Republic of the Philippines

BILIRAN PROVINCE STATE UNIVERSITY

ISO 9001:2015 CERTIFIED
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

Fault Calculation

Submitted by: Arcilie F. Olaer

Student

Submitted to: Bryan C. Bernil, REE

Subject Teacher
 Table of Contents

I. INTRODUCTION …………………………………….……….……...….....1

II. SPEAKER’S INFORMATION…………………………….……...…...…...2

III. SEMINAR SYNOPSIS

Types of Electrical Faults…………………………………………………3

Fault Location Techniques………………………………………………..4
Fault Calculation Methods………………………………………..………6
Protective Device Coordination…………………………………………..8

IV. CONCLUSION……………………………………………………..……….10

V. PROOF/EVIDENCE………………………………………………………..11

VI. REFERENCES……………………………………………………....………12
 I. INTRODUCTION

In the field of electrical power systems, fault calculation plays a crucial role in ensuring
the safety, reliability, and efficiency of electrical networks. Faults, also known as short
circuits, are abnormal conditions that occur when an unintended connection is established
between conductors, resulting in a sudden surge of electrical current. These faults can cause
severe damage to equipment, disrupt power supply, and pose a significant safety risk.
Fault calculation is the process of analyzing and quantifying the electrical parameters
associated with a fault to determine its magnitude, duration, and impact on the power
system. By understanding these aspects, engineers can design protective measures, such as
circuit breakers, relays, and fuses, to swiftly detect and isolate faults, minimizing the
potential damage and restoring the system’s normal operation promptly.
The primary goal of fault calculation is to determine the fault current, which represents
the magnitude of the current that flows through the system during a fault condition. Fault
current analysis helps engineers determine the appropriate sizing of protective devices and
ensures that they can effectively interrupt the fault current, thereby safeguarding the
electrical infrastructure. To perform fault calculations, various factors need to be
considered, such as the system’s topology, equipment ratings, network impedance, fault
location, and fault type. The fault type refers to the nature of the fault, which can be a
single-line-to-ground fault, phase-to-phase fault, or a combination of both. Each type of
fault has different characteristics, and accurately calculating the fault current requires
taking these factors into account.
Advanced computer software and simulation tools have greatly facilitated fault
calculations by automating complex calculations and providing accurate results. These
tools utilize mathematical algorithms, network models, and system data to simulate fault
scenarios and compute the fault current levels, fault voltages, and other critical parameters.
With the aid of these tools, engineers can assess the impact of faults, optimize protection
schemes, and ensure compliance with safety standards. Fault calculation is not only
essential for designing protective systems but also plays a vital role in fault analysis and
troubleshooting. By analyzing the fault current waveforms and fault characteristics,
engineers can identify the root causes of faults, locate faulty components, and make
informed decisions regarding system upgrades or modifications.
Hence, fault calculation is a fundamental process in electrical power systems that
enables engineers to understand the behavior of faults, determine fault currents, and design
effective protection schemes. By employing accurate fault calculation methods and
leveraging advanced simulation tools, power system engineers can enhance the safety,
reliability, and efficiency of electrical networks, ensuring uninterrupted power supply and
mitigating potential risk

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II. SPEAKER’S INFORMATION

Engr. Noel R. Estoperez, PEE

Engr. Noel R. Estoperez, PEE, is a distinguished individual who holds the professional
title of “Engr.” (Engineer) and the designation of PEE, which typically stands for
“Professional Electrical Engineer.” This title and designation indicate that Engr. Estoperez
has met the educational and professional requirements to practice as an electrical engineer
and has obtained the necessary licensure to provide engineering services in the field of
electrical systems.
As a resource speaker and resident electrical engineer and safety engineer, Engr.
Estoperez brings a wealth of knowledge and experience to the table. Being a resource
speaker suggests that he is invited to share his expertise and insights on topics related to
electrical engineering and safety at various events, seminars, conferences, or educational
institutions. His role as a resident electrical engineer and safety engineer signifies that he
holds a key position in an organization or company, responsible for overseeing and
ensuring the safe and efficient operation of electrical systems.
Engr. Estoperez’s combined expertise as an electrical engineer and safety engineer
positions him as a valuable resource in the field. His ability to effectively communicate
complex concepts, share practical insights, and provide guidance on electrical engineering
practices and safety measures makes him an asset as a resource speaker. In his role as a
resident engineer, he plays a crucial part in ensuring the smooth operation, reliability, and
safety of electrical systems under his care.
Overall, Engr. Noel R. Estoperez, PEE, is a highly skilled and knowledgeable
professional in the field of electrical engineering and safety. His expertise, experience, and
dedication make him a valuable resource speaker and a valuable asset to any organization
or project involving electrical systems and safety engineering.

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III. SEMINAR SYNOPSIS

Types of Electrical Faults

In the world of electrical systems, faults represent abnormal conditions that can
disrupt operations, damage equipment, and pose safety hazards. One such fault is the short
circuit, an event where different conductors, such as wires or components, of varying
phases or potentials come into direct contact, bypassing the intended load. This unintended
path allows current to flow freely, often resulting in a surge of current that can lead to
overheating and equipment damage.
Ground faults occur when an energized conductor comes into contact with a grounded
surface or an unintended path to the ground. These faults can stem from insulation failure,
equipment malfunctions, or accidental contact with grounded objects. Ground faults create
a risk of current leakage, electrical shocks, and equipment damage. An open circuit refers
to a break or discontinuity in a circuit that prevents the normal flow of current. This can be
caused by a broken wire, a loose connection, or a switched-off device. Open circuits result
in the loss of power to downstream devices or equipment, disrupting operations.
Overcurrent faults arise when there is an excessive flow of current in a circuit beyond
its intended capacity. This can occur due to short circuits, ground faults, or overloaded
circuits. Overcurrent faults have the potential to cause overheating, equipment damage, and
fire hazards. Arc faults involve an electrical discharge between two conductors, creating an
arc of electrical current. These faults can result from damaged or deteriorated insulation,
loose connections, or faulty equipment. Arc faults generate intense heat, sparks, and pose
a significant fire hazard.
Transient faults, also known as voltage sags or dips, are temporary and sudden
decreases in voltage levels. They can be triggered by lightning strikes, motor starting, or
other disturbances in the power system. Transient faults disrupt sensitive equipment,
potentially causing data loss or affecting the operation of electronic devices. Intermittent
faults are elusive and sporadic, occurring unpredictably. They can be caused by loose
connections, faulty switches, or damaged wiring. Intermittent faults are challenging to
detect and troubleshoot, and they can lead to intermittent power outages or equipment
malfunctions. Insulation faults arise when the insulation material between conductors or
between a conductor and the ground deteriorates or fails. These faults can result in current
leakage, short circuits, or ground faults. Insulation faults pose safety risks and can cause
damage to equipment.

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 Understanding these various types of electrical faults is crucial for electrical engineers,
technicians, and maintenance personnel. By promptly diagnosing and rectifying these
issues, operations can be restored efficiently. Implementing protective measures like circuit
breakers, fuses, and insulation testing is vital in mitigating the risks associated with
electrical faults, safeguarding equipment, and ensuring safety in electrical systems.
Fault Location Techniques

Fault location techniques play a vital role in swiftly identifying the precise locations
of faults such as short circuits or open circuits. The ability to pinpoint these faults is crucial
for promptly initiating repairs and restoring power. Here, we will delve into several
commonly employed fault location techniques:
One widely utilized method is Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR). This technique
proves effective in locating faults within transmission lines, coaxial cables, and other
metallic conductors. TDR operates by transmitting a high-frequency pulse into the
conductor and measuring the reflections generated by impedance changes at the fault
location. By analyzing the time delay between the transmitted and reflected signals,
engineers can determine the distance to the fault with relative accuracy.
Another technique, known as Impedance-Based Fault Location, relies on
comprehensive measurements of voltage, current, and impedance to ascertain the fault’s
location. By meticulously analyzing variations in impedance along the power system,
engineers can estimate the precise location of the fault. The choice of algorithms, such as
the “one-terminal” or “two-terminal” impedance methods, depends on the availability of
data and specific circumstances.
Travelling Wave Fault Location is an approach that harnesses the analysis of
transient signals generated by faults. During a fault event, high-frequency traveling waves
propagate along the power system. By examining the time of arrival and wave propagation
characteristics of these waves, engineers can estimate the fault location accurately. This
technique finds particular relevance in locating faults within transmission lines. Wavelet
Transform Analysis is an effective method for analyzing voltage or current signals
measured at various points within the power system during a fault event. By employing
wavelet transforms to decompose the signals into different frequency components,

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engineers can determine the fault location based on the distinctive characteristics of the
wavelet coefficients.
High-Frequency Current Injection involves injecting a high-frequency current
signal into the power system and measuring the resulting voltage response at different
locations. By analyzing changes in voltage magnitude and phase, engineers can identify the
fault location precisely. This method is commonly employed in locating faults within
distribution networks. Fault Passage Indicators (FPIs) are valuable devices installed on
power lines. FPIs provide indications of fault occurrences and offer approximate fault
location information. These devices leverage the fault-induced electromagnetic fields and
changes in line parameters to trigger alarms or display fault location details. Global
Positioning System (GPS)-Based Fault Location utilizes GPS technology to determine fault
locations by synchronizing the time stamps of fault events across different substations or
measurement points. By comparing the time of fault occurrence at various locations,
engineers can estimate the distance to the fault accurately.
These fault location techniques exhibit varying levels of applicability and accuracy
depending on factors such as power system configuration, fault type, and available
measurement data. It is common practice to employ a combination of techniques and
measurements from multiple locations to enhance the precision and reliability of fault
location determination.

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Fault Calculation Methods

In electrical systems, fault calculation methods play a pivotal role in

comprehending electrical faults and unraveling their characteristics. One such method is
Symmetrical Component Analysis, a powerful technique used to dissect unbalanced faults
within three-phase power systems. By decomposing fault currents into positive sequence,
negative sequence, and zero sequence components, engineers can scrutinize their
magnitudes and phasor relationships. Through this analysis, fault parameters can be
determined, and fault locations can be identified with precision.
Impedance-Based Fault Analysis is another widely used method that entails
calculating fault currents and voltages based on the impedance values of the power system
components. This technique relies on fundamental electrical laws, such as Ohm’s Law and
Kirchhoff’s Laws, to derive fault parameters. By taking into account the network topology,
fault location, and fault type, engineers can estimate fault currents and voltages with a high
degree of accuracy. Fault Current Calculation is a fundamental method for gauging the
magnitude of current flowing through a fault during a fault event. This calculation involves
considering the system’s voltage, impedance values, and fault impedance. By applying
relevant circuit laws and employing network analysis techniques, engineers can compute
the fault current at specific points within the system.
Thevenin’s Theorem is a powerful technique that simplifies complex power systems
into equivalent circuits during fault calculations. By representing the system as a Thevenin
equivalent circuit, engineers can efficiently calculate fault currents and voltages. This
method is particularly valuable for analyzing fault conditions in large and interconnected
power systems. The Per Unit System is a method used to normalize electrical quantities in
power system analysis. By converting voltage, current, and impedance values to a common
base, engineers can conduct fault calculations and system analysis with relative ease. The
Per Unit System simplifies fault calculations by eliminating the need for extensive unit
conversions.
Digital Simulation methods entail modeling power system components and
utilizing numerical techniques to simulate fault conditions. Engineers employ software
tools and algorithms to simulate fault events, calculate fault currents, and analyze system

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responses. Digital simulation allows for the evaluation of various fault scenarios and the
assessment of system performance under different conditions. Analytical Methods
encompass a range of techniques, including the impedance matrix method, the admittance
matrix method, and the bus impedance matrix method. These methods involve constructing
system matrices and employing matrix algebra techniques to solve fault equations.
Analytical methods offer a rigorous approach to fault analysis and find widespread use in
power system studies.
It is important to note that the choice of a specific fault calculation method depends
on factors such as system complexity, fault type, available data, and desired accuracy.
Engineers typically employ a combination of methods to analyze and assess various fault
scenarios, ensuring the safe and reliable operation of electrical power systems.

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Protective Device Coordination
Protective device coordination is a vital aspect of electrical system design and
maintenance, serving the purpose of ensuring the effective selectivity and coordination of
protective devices. These devices, including circuit breakers, fuses, and relays, play a
crucial role in minimizing downtime and damage caused by faults while upholding the
safety and reliability of the electrical system.
One fundamental aspect of coordination is selectivity. The objective of selectivity
is to confine faults to a specific section of the electrical system, limiting their impact on the
rest of the network. Engineers achieve selectivity by carefully configuring the operating
characteristics of protective devices, such as current ratings, time delays, and coordination
curves. By coordinating the tripping characteristics, they ensure that only the closest
upstream protective device to the fault operates, effectively isolating the fault and
minimizing the extent of the power outage.
Time-current coordination is another essential component. It involves setting the
time-delay settings of protective devices to establish a coordinated sequence for tripping.
Each protective device possesses a distinct time-current characteristic curve, which defines
its response to fault currents. These curves plot the device’s tripping time against the
magnitude of the fault current. Engineers select time-delay settings meticulously to ensure
that protective devices closest to the fault operate first, while upstream devices only
intervene if the fault persists beyond their operating time.
To further enhance protective device coordination, engineers deploy current
limiting devices. These devices, such as current-limiting fuses or high-speed circuit
breakers, actively reduce the magnitude of fault currents. By swiftly clearing faults, they
minimize the thermal and mechanical stress on downstream equipment, leading to
improved overall system coordination. To ensure the effectiveness of protective device
coordination, a coordination study is conducted. This study involves analyzing the settings
of protective devices and assessing their coordination capabilities. Engineers evaluate the
time-current characteristics of protective devices, fault current magnitudes, and system
impedance. They often employ computer-aided software tools to simulate fault scenarios

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and precisely analyze the coordination between devices. Through this study, any
coordination gaps or overlaps are identified, enabling adjustments to the device settings for
optimal performance.

As electrical systems undergo changes, such as modifications or expansions, it

becomes crucial to revisit protective device coordination. Factors like variations in load,
equipment ratings, or alterations in the system configuration can impact fault current levels
and modify coordination requirements. Regular maintenance and periodic coordination
reviews are essential to identify coordination issues and make necessary adjustments,
ensuring continued effectiveness.
Effective protective device coordination serves to minimize the impact of faults,
reduce downtime, and enhance overall system reliability. It facilitates prompt fault
isolation, mitigates the risk of equipment damage, ensures personnel safety, and maximizes
system uptime. By carefully selecting and coordinating protective devices, electrical
engineers optimize the operation and protection of electrical power systems, contributing
to a safe and robust electrical infrastructure.

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IV. CONCLUSION

Electrical fault calculation plays a crucial role in ensuring the safety, reliability, and
optimal operation of electrical power systems. By accurately identifying and analyzing
faults, engineers can mitigate potential risks, minimize downtime, and maintain efficient
power distribution.
Through fault calculation, various parameters such as fault currents, fault locations,
and fault types can be determined. This information aids in the design and
implementation of protective devices, such as circuit breakers and relays, which can
isolate faulty sections of the electrical network and prevent further damage or hazards.
Fault calculations involve complex mathematical models and algorithms,
considering factors such as system impedance, network topology, and fault types (e.g.,
short circuit, ground fault). These calculations help engineers assess the impact of faults
on the power system and make informed decisions regarding equipment ratings,
coordination, and fault clearing times.
Moreover, fault calculation techniques enable engineers to simulate fault scenarios
and evaluate system performance under different fault conditions. This analysis allows
for the optimization of protective devices and helps ensure that the electrical network
meets regulatory standards and safety requirements.
To wrap-up, electrical fault calculation is an essential aspect of power system
engineering, facilitating the identification, analysis, and mitigation of faults. By
employing accurate fault calculation methods, engineers can enhance the reliability,
safety, and efficiency of electrical power systems, ultimately benefiting both operators
and consumers.

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V. PROOF/EVIDENCE

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V. REFERENCES

Elsayed, A. E., et al. “A comprehensive review of fault calculation techniques in power

systems.” Electric Power Systems Research 144 (2017): 320-332.

Wood, Allen, and Bruce F. Wollenberg. Power generation, operation, and control. John
Wiley & Sons, 2012..

IEEE Standard 141-1993 (R2004), IEEE Recommended Practice for Electric Power
Distribution for Industrial Plants.

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