1

8 Electrostatics
Gauss' Law
The flux of the net electric field through a closed surface equals the net charge enclosed by
the surface divided by εo.
𝑄
𝜙= 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑠⃗ =
𝜀
Where ϕ is the total flux coming out of closed surface, Q is the total charge enclosed by the
surface and εo is the permittivity of free space.
Application of Gauss’ Law
1) Electric Field Intensity due to Uniformly Charged Spherical Shell or Hollow
Sphere:

Consider a charge conducting sphere of radius ‘R’ on which charge ‘+q’

is deposited. The conducting sphere is placed in a dielectric medium of
permittivity ε. The charge get uniformly distributed over the surface. Let P be
the any point at a distance r > R from the centre of sphere.
To determine the intensity of electric field at point P imagine a concentric
sphere with ‘r’ as radius. This sphere is shown by dotted line and acts as
Gaussian sphere. Let ‘ds’ be a small area around the point P on the Gaussian
sphere. The magnitude of electric field intensity at every point on Gaussian
sphere is same and it is directed radially outwards.

For every element ds of the Gaussian sphere the angle between 𝐸⃗ and 𝑑𝑠⃗ is
always zero i.e. 𝜃 = 0 .
Total electric flux through the Gaussian sphere is

𝜙 = ∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑠⃗ = ∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝐸 ∮ 𝑑𝑠 = 𝐸 4𝜋𝑟 …………. [1]

∵ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑠 = 4𝜋𝑟

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We know that [by Gauss Law]

𝜙= = = ……………… [2]

[𝜀 = 𝑘 𝜀 For air / vacuum k = 1]

From equation [1] and [2]
= 𝐸 4𝜋𝑟

𝐸= ………………. [3]

This is the magnitude of the electric intensity at a point ‘P’ outside the
charged sphere.
If σ is the surface charge density, therefore
𝜎=

𝑞 = 𝜎𝐴 = 𝜎 4𝜋𝑅 …………………. [4]

From equation [3] and [4]

𝐸= = …………………… [5]

This is the magnitude of the electric intensity at a point ‘P’ outside the
charged sphere in terms of surface charge density.
Case I:-
If point P lies on the surface charged sphere, then r = R hence

𝐸= = ………………….. [6]

Case II:-
If point P lies inside the charged sphere then E = 0. Because no lines of force
can pass through conductor, hence electric field inside the conductor is always zero.

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2) Electric Field Intensity due to an Infinitely Long Straight Charged Wire / Cylinder:

Consider a uniformly charged cylinder of infinite length kept in a medium

of permittivity ε. ‘R’ be the radius of cylinder and λ be the linear charge density.
Let ‘P’ be a point at a distance ‘r’ from the axis of the cylinder. To
determine magnitude of electric field intensity at point P, consider an imaginary
coaxial Gaussian cylinder of length ‘l’ and radius ‘r’ passing through point P.
Consider a very small area ‘ds’ around the point P on the Gaussian surface.
By symmetry, the magnitude of the electric field will be the same at all the
points on the curved surface of the cylinder and will be directed radially
outward. For every element ds of the Gaussian surface the angle between 𝐸⃗
and 𝑑𝑠⃗ is always zero i.e. 𝜃 = 0 .
Total electric flux through the curved face of the Gaussian surface is

𝜙 = ∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑠⃗ = ∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝑠 = 𝐸 ∮ 𝑑𝑠 = 𝐸 2𝜋𝑟𝑙 …………. [1]

∵ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑠 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑙

We know that
𝜙= = = ……………… [2]

[𝜀 = 𝑘 𝜀 For air / vacuum k = 1]

From equation [1] and [2]
= 𝐸 2𝜋𝑟𝑙

𝐸= ………………. [3]

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This is the magnitude of the electric intensity at a point ‘P’ outside the
charged cylinder.
As λ is the linear charge density, therefore net charge enclosed by the
Gaussian cylinder of length ‘l’ is
𝜆=

𝑞 = 𝜆𝑙 ………………. [4]
From equation [3] and [4]

𝐸= = …………………… [5]

This is the magnitude of the electric intensity at a point ‘P’ outside the charged
cylinder in terms of linear charge density. The direction of the electric field E is
directed outward if λ is positive and inward if is λ negative.
Electric Field Intensity due to a Charged Infinite Plane Sheet:

Consider an infinite plane sheet of positive charge having a uniform surface

charge density ‘σ’ on both sides of the sheet. By symmetry electric field is
perpendicular to plane sheet and directed outwards, having same magnitude at a given
distance on either sides of the sheet.
Let P be a point at a distance ‘r’ from the sheet and E be the magnitude of
electric field at P. To find electric field at point P due to uniformly charged infinite
plane sheet, consider a Gaussian surface around P in the form of cylinder having cross
sectional area ‘A’ and length ‘2r’ with its axis perpendicular to plane sheet. The plane
sheet passes through the middle of cylinder’s length so that the ends of cylinder are
equidistant from the plane sheet carrying charges.
The electric field 𝐸⃗ is perpendicular to the plane sheet and it is parallel to the
surface of Gaussian cylinder. Hence, electric flux associated with curved surface of
cylinder is zero.
The electric field 𝐸⃗ is perpendicular to the ends of cylinder, hence the total
electric flux is given by,
𝜙 = ∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑠⃗ + ∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑠⃗ = [∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃] + [∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃]
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[Since θ = 00, cos θ =1]

𝜙 = [𝐸 ∮ 𝑑𝑠] + [𝐸 ∮ 𝑑𝑠] =𝐸𝐴+𝐸𝐴

𝜙 = 2𝐸𝐴 …………………. [1]

We know that
𝜙= = = ……………… [2]

[𝜀 = 𝑘 𝜀 For air / vacuum k = 1]

From equation [1] and [2]
= 2𝐸𝐴

𝐸= ………………. [3]

If σ is the surface charge density, therefore the charge enclosed by the cylinder is
𝜎=

𝑞 = 𝜎𝐴 …………………. [4]

𝐸= = ……………….. [5]

This is the magnitude of the electric intensity at a point outside uniformly

charged plane sheet. Above equation shows that the magnitude of electric field
intensity is independent of the distance of point from plane sheet.

Electric Potential and Potential Energy:

 In a system of charges like charges always repel each other and unlike charges
attract each other.
 The magnitude of fore of attraction and repulsion is given by Coulomb’s law.
 Every charge produce its own electric field around it, where other electric
charges experiences the force of attraction or repulsion.
 Electric field intensity is the force experienced by test charge ‘q’ in presence of
the given charge at the given distance from it.
𝐹
𝐸=
𝑞
 To configure the system of charges some work done has to be done against
electrostatics force.
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 This work done is stored as potential energy of the system depends on the
relative position of constituents charges.
 Electrostatic potential energy is the work done against the electrostatic forces
to achieve a certain configuration of charges in a given system.
 Every system tries to attain the lowest potential energy, work is always required
to be done to change the configuration.
Consider a positive charge Q fixed at some point in space. For bringing
any other positive charge close to it, work is necessary. This work is equal to
the change in the potential energy of their system.
Thus,

Work done against an electrostatic = Increase in the potential energy of

force the system.

𝑑𝑈 = 𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹 ⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑟⃗
Where ‘dU’ is the increase in potential energy when the charge is
displaced through a distance of ‘dr’ and ‘FE’ is the force exerted on the charge.

Expression for Potential Energy:

Let us consider an electrostatic field due to charge + Q placed at the origin. A small
charge + qo is displaced from point A to point B against the repulsive force due a charge +
Q acting on it. Point A and B are at a distances r1 and r2 respectively from origin O.
Work done against the electrostatic force in order move charge from point A to point
C by the distance ‘dr’ is,

𝑑𝑈 = 𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹 ⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑟⃗ = 𝐹 𝑑𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = −𝐹 𝑑𝑟 …………. [1] ∵ 𝜃 = 180

This work done is stored as potential energy of the system. Negative sign indicate that
displacement is in opposite direction of electrostatic force. The total change in potential
energy in order to move charge from point A to point B is

△ 𝑈 = ∫ 𝑑𝑈 = ∫ − 𝐹 ⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑟⃗ ……………… [2]

As we know that,

𝐹⃗ = 𝑟̂ …………….. [3]

Where, 𝑟̂ is the unit vector in the direction of 𝑟⃗.

From eq. [2] we get
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△𝑈 = ∫ − 𝑟̂ ∙ 𝑑𝑟⃗

△𝑈 = ∫ − 𝑟̂ ∙ 𝑑𝑟⃗ = − ∫ 𝑟̂ ∙ 𝑑𝑟⃗

△𝑈 = − ∵ ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =

△𝑈 = − …………….. [4]

The above equation represents change in potential energy independent of path.

The change in potential energy is equal to work done hence,

𝑊 =△ 𝑈 = − ……………………………. [5]

The electrostatic force is zero at infinite distance. Thus potential energy ‘U’ of the
system of two point charges q1 and q2 in order to move charge q2 from infinity to a point at a
distance of ‘r’ form charge q1 is

𝑈(𝑟) = −

Since r1 = ∞, r2 = r

𝑈(𝑟) = ………………. [6]

Unit of potential energy:

The unit of potential energy is joule (J).
Definition:
a) 1 J: - One joule is the energy stored in moving a charge of 1C through potential
difference of 1 V.
b) One electron volt (1 eV): - One electron volt is the change in kinetic energy of an
electron while crossing two points maintained at a potential difference of 1 volt.
1 eV = 1.6 x 10 -19 J
1 meV (mili-electron volt) = 1.6 x 10 -22 J
1 KeV (kilo – electron volt) = 1.6 x 10 -16 J

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Electric Potential:
The potential energy of a two particle system at a distance r from each other is

𝑈(𝑟) = = 𝑞 = 𝑞 ………………. [1]

The quantity depends upon the charge q and location of a point at a distance
r from it. This is defined as the electrostatic potential of the charge q at a distance r from it.
𝑉(𝑟) = …………………… [2]

The potential energy of the system of two charges can be written as,

𝑈(𝑟) = 𝑉 (𝑟)𝑞 = 𝑉 (𝑟)𝑞 ………………… [3]

Where, V1(r) and V2(r) are the respective potentials of charges q1 and q2 at a
distance r from either.
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝑈) = 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 (𝑉) × 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 (𝑞)

𝑉= …………………. [4]

Electrostatic potential difference between any two points in an electric field can be written
as,

𝑉 −𝑉 = = ……………….. [5]

The eq. [5] represent work done per unit charge to move charge from point 2 to point 1.

Relation between electric field and electric potential:

Consider the electric field produced by a charge + q kept at point O. The direction of
the electric field at M is along OM. Thus the force acting on the positive charge is along OM.
Let dW be the work done to move a positive charge from point M to point N by a small
distance ‘dx’.

The work done is given by,

𝑑𝑊 = −𝐹𝑑𝑥 = −𝑞𝐸𝑑𝑥 ……………………. [1]
As 𝐸 =
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The negative sign indicate that force and displacement are opposite to each other.
From eq. [1]

= −𝐸𝑑𝑥 ………………. [2]

By definition of electric potential we know that 𝑑𝑉 =

𝑑𝑉 = −𝐸𝑑𝑥

𝐸=− ………………. [3]

Thus the electric field at a point in an electric field is the negative of the potential
gradient at that point.

Zero Potential:
1) The nature of potential is such that its zero point is arbitrary.
2) This does not mean that the choice of zero point is insignificant.
3) Once the zero point of the potential is set, then every potential is measured with respect
to that reference.
4) The zero potential is set conveniently.
5) In case of a point charge or localized collection of charges, the zero point is set at
infinity.
6) For electrical circuits the earth is usually taken to be at zero potential.
7) Thus the potential at a point A in an electric field is the amount of work done to bring
a unit positive charge from infinity to point A.

Electric potential due to a point charge:

Consider the electric field produced by a charge + q kept at point O. To determine the
electric potential at point ‘A’, let us consider the positive charge q o is move from ∞ to point
A.
Let ‘M’ be an intermediate point such that distance OM = x. The work done (dW) in
order to move a positive charge from point M to point N by infinitesimal small amount ‘dx’
is,

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𝑑𝑊 = −𝐹𝑑𝑥 ………………. [1]

We know that

𝐹= ……………. [2]

From eq. [1] and [2]

𝑑𝑊 = − 𝑑𝑥 …………………. [3]

Negative sign indicate that force and displacement are opposite to each other.
The total work done in order to move positive charge from ∞ to point A is given by,

𝑊 = ∫ 𝑑𝑊 = ∫ − 𝑑𝑥

𝑊=− ∫ 𝑑𝑥

𝑊=− − ∵ ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =

𝑊= −

𝑊= ………………….. [4]

By definition of electric potential

𝑉= = ………………………… [5]

A positively charged particle produces a positive electric potential and a negatively

charged particle produces a negative electric potential.
At infinite distance r = ∞, hence from equation [5] we get electrostatic potential at
infinite distance is zero.
Equation [5] shows that for any point at a distance r from the point charge q, the value
of V is the same and is independent of the direction of r. Hence electrostatic potential due to
a single charge is spherically symmetric. Also electric potential is inversely proportional to
distance.
The variation of electric potential (V) and electric field intensity (E) w.r.t. distance is
shown in below figure.

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Electric potential due to an electric dipole:

Let C be any point at distance ‘r’ from the centre of dipole making an angle of θ with the
axis of dipole. r1 and r2 be the distance of point C from charge + q and – q respectively.
Potential at point C due to charge + q and – q is given by,

𝑉 = ……………. [1]

𝑉 =− ………………. [2]

Hence the net electric potential due to electric dipole is given by,

𝑉 =𝑉 +𝑉 = − = − ………………… [3]

From figure,
OM = ON = l cos θ
𝐶𝑀 = 𝑟 − 𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 and 𝐶𝑁 = 𝑟 + 𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
By geometry,
For ∆𝐶𝑀𝐴
𝑟 = (𝑟 − 𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃) + (𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) = 𝑟 + 𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 2𝑟𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑟 = 𝑟 + 𝑙 − 2𝑟𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑟 =𝑟 1+ − 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

For short electric dipole r >>>>>> l, hence can be neglected

𝑟 =𝑟 1− 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

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𝑟 = 𝑟 1− 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ………………………….. [4]

Similarly for ∆𝐶𝑁𝐵

𝑟 = 𝑟 + 𝑙 + 2𝑟𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑟 = 𝑟 1+ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ……….. [5]

From equation [3], [4] and [5]

𝑉 = 1− 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 1+ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ……………… [6]

Using binomial expansion, (1 + 𝑥) = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 as l<<<< r , retaining term up to

the first order of only, we get

𝑉 = 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑉 =

𝑉 = = ………………………….. [7]

Where p is an electric dipole moment 𝑝 = 𝑞 × 2𝑙.

In vector form
⃗⋅ ⃗
𝑉 = …………… [8]

1 𝑝⃗ ⋅ 𝑟̂ 𝑟⃗
𝑉 = ∵ 𝑟̂ =
4𝜋𝜀 𝑟 𝑟
Where 𝑟̂ is the unit vector along 𝑟⃗.
Case 1: If point C lie along axial line of dipole hence θ = 00 or θ = 1800

𝑉 =± ……………………. [9]

This is the maximum value of electric potential due to electric dipole.

Case 2: If point C lie along equatorial line of dipole hence θ = 900
𝑉 = 0 ……………. [10]
This is the minimum value of electric potential due to electric dipole.
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Thus the plane perpendicular to the line between the charges at the midpoint is an
equipotential plane with potential zero. The work done to move a charge anywhere in this
plane (potential difference being zero) will be zero.

Electrostatic potential due to system of charges:

Consider a system of charges q1, q2, ............., qn at a distance r1, r2, ………,rn
respectively from point P. Let V1, V2, ………, Vn be the potential at point P due to charge q1,
q2, ............., qn respectively are given by.

𝑉 = ,𝑉 = , ……………., 𝑉 =

By superposition principle the net potential (V) at point P is the algebraic sum of potentials
due to individual charges.
𝑉 = 𝑉 + 𝑉 +. … … + 𝑉

1 𝑞 𝑞 𝑞
𝑉= + +. . . … . +
4𝜋𝜀 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟

1 𝑞
𝑉=
4𝜋𝜀 𝑟

For continuous charge distribution summation sign should be replace by integration sign.

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Equipotential surface:

An equipotential surface is that surface, at every point of which the electric potential
is the same.
The potential (V) for a single charge q is given by
1 𝑞
𝑉=
4𝜋𝜀 𝑟

If r is constant then V will be constant. Hence, equipotential surfaces of single point

charge are concentric spherical surfaces centered at the charge. For a line charge, the shape
of equipotential surface is cylindrical.
Equipotential surfaces can be drawn through any region in which there is an electric
field. By definition the potential difference between two points P and Q is the work done per
unit positive charge displaced from Q to P.
𝑉 −𝑉 = =𝑊 ……………. [1] [⸪ q= 1 C]
If points P and Q lie on an equipotential surface, then WQP = 0
From equation [1] we can write
V P =V Q ……………. [2]
Thus, no work is required to move a test charge along an equipotential surface.
 If dx is the small distance over the equipotential surface through which unit positive
charge is carried then, the required work done is given by,

𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑥⃗ = 𝐹𝑑𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑞𝐸𝑑𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝐸𝑑𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ………… [3]

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Here, θ = 900 i.e. 𝐸⃗ ⊥ 𝑑𝑥⃗

𝑑𝑊 = 𝐸𝑑𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 0 ………. [4]

Hence, electric field intensity E is always normal to the equipotential surface.

 If the field is not normal, it would have a nonzero component along the surface. So to
move a test charge against this component work would have to be done. But by the
definition of equipotential surfaces, there is no potential difference between any two
points on an equipotential surface and hence no work is required to displace the
charge on the surface. Therefore, we can conclude that the electrostatic field must be
normal to the equipotential surface at every point, and vice versa.
 Like the lines of force, the equipotential surface give a visual picture of both the
direction and the magnitude of electric field in a region of space.

Electrostatic potential energy:

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 When two like charges lie infinite distance apart, their potential energy is zero because
no work has to done in moving one charge at infinite distance from the other.
 When they are brought closer to one another, work has to be done against the force of
repulsion.
 As electrostatic force is conservative, this work gets stored as the potential energy of
the two charges.
 Electrostatic potential energy of a system of point charges is defined as the total
amount of work done to assemble the system of charges by bringing them from
infinity to their present locations.

a) Potential energy of a system of 2 point charges:

1) Let us consider the two charges q1 and q2 are initially at infinity.

2) In order to bringing the first charge q1 at position A no work is done. Because there is
no external field is present initially in the system against which work needs to be done,
hence W1 = 0.
3) When charge q1 is placed at point A it produce its own electric field in a system
around it.
4) Electric potential due to charge q1 at point B is given by
𝑉 = ………. [1]
5) When we bring charge q2 from infinity to point B, work is to be done against the
direction of electric field produced by charge q1.
6) Work done is given by,
𝑊 =𝑉 ×𝑞

𝑊 = × 𝑞 …………. [2]
7) This work done is stored as potential energy of the system called electrostatic
potential energy.

𝑈= ……… [3]

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Potential energy for system of N point charges:

We know that, in order to bring the charge from infinity to its present location in a
system some work has to be done against the direction of electric fields produced by other
charges which are present in the system. This work done is stored as potential energy of the
system.
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑒𝑙𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 × 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
The potential energy for a system of two charges is given by,
𝑈=𝑊 = ……… [1]
In bringing a charge q3 from infinity to its present location work has to be done against
the electric fields of both charge q1 and q2 respectively.
Hence, we can write
𝑊 =𝑊 +𝑊 = ×𝑞 + ×𝑞

𝑊 = + × 𝑞 ……….. [2]

Similarly, in bringing a charge q4 from infinity to its present location work has to be
done against the electric fields of charges q1, q2 and q3 respectively.

𝑊 =𝑊 +𝑊 +𝑊 = + + × 𝑞 ……… [3]

The electrostatic potential energy of system of charges is,

𝑈 = 𝑊 + 𝑊 + 𝑊 ………. [4]

Proceeding in the same way, we can write the electrostatic potential energy of a system
of N point charges is,

𝑈= ∑ ………… [5]
[where j=1 to N-1 and k=2 to N also j≠k]

Potential energy of single charge in an external field:

Consider charge q kept in external electric field E and corresponding potential V. If
the charge q is very small then the external field is not affected by the charge q. If V(𝑟⃗) is the
external potential at any point P having position vector 𝑟⃗ , then by definition, work done in
bringing a charge q, from infinity to the given point in the external field is 𝑞𝑉(𝑟⃗).
This work is stored in the form of potential energy of a system of charge q . PE of a
system of a single charge q at a distance ‘r ’ in an external field is given by
𝑃. 𝐸. = 𝑞𝑉(𝑟⃗) … … . [ 1]

Note: Only for reference

 18

Potential energy of a system of two charge in an external field:

Let us consider two charges q1 and q2 initially located at infinity. In order to assemble
charge q1 and q2 to r1 and r2 in an external field the work is to be done. Let V 1 and V2 be the
electric potential at a distance r1 and r2 due to external electric field. The work done against
the external electric field in bringing the charge q1 from infinity to r1 is given by,
𝑊 = 𝑞 𝑉 ……… [1]
Now in order to bring charge q2 to r2, the work is to be done against the external electric
field as well as the electric field produced by charge q1. Hence, by superposition principle
the work done to bring charge q2 to r2 is given by,

𝑊 =𝑞 𝑉 + ………… [2]

Where, r12 represents distance of charge q2 from charge q1.

The potential energy of the system is equal to the total work done in assembling the charge
q1 and q2 at r1 and r2 respectively.
Potential energy of the system = Total work done in assembling the configuration

𝑈 =𝑞 𝑉 +𝑞 𝑉 + ……… [3]

Potential energy of a dipole in an external field:

Consider an electric dipole with charges -q and +q separated by a finite distance 2l, placed
in a uniform electric field 𝐸⃗ making an angle of θ with the electric field. It experiences a
torque (τ) which tends to rotate it in an electric field.
The torque acting on an electric dipole is given by, 𝜏⃗ = 𝑝⃗ × 𝐸⃗
𝜏 = 𝑝𝐸𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ……… [1]

Note: Only for reference

 19

Let us consider an external torque (𝜏 ⃗) , of equal in magnitude and opposite in direction

of τ is applied to rotate the dipole through an infinitesimal small angular displacement dθ,
always keeping the dipole in equilibrium.
The work-done by this torque is
𝑑𝑊 = 𝜏 ⃗ 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑝 𝐸 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃
In finite angular displacement from θ0 to θ, the work done by the external torque is
given by,

𝑊= 𝑑𝑊 = 𝑝𝐸𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑝𝐸 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃

𝑊 = 𝑝𝐸[−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃] = 𝑝𝐸[−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − (−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 )]

𝑊 = 𝑝𝐸[𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃] ……….. [2]

This work done is stored as the potential energy [U(θ)] of the system in the position when the
dipole makes an angle θ with the electric field.

𝑈(𝜃) = 𝑊 = 𝑝𝐸[𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃]…………….. [3]

1) If initially dipole is perpendicular to direction of electric field (𝐸⃗ ) i.e. θo=900

𝑈(𝜃) = 𝑝𝐸 𝑐𝑜𝑠 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = −𝑝𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃………. [4]

2) If initially dipole is parallel to direction of electric field (𝐸⃗ ) i.e. θo=00

𝑈(𝜃) = 𝑝𝐸[𝑐𝑜𝑠0 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃] = 𝑝𝐸[1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃] ………… [5]
Conductors and Insulators, Free Charges and Bound Charges inside a Conductor:
a) Conductors and Insulators:

 Conductors are materials or substances which allow electricity to flow through

them. This is because they contain a large number of free charge carriers i.e. free
electrons.
 In a metal the outer valence electrons are loosely bound to the nucleus and are thus
free for conductivity, when an external field is applied.
 Metals, humans, earth and animal bodies are all conductors.
 Under electrostatic conditions the conductors have following properties.
1) In the interior of a conductor, net electrostatic field is zero.
2) Potential is constant within and on the surface of a conductor.
Note: Only for reference
 20

3) In static situation, the interior of a conductor can have no charge.

4) Electric field just outside a charged conductor is perpendicular to the
surface of the conductor at every point.
5) Surface charge density of a conductor could be different at different points.

b) Free charges and bound charges inside materials:

 In metallic conductors, the electrons in the outermost shells of the atoms are
loosely bound to the nucleus and hence can easily get detached & move freely
inside the metal.
 When an external field is applied, they drift in a direction opposite to the
direction of the applied electric field. These charges are called free charges.
 Ions consists of the positive nucleus & the electrons of the inner shells, remain
held in their fixed positions. These immobile charges are called bound charges.
 In electrolytic conductors,+ve &-ve ions act as charge carriers but their
movements are restricted by the electrostatic force between them & the external
electric field.

c) Insulators:
 In insulators, the electrons are tightly bound to the nucleus.
 Therefore electrons are not available for conductivity & hence they are poor
conductor of electricity.
 There are no free charges since all the charges are bound to the nucleus.
 An insulator can carry any distribution of external electric charges on its
surface or in its interior.
 The electric field in the interior can have non zero values unlike conductors.

Dielectrics & Electric Polarization:

 Dielectrics are non-conducting substance [Insulators] which cannot transmit electric
charge through them.
 Dielectric substance do not contain any free electron in them, so they have no charge
carriers.
 Dielectrics can be used to store electric energy.
 This is because when such substances are placed in an external field, their +ve & -ve
charges get displaced in opposite directions of electric field & molecules develop a
net dipole moment. This is called Polarization of the material & such materials are
called dielectrics.

Note: Only for reference

 21

 Net electric charge within dielectric is zero. Since dielectric as hole is electrically
neutral because positive induced charge is equal to negative induced charge.
 Ex. of dielectrics - Glass, Wax, Water, Wood, Mica, Rubber, Stone, Plastic etc

 Dielectric can be classified as

1) polar dielectric &
2) non polar dielectric

 polar dielectric:
 A molecule in which the centre of mass of +ve charges (protons) does not
coincide with the centre of mass of -ve charges (electrons), because of the
asymmetric shape of the molecules is called polar molecule.
 Polar molecules have permanent dipole moments. [of order 10-30 C-m]
 They act as tiny electric dipoles, as the charges are separated by a small
distance.
 e.g. HCL, H2O, NH3, alcohols etc.

 Water molecule has a bent shape with its two O-H bonds which are inclined
at an angle of 1050 has dipole moment of 6.1x10-30 C-m.

 Non-polar dielectric:
 A molecule in which the centre of mass of the +ve charges (proton) coincides with
centre of mass of mass of the -ve charges (electron) is called a non-polar molecule.
 Non-polar molecules do not have permanent electric dipole moment because of
their symmetry.
 These have symmetrical shapes & have zero dipole moment in normal.
 e.g. O2, H2, N2, CO2 etc.

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 22

 Polarization of a non-polar dielectric in an external electric field:

 In the presence of an external electric field E, the centres of the +ve charge in each
molecule of a non-polar dielectric is pulled in the direction of E, while the centres of
the -ve charges are displaced in the opposite direction.
 Two centres are separated and the molecule gets distorted.
 The displacement of the charges stops when the forces exerted by the external field is
balanced by the restoring force between the charges in the molecule.
 Each molecule becomes a tiny dipole having a dipole moment.
 The induced dipole moments of different molecules add up giving a net dipole moment
to the dielectric in the presence of the external field.
 Polarization of a polar dielectric in an external electric field:

Note: Only for reference

 23

 The molecule of a polar dielectric have tiny permanent dipole moments.

 In the absence of any external electric field, these dipole moments are randomly
oriented due to thermal agitation in the material. Therefore the net dipole moment is
zero.
 When an external electric field is applied the dipole moments of different molecules
tend to align in the direction of external field.
 The dielectric develops a net dipole moments in the direction of external field. Hence
the dielectric is said to be polarized.
 The extent of polarization depends on the relative values of the two opposing energies.
a) The applied external electric field which tends to align the dipole with the field.
b) Thermal energy tending to randomize the alignment of the dipole.
• Polar & non-polar dielectric develop net dipole moment in the presence of an electric
field.

 Polarization(𝑷⃗):
 The polarization is defined as net dipole moment per unit volume.
 For liner isotropic dielectrics 𝑃⃗ = 𝜒 𝐸⃗.
 Isotropic means uniformity in all direction. So in isotropic
dielectric polarization always has a direction that is parallel to the applied
electric field. That means P depends linearly on E and is parallel to E uniformly
throughout the dielectric. E.g. mica and glass
 𝜒 is the constant called electric susceptibility of dielectric medium.
 It describes the electric behaviour of a dielectric.
 Electric susceptibility (𝜒 ), is the measure of extent to which an electric field
applied to a dielectric material causes polarization.
 The electric susceptibility is a dimensionless proportionality constant that
indicates the degree of polarization of a dielectric material in response to an
applied electric field.
 Electric susceptibility has different value for different material.
 For vacuum 𝜒 = 0.

Note: Only for reference

 24

 Reduction of electric field due to polarization of a dielectric [Behaviour of dielectric

slab in an external field] :

1) Consider a rectangular dielectric slab of linear isotropic dielectric placed in a

uniform electric field E.
[Note:- Linear Isotropic Dielectric: Linear isotropic dielectrics are those
substances in which induced dipole moments are in the direction of the field
and are proportional to field strength.]
2) In dielectric material there is absence of free charges, hence no electric current
will set up within dielectric material when it is placed in an external electric
field.
3) Dielectric becomes polarized in an external electric field irrespective of the fact
that dielectric consist of polar molecules or non-polar molecules.
4) Due to polarization, molecules are oriented such that negative charges are on
left side and positive charges on right side.
5) As a result net negative charge at left surface of dielectric and net positive
charge on right surface of dielectric.
6) The displacement of the charges stops when the forces exerted by the external
field is balanced by the restoring force between the charges in the molecule.
7) These two surfaces of induced charges produce an electric field Eo called the
polarization field in the dielectric slab which opposes the applied electric field
E.
8) The net electric field (E’) inside the dielectric is the vector sum of applied field
(E) and the polarization field (Eo).
𝐸′⃗ = 𝐸⃗ − 𝐸 ⃗
9) Hence, when a dielectric is placed in an external electric field, the value of the
field inside the dielectric is less than the external field as a result of polarization.

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 25

10) The greater the applied field, greater is the degree of alignment of the
dipoles and hence greater is the polarization field.
11) The induced dipole moment gets disappear when the field is removed.

 Capacitors and Capacitance:

 A resistor is an electrical component which allows current to pass through it and

dissipates heat. Resistor cannot used to store electrical energy.
 A capacitor is an electric component used to store electrical energy within it.
 Capacitor consists of a set of conductors having different charges on them and
separated by a dielectric material.
 The conductors 1 and 2 have charges +Q and –Q respectively with potential
difference, 𝑉 = 𝑉 − 𝑉 between them.
 The electric field in the region between them is proportional to the charge Q.
 The potential difference (V) is the work done to carry a unit positive test charge from
the conductor 2 to conductor 1 against the field. As this work done will be proportional
to Q, then 𝑄 ∝ 𝑉 and the ratio of is constant. Hence
𝐶= ……. [1]

Where, C is called capacitance of capacitor.

 Capacitance of capacitor depends upon the size, shape and separation of the system
of two conductors.
 The capacitance of a capacitor is defined as the ratio of the charge on either
conductor to the potential difference between the two conductors forming the
capacitor.
 The SI unit of capacitance is farad (F)
 Dimensional formula is [M -1L-2T 4A 2]
 1 farad = 1 coulomb/1 volt
Note: Only for reference
 26

 A capacitor has a capacitance of one farad, if the P.D. across it rises by 1volt when
1 coulomb of charge is given to it.
 Commonly used units for capacitance are
a) 1 μF=10-6F
b) 1 nF=10-9F
c) 1 pF=10-12F

 Principle of a capacitor:

1) A parallel plate capacitor consists of two parallel metal plates of same area separated
from each other by air or a dielectric material.
2) If a positive charge +Q is given to the plate P1, an equal negative charge –Q is induced
on the near side of plate P2 and an equal positive charge +Q is induced on far side of
plate P2 as shown in fig a.
3) If the plate P2 is connected to earth, the free charge +Q escapes to the earth leaving
the charge –Q on plate P2 as shown in fig b. Due to this charge the potential of plate
P1 is lowered and the capacity is increased.
4) Suppose that in absence of plate P2, the potential of plate P1 due to the charge on it is
V, so that its capacity is C1
𝐶 = ……………. [1]
5) When the earthed plate P2 is kept near to plate P1, a charge –Q on it. Due to this
negative charge, a negative potential – V1 is produced at the plate P2. Hence net
potential of the system is (V – V1).
6) Therefore resultant capacity C2 becomes,
𝐶 = ………… [2]
Comparing eq. [1] and [2] it is observed that C2 > C1. Thus capacity of the
arrangement can be increased.

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 27

 Capacitor in series combination:

1) Capacitors are said to be connected in series if they are connected one after the
other in the form of chain.
2) Let capacitors of capacitances C1, C2, C3 be connected in series as shown in
figure.
3) Let V1, V2, V3 be the corresponding potential difference capacitors. In a series
combination, charges on the plates (± Q) are the same on each capacitor.
4) Suppose a potential difference ‘V’ is applied across the combination.
5) The potential difference induced across capacitor is given by,

𝑉 = , 𝑉 = , 𝑉 = ………….. [1]
6) Total potential difference ‘V’ across the combination is given by,

𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
𝑉 =𝑉 +𝑉 +𝑉 = + +
𝐶 𝐶 𝐶

𝑉=𝑄 + + ……………… [2]

7) If these capacitors are replaced by a single capacitor of capacity CS, such that
effective capacity remains same then,
𝑄
𝐶 =
𝑉
𝑉 = ……………. [3]

From eq. [2] and [3]

=𝑄 + +

= + + ……………. [4]
Note: Only for reference
 28

8) This argument can be extended to yield an equivalent capacitance for n

capacitors connected in series which is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of
individual capacitances of the capacitors.

= + + + ⋯………+ …………….. [5]

9) If all capacitors are equal then
= 𝑶𝑹 𝐶 = …………. [6]

 Capacitor in parallel combination:

1) Capacitors are said to be connected in parallel, if they are connected between

two common points or junctions.
2) Consider three capacitors of capacitances C1, C2, C3 be connected in series as
shown in figure.
3) Let Q1, Q2, Q3 be the charge deposited on the capacitors as shown in figure.
4) Suppose a potential difference ‘V’ is applied across the combination. Then the
potential difference between the plates of each capacitors is V but charges on
each capacitors are different.
5) Since different current flows through different branches, so the charges are
given by,
𝑄 = 𝐶 𝑉, 𝑄 = 𝐶 𝑉, 𝑄 = 𝐶 𝑉……… [1]
6) From the principle of conservation of charge,
𝑄 =𝑄 +𝑄 +𝑄 =𝐶 𝑉+𝐶 𝑉+𝐶 𝑉

𝑄 = 𝑉[𝐶 + 𝐶 + 𝐶 ] ………. [2]

7) If these capacitors are replaced by a single capacitor of capacity CP such that
𝑄 = 𝐶 𝑉 then from eq. [2] we have,

𝐶 𝑉 = 𝑉[𝐶 + 𝐶 + 𝐶 ]
Note: Only for reference
 29

𝐶 = 𝐶 + 𝐶 + 𝐶 ……….. [3]
8) This argument can be extended to yield an equivalent capacitance for n
capacitors connected in parallel which is equal to the sum of individual
capacitances of the capacitors.
𝐶 = 𝐶 + 𝐶 + 𝐶 + ⋯ … … … + 𝐶 …………. [4]

9) If all capacitors are equal then 𝐶 = 𝑛𝐶 ………. [5]

 Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor without a dielectric:

1) Consider a parallel plate capacitor with two plates each of area ‘A’ separated
by a distance ‘d’
2) The plates are separated by an insulating medium like paper, air, mica, glass
etc.
3) One of the plates is insulated and the other is earthed as shown in figure.
4) When a positive charge +Q is given to the insulated plate, an equal negative
charge –Q is induced on the near side of earthed plate and an equal positive
charge +Q is induced on far side of plate. But as this face is earthed the charge
+Q being free, it flows to earth.
5) Let E1 and E2 be the electric fields due to +Q and – Q charge respectively.
6) In the outer regions the electric fields due to the two charged plates (E1 and E2)
cancel out each other because they are oppositely directed. The net electric field
is zero.

𝐸= − = 0……………. [1]
7) In the inner regions between the two capacitor plates the electric fields (E1 and
E2) due to the two charged plates add up. The net electric field is,

Note: Only for reference

 30

𝐸= + = ……………….. [2]

8) As σ is surface charge density i.e. 𝜎 = , from eq.[2]

𝐸= = …………… [3]
9) The direction of E is from positive to negative plate.
10) Let V is the potential difference between two plates. Then electric field
between the plates is given by,
𝐸 = ………….. [4]
From eq. [3] and [4] we get,
𝑉 𝑄
=
𝑑 𝐴𝜀

𝑉= ……………….. [5]
By definition of capacitance,
𝑄 𝑄𝐴𝜀
𝐶= =
𝑉 𝑄𝑑

𝐶= ……… [6]
Eq. [6] gives capacity of parallel plate capacitor in absence of dielectric.

Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with a dielectric slab between the plates:

1) Consider a parallel plate capacitor with two plates each of area ‘A’ separated by a
distance ‘d’.
2) The capacitance of the capacitor is given by 𝐶 = .
3) Let Eo be the electric field intensity between the plates without the dielectric slab.
4) Then the P.D. (Vo) between the plates is given by 𝑉 = 𝐸 𝑑.
Note: Only for reference
 31

5) The electric field intensity (Eo) is given by 𝐸 = = , where σ is the surface charge
density of the plate.
6) Let a dielectric slab of thickness ‘t’ (t < d) is introduced between the plates of the
capacitor.
7) The dielectric slab will get polarize due to electric field Eo.
8) The charge +QP is induced on the right and charge –QP is induced on left side of
dielectric slab as shown in figure.
9) These induced charges set up a field EP inside the dielectric in the opposite direction
of Eo.
10) The induced electric field (EP) is given by, 𝐸 = = , where σP is the
induced surface charge density.
11) The net electric field inside the dielectric get reduces to,

𝐸 =𝐸 −𝐸 = ∵𝑘= …………. [1]

Where k is a constant called dielectric constant.

[Note: - The dielectric constant (k) is defined as the ratio of the electric field
without dielectric E0 to the net electric field E with dielectric. i.e. 𝑘 = ]

𝐸= ………. [2]
12) The field E will exist over a distance ‘t’ and Eo over the remaining distance
(d – t) between capacitor plates. Hence the potential difference between the capacitor
plate is
𝐸
𝑉 = 𝐸 (𝑑 − 𝑡) + 𝐸(𝑡) = 𝐸 (𝑑 − 𝑡) + (𝑡)
𝑘
𝑡
𝑉 = 𝐸 (𝑑 − 𝑡) +
𝑘

𝑄 𝑡
𝑉= 𝑑−𝑡+
𝐴𝜀 𝑘
Thus the capacitance of capacitor on introduction of dielectric slab is,
𝐶= = = ……….. [3]

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 32

Special Cases:
a) Case 1:
If the dielectric fills up the entire space then, t=d, hence from eq. [3]
∵𝐶= = 𝑘𝐶 ………… [4]
Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor increases k times that of capacitance of
parallel plate capacitor when dielectric medium is air.
b) Case 2:
If the capacitor is filled with ‘n’ no. of dielectric slabs of thickness t 1, t2,......., tn then
this arrangement is equivalent to ‘n’ capacitors in series as shown below

𝐴𝜀
𝐶= 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
+ + ⋯…….+
𝑘 𝑘 𝑘
…………..[5]

c) Case 3:
If the arrangement consists of n capacitors in parallel with plate areas A1, A2,......., An
& plate separation d.
𝜀
𝐶 = [𝐴 𝑘 + 𝐴 𝑘 + ⋯ … … … . . +𝐴 𝑘 ]
𝑑
If 𝐴 = 𝐴 = ⋯ … … … … = 𝐴 = then
𝐶= [𝑘 + 𝑘 + ⋯ … … … . . +𝑘 ] ……… [6]
d) Case 4:
If the capacitor is filled with a conducting slab, then k = ∞
𝐶= =( )
………… [7]

From eq. [4]

𝐴𝑘𝜀
∵𝐶= = 𝑘𝐶
𝑑

𝐴𝜀 = 𝑑𝐶 ………… [8]
From eq. [7] and [8]
𝐶=( )
= 𝐶 ………….. [9]
Hence, C > Co
Thus, the capacitance increases by factor .

Note: Only for reference

 33

 Displacement Current:

1) Consider a simple circuit in which a capacitor with capacitance (C) is

connected across a d.c. source with the help of key as shown in above figure.
2) The current in the conducting part of circuit is mainly due to flow of free
electrons.
3) In the region between the plates of the capacitors, there are no free electrons
for conduction in the dielectric.
4) The current flows through the closed circuit & grows to its maximum value(i c)
in a finite time.
5) The conduction current, ic is same everywhere in the circuit except inside the
capacitor.
6) As the current passes through the leads of the capacitor, the electric field
between the plates increases & this causes the polarization of the dielectric.
7) The current in the dielectric is mainly due to the movement of bound charges.
This current is called displacement current (id) or charge-separation current.
8) The charge (q) produced on the plates of a capacitor is due to the electric field
E. We know that 𝐸 = hence,
𝑞 = 𝐴𝑘𝜀 𝐸 ………… [1]
9) Current is the rate of flow of charge. Differentiating eq. [1] w.r.t. time we get,
= (𝐴𝑘𝜀 𝐸) = 𝐴𝑘𝜀 ………. [2]
11) represents the conduction current (ic) in conducting part of circuit.
𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝐸
𝑖 = = 𝐴𝑘𝜀
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝐸 𝑖
=
𝑑𝑡 𝐴𝑘𝜀

∝ 𝑖 …………. [3]
Note: Only for reference
 34

12) The rate of change of electric field across the capacitor is directly
proportional to the current (ic) flowing in the conducting part of the circuit.
13) The quantity on R.H.S. of eq. [2] has same dimensions as that of
current. This current is caused by the displacement of bound charges in the
dielectric of capacitor under the influence of electric field. This current is called
the displacement current (id ),which is equivalent to the rate of flow of charge in
the conducting part of the circuit.
14) In the absence of any dielectric between the plates of the of the capacitor,
k=1, i.e. for air or vacuum ,the displacement current is
𝑖 = 𝐴𝜀 …………… [4]
15) The displacement current is not confined only to the space between the
plates of the capacitors but it exists at any point in space where, time varying
electric field (E) exists.

 Energy Stored in a Capacitor:

1) Consider a capacitor of capacity ‘C’. Let initially the charge on capacitor be
zero.
2) Let ‘Q’ be the charge on insulated plate of capacitor and ‘V’ be the potential
difference between two plates.
∵𝑉= …………. [1]
3) Let q = charge on capacitor at some instant during charging of capacitor
v= corresponding potential difference of the capacitor

𝑣 = …………… [2]
4) Let ‘dW’ be the work done in depositing an additional charge ‘dq’ on the
insulated plate of capacitor against its potential at certain instant during
process of charging. This work done is given by
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑣 𝑑𝑞 = 𝑑𝑞 …….. [3]
5) To charge the capacitor from q=0 to q=Q, the total work done can be obtained
by integrating eq. [3]
𝑞 1
𝑊= 𝑑𝑊 = 𝑑𝑞 = 𝑞 𝑑𝑞
𝐶 𝐶

1 1
𝑊= [𝑞 ] = [𝑄 ]
2𝐶 2𝐶

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 35

𝑊= …………… [4]
6) This work done is stored in the form of electrostatic energy in charged
capacitor. Thus, energy stored in charged capacitor is given by,
𝑈= …….. [5]
7) Different forms of energy stored in capacitor:
Since 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉
( )
∵𝑈= = 𝐶 𝑉 ……………. [6]

∵ 𝑈 = 𝑄𝑉 ……………. [7]

 Van de Graff Generator:

 Principle:
This generator is based on
1) The phenomenon of corona discharge (A sharp pointed conductor has large
charge density. Hence, the surrounding air becomes conducting and produces
discharge called corona discharge.)
2) The property that charge given to a hollow conductor is transferred to its outer
surface & is distributed uniformly over it.
3) If a charge is continuously supplied to an insulated metallic conductor, the
potential of the conductor goes on increasing.

 Construction:
P1 P2= Pulleys
B = Conveyer belt
A = Spray brush
C = Collector brush
D = Dome shaped hollow conductor
E = Evacuated accelerating tube
I = Ion source
P = DC power supply
S = Steel vessel filled with nitrogen
M = Earthed metal plate
T= Target

Note: Only for reference

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1) It consists of an endless conveyor belt ‘B’ made of an insulating material

such as reinforced rubber or silk.
2) The belt can move over two pulleys P1 and P2.
3) The belt driven by an electric motor connected to the lower pulley (P1).
4) ‘A’ and ‘C’ are two pointed metal combs, having number of metallic needles
(wires) pointing towards the belt. A is called spray comb and C is called
collecting comb.
5) ‘A’ is connected to the positive terminal of a high voltage DC power supply
while ‘C’ is connected to a large, dome-shaped, hollow metallic conductor
‘D’, which is mounted on insulating pillars.
6) A metal plate M held opposite to the brush A on the other side of the belt is
connected to the vessel S, which is earthed.
7) ‘E’ is an evacuated accelerating tube having an electrode ‘I’ at its upper
end, connected to the dome-shaped conductor.
8) To prevent the leakage of charge the generator is enclosed inside a large
steel vessel S, filled with nitrogen at high pressure.
9) A small quantity of Freon gas is mixed with nitrogen to ensure better
insulation between the vessel S and its contents.
 Working:
1) The electric motor connected to the pulley P1 is switched on, which begins to
rotate setting the conveyor belt into motion.
2) The DC supply is then switched on. From the pointed ends of the spray brush A,
positive charge is continuously sprayed on the belt B.
3) The belt carries this charge in the upward direction, which is collected by the
collector brush C and transfer to the dome shaped conductor.
4) As the dome is hollow, the charge is distributed over the outer surface of the
dome.
5) The potential of the dome rises to a very high value due to the continuous
accumulation of charges on it. Hence the potential of the electrode I also rises
to this high value.
6) The projectile such as protons or deuterons etc. are introduced in the upper part
of the evacuated accelerator tube.
7) They get accelerated in downward direction along the length of tube and
acquire very high energy.
8) These high energy charged particles are then directed so as to strike a desired
target.
 Uses of Van de Graff Generator:
1) To produce very high energy charged particles having energies of the order of
10 MeV.
2) To carry out the disintegration of nuclei of different elements.
3) To produce radioactive isotopes.
4) To study the nuclear structure.
5) To study different types of nuclear reactions.
6) For accelerating electrons to sterilize food and to process materials.
7) In medicine, such beams are used to treat cancer.
Note: Only for reference