for the assistance of respondents. This is

followed by questions on respondents demography such as their names,

sex, and marital status. The rest of the questions probed deep into the

respondent characteristics, level of knowledge, attitudes and others that

are related to the research topic.

3.12. Procedure of data collection

The data for the study were collected with the help of research assistants.

Four (4) visit were made to sampled respondents, first visit was to

convince the respondents that the information collected will be treated

with absolute confidentiality, because at first, the respondents refused

giving any information due to economic situation and fear of being

implicated, and the non challant attitude of drug dependent toward the

activity. It took a lot to convince the respondents before collecting the

questionnaire, the second visit was concerned with a survey and

distribution of the questionnaire to the appropriate individuals concern,

and the third was to follow up and guide the respondents not to give false

71
information or even abandoning the questionnaires and the final visit was

the collection of the filled questionnaire for the analysis of the collected

data.

3.13. Data collection

Some of the questionnaire have been wasted due low level of

understanding of the importance of the research by the respondents.

Frequency count and percentage are used in describing the data.

3.14. Problems encountered

Despite the researcher's curiosity to undertake this research, many

problems were encounter during the conduct of the research work these to

mention but few, first the difficulty in administration of the questionnaires

this is due to the level of education on the part of the respondents, a lot of

time were use to educate the respondents on how to complete the

questionnaire. Secondly the problem of language barriers, majority of the

Fulani youths do not understand the English language to read and fill the

questionnaire, so it must be interpreted for them, also a lot of time is taken in

interviewing the substance users because it has to be in a way they can

understand to provide a meaningful answer to the questions. Some of the

respondents deliberately refuse to complete and others indirectly refuse to

respond simply because they are suspicious of what the information they

72
provide would be put to. Some refuse to tender information because they

felt that the researcher is a member of the security personnel so he come for

investigation of criminals, the fact that the target population were not easily

found also constitute a greater problem to the researcher.

The respondents are very slow in taking, filling, and the returning of the

questionnaires, this took a lot of time of the researcher to compile, finally

financial constrains and enough survey assistance, were contributed a

major

problem.

73
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY,CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1. Introduction

In this chapter we are going to summarize the major findings of the

entire research work, also general conclusion and recommendations will

be made based on the finding obtain from the research, therefore the

chapter is divided into three (3) main parts namely summary, conclusion

and recommendation.

5.2. Summary

In the beginning of this study, chapter one has introduce the topic of

substance abuse that is how the substance abuse is increasingly become

a menace to the society, where the number of kind of drugs was

counted in hundreds, the number of abusers counted in millions, while the

doses is counted in billions. The chapter pointed out some questions of

what are the factors responsible for substance abuse among youth?,

were we identify some major factors responsible like; lack of parental

74
care, peer groups influence as the two (2) major factors responsible for

substance abuse in the area of study, we also identify the commonly abuse

substance such as alcohol, benylin with codeine, marijuana as the major

substance found abused by youths in Akwanga town, some implication of

substance abuse like physical, socio-economic, political, medical and

health

implications were identified during the research, in this chapter a

significance of the research was identified which include a need to fill in

some gaps were new information is needed, some definition of terms

were also drawn in the chapter which include definitions of drugs,

substance, substance abuse, youth, deviance, crime, criminal, factors,

influence, self medication, hard and soft drugs definition as well as drug

use/misuse/and abuse meaning.

Some forms of substance abuses like drug addiction, deviant drug use,

drug dependence, drug trafficking, drug tolerance and habituation were

identified.

Chapter two deals with literature reviewed of substance abuse by

different scholars, the concept of substance by different scholar like

oleweieke (1990), ige (2000) and Awake (2001) to mention few, the drug

using behavior by many taker were identify in this chapter which include

experimental use (occasional) or trial by user, recreational use during

75
parties or having fun, the situational use (using drugs to cop up with

situation like LDD long distance driving) to get out of persistent problems

usually by unemployed people and compulsive use of drugs (dependants

use).

This chapter also analyzed the classification of substance viz:- Narcotics,

stimulants, sedatives, hallucinogens, OTC (over the counter drugs)

traditional and modern drugs etc. the chapter also point out some

effects of substance where it indicates that some drugs enhances alertness

of the body while other slows down the body functions, some make users to

sleep while others wake them up some make person "numb" deaden like

the heroin,cocain, morphine and opium, it also point out some traditional

drugs use by youths such as gadagi, hankufa, zakami, angur, and sukudaye

for performance enhancing.

The chapter gives out the explanation on the various factors which are likely

to influence youth into substance abuse, starting from individual factor,

where a person (youth) feel grown up, want to relax, want to fit in, want to

take risk and rebel or want to satisfy curiosity such a person may in involve

into substance abuse, other factors which may influence substance abuse

find in the research include the socio-cultural and socio-structural factor, lack

of parental care, physiological, environmental factor like (community

neighborhood, location (slums areas) family type), Government policy,

poverty, illiteracyand unemployment.

76
Also in the chapter two we identify some commonly abuse substance

especially in the study area like alcohol (local wine) (fami and burukutu)

marijuana (we we) beryline with codeine and solution, a method use for

abuse of substance were identified viz:- through injection, inhalation,

smoking, oral intake, chewed, eye drop, and perhaps in take through the

skin. A theoretical frame work were identified in support of the causes

of substance abuse such include anomie/strain theory, by {Robert

Kingsley Merton 1938-1957), the social cultural/bonding theory travis.

Hirsch's (1969), the labeling theory Becker (1963), social learning theory,

selective in directional/socialization theory Erich Goodie (1979:71) for the

best explanation of substance abuse behaviours among youths.

Chapter three explain the several techniques used by researchers to

generate either qualitative or quantitative data (methodology). The

geographical location of Akwanga town in Akwanga LGA Nasarawa State

was identified, in it the land mass is about 3,413km 2 . The ethnic groups of

people of the area, such as the Mada, Eggon, Hausa, Fulani, and many

other settlers were found, two (2) main rivers were identified in the area,

namely river Gudi, river Gbuku, and a mada hill was identified.

More so the climate of the area was identified in which the maximum

temperature of the area is 34 0c the highest temperature is experienced in

the months of March to August, the lowest temperature ranges from

77
September to February, the hottest months are March and April and the

coldest months are December and January every year.

Vegetation is characterized of guinea savannah types and of the park

land savannah, The common plants in the area are palm tree, locust bean,

elephant grass, and other type of grasses for animal grazing. The

economy of the area is agriculture and handcraftship, such crops produce in

high quantity include, yam, palm oil, guinea corn, Acha etc. other

agricultural activities include rearing of pigs, sheeps, catties and chicken.

This chapter looks into the research design, the population of the study area,

the sampling techniques use, the target population of youths age of 18-35

years, the research questionnaire design, procedure of data collection as well

as problems encountered.

Chapter four deals with the analysis of the gathered data and the

interpretation of the result of the findings inform of using descriptive tables

and simple percentage of the responses to the questions and answers given

during the research work.

The chapter explains that majority of the respondents are male who were

used by the researcher to conduct his research it occupied 95% of the

total respondents which majority of them are mainly single, the level of

education of the respondents are mainly secondary school graduate or

dropout at secondary school level very few are graduate. They are mostly

78
unemployed, and that is one of the factor that push them into drug abuse.

Majority of them agrees that they took drug in their life, which according to

them they abuse alcohol, benylin with codeine, and marijuana of most high

quantity. According to them they usually obtain their drugs through

chemist, the hawkers, most of the observation and the view of the

respondents lament that the substance abusers involved into substance

abuse due to lack of parental care and the influence of the peer group plus

other factors, they took the drugs through injection, chewing, oral intake,

smoking, eye drop and other ways.

When asked of the question whether the substance abuse is caused by

unemployment majority of the respondent disagree but some say it is one

of the influential factor. They further said that substance abuse in the

area cause criminal activities such as armed robbery, thief's, sexual abuse

conflicts etc. observation shows that there is high health problem caused

by substance abuse such as brain damage, mental illness, family problem

and madness which associated with the youths in Akwanga town as study

indicates.

These according to the respondents cases of political instability to some

extent such instability include disruption of public order, conflicts, among

people of the area increase pressure on law enforcements, political

thuggery during election to

79
mention few.

Finally they suggests some ways through with this menace can be

reduce according to them is through parental monitoring since parental

factor is one of the causes of substance abuse, community enlighten,

mass media campaign to the youth on the implication of substance

abuse as well as rehabilitation of those who involved at the correctional

center like boastal institutions.

The chapter also point out some roles in which government most place

to reducing substance abuse in the study area as we have seen in the

previous text of the chapter.

Chapter five deals with the summary of the research work, conclusion,

recommendation about substance abuse as the case study of Akwang

town in Akwang L.G.A Nasarawa state.

5.3. CONCLUSION

Substance abuse is a national problem ranging from cities, town to local

communities and it is accepted that the youth so much involved into

the substance abuse habit the harmful effect that associated with

substance abuse are numerous, ranging from involvement into criminal

activities when substance where abuse, move down to socio-economic

and health implication/ consequences such as brain damage, mental

80
illness, madness, and even death. Substance abuse also cause political

implication to abusers (youths) and the society such as loss of man power,

loss of jobs, wave of armed robbery, thuggery, and disruption of public order

and conflicts. Government also is doing its best in eradicating such

menace in Nigerian society by establishing a formal institution for the

control of substance abuse such as National drugs law enforcement

agency (NDLEA) and other law enforcement agencies saddle with the

responsibilities of arresting and prosecuting those involved in the habit.

Like; the national agency for food drugs administration and control

(NAFDAC), etc. our findings in the research work generally pointed out

how substance abuse constitute a social problem and how it affects the

youth psychologically, based on the responses given by the respondents

to the researcher questions, the researcher use highest frequency and

highest percentage in making generalization in each question asked.

Some theories of criminological behaviors was used to explain and make

the understanding of substance abuse as a criminal behaviors or deviant

behavior as well as normative behaviors of substance abuse in this the

social learning theory of alcohol and substance abuse behavior, the social

cultural/bonding theory of (Travis hirschi 1969) of "attachment",

"commitment", "involvement" and "beliefs" of social bonding are the

best used to explain substance abuse in the study area based on the

81
factor influence the substance abuse pointed out by the respondent in the

area.

The theories seem to be in harmony with the findings of the study because

of the respondents agreed to obliged that association with peer groups

have influence

them to habit of substance abuse and the lack of parental care is also

associated factor. From the review of this research it is obvious that one

can conclude that our findings reveals how the social learning and social

bonding theories can be use in explaining the behavour engaged by

substance abuses among the youths.

Generally the research discover the most significant factor that make

or influence youths engage in substance abuse is lack of parental/ moral

control and the peer pressure among the youth in Akwanga town.

5.4. RECOMMENDATIONS

82
To address the menace of substance abuse among the youth in Akwanga

town Akwanga LGA Nasarawa state, the following measures and

recommendation were given solution to the problems

1. Government should try its best to eliminate the supply of the illicit

substance or the plantation of the seed so as to have a control interms

of the availability of the substance and this will make the illicit substance

scarce to the abusers.

2. Government should embark on an awareness campaign targeting both

the youths and societies members in form of radio, gingles,

pamphlets, video films, news paper, programs aimed at promoting

the knowledge of the implication and consequence of substance abuse

among youths, thus printed materials should be inform of multiple

language for easy understanding and it

must be supplied in large quantity.

3. Government should provide free education, scholarship to youths

which will make them committed to academic activities and forget about

use of the illicit substance.

4. Government should provide job opportunities for the youths because

by so engaging the youth with job they will be fully committed and this

will reduce their involvement in the habit of substance

abuse and other deviance/criminal behaviors.

5. Parents should wake up to their responsibilities by protecting,

83
 monitoring

their child behaviors and the type of friends they associate with. They

should not neglect them because they engage in a deviance/criminal

behavior, they should show, love and affection to them so that they

would feel beloved and care for, by so doing it will reduce the

extent of becoming criminal or substance abuser. If they are

neglected they would feel they are not important and worthy to be

their child or members of the society.

6. Parent should totally abstain themselves from the habit of substance

abuse,

because if the parent are into substance abuse their children (youths)

will

easily copy their behaviors of substance abuse.

Youths on their part should understand that some restrictive

behaviors by elders and school authorities is warning on substance

abuse, they should therefore resist peer group or pressure to

engage substance abuse (they should select good friends), they

should also avoid experimentation of substance abuse because

substance abuse starts from experimentation of drugs as fit in by

youths.

8. Government should provide adequate security personal so that they

may

84
 intensify their efforts in addressing the local dealers and their

suppliers

including consumers.

9. Other measures should include a strict punishment for both the

dealers, suppliers, buyers, and consumers, advisably they should be

sentences to jail, life imprisonment or even death.

10.Government should review its existing laws as regards to arrest,

prosecution, and punishment of the dealers (pushers), buyers. This is

with a view to pass more serious penalties, even if it means execution

of the offenders. In addition to this, selling of drugs should be

restricted to only a few and licensed enterprises (registered

pharmacist)

11.Government should provide more vocational skills and training to

youths so to avoid the high rate of idleness of the youths.

12.There is need to increase the number and efficiency of our

rehabilitation centers so that the victims could be treated and become

normal and be productive individuals in the society.

13.The national drugs law enforcement agency (NDLEA) and the national

agency for food and drugs administration and control (NAFDAC) should

ensure that the quick and instant forfeiture, seizure and confiscating of

any illegal drugs pound as well as destroying and disposing of those

85
 drugs and prosecuting the offenders by the law. This bodies include the

Nigeria police, the customs service, immigration services should be well

armed to check hard drugs importation into the country.

14.Religious organization most also become more actively involve in

preventing alcohol and other drug used through their preaching at

activities, education about drugs should be properly impacted to

promote positive behavior including constructive handling of teaching

and responsibilities in people of all ages.

At this end it is therefore hoped that, the above recommendation are

taken into consideration because they will go along way in enhancing

the education of youth about the implication of substance abuse to

their life and it will prevents the involvement of the potential abusers in

substance abuse and so it will reduce criminality and deviance

behaviors among the youths.

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