Electromagnetic Field

Theory

Electrostatics : 3
 Electric Field Intensity
The electric field intensity (electric field strength ) E is the force per unit
charge when placed in the electric field.

R
or E
r1
Q1 r The electric field intensity is in the
Q2 r2
direction of force and measured in
Q newton/coulomb or volt/meter. The electric
Q3 r3
point at point r due to test charge at rʹ.
QN rN

Field intensity due to N charges, Q1,Q2 ,… QN located at position vectors r1,

r2 ,…. rN .
𝑬 = 𝑬𝟏 + 𝑬 𝟐 + ⋯ … + 𝑬𝑵

Or Simply
Problem
 Field Lines Properties
 The field lines indicate the direction of electric field. The field
point towards the tangent direction at any point on the field.
 Magnitude of electric field is proportional to the no of lines per
unit area. Closer the lines, more stronger is the field.
 Electric field lines start on positive charges and end on negative
charges. The no of lines will be proportional to the magnitude
of the charge.
 The field lines never cross each other because electric field will
have never two values at a point.
 Electric field is used to determine force on a charged particle.
 Field Lines Properties
Direction or force

Radial for point charges No. of lines of forces increases with charges
Radially outward for +ve charge Line density is proportional to field strength
Radially inward for –ve charge

Dipole: opposite charges Dipole: Similar charges

 Continuous Charge Distribution
So far, coulomb forces and electric fields are described using point
charges, which essentially occupy very small physical space. It is also
possible to have continuous charge distribution along a line, on a surface
or in a volume.

Line charge

Surface charge
Volume charge
Continuous Charge Distribution

Line charge

Surface charge

Volume charge
 Electric flux
Electric flux is defined as rate of flow of electric field per unit area. It
means, electric flux is proportional to number of electric field lines
through a surface.

Recall surface integral

The flux due to electric field is calculated in a similar fashion. However,

E is not used. Instead of that a new vector D is used defined as 𝑫 = 𝝐𝟎 𝑬
Then, we define total electric flux ψ in terms of D

𝜓= 𝑫. 𝒅𝒔

ψ has unit coulomb ( C ). D is called electric flux density and has unit C/m2.
The flux density is also called electric displacement.
 Gauss Law
Gauss’s Law states that the total electric flux ψ through any closed
surface is equal to the total charge enclosed by that surface.
Gaussian surface

Radius: r By divergence theorem

Charge enclosed, Q: q

Comparing 𝜵 ⋅ 𝑫 = 𝜌𝑣

 This is first of the four Maxwell’s equation. It states that the divergence
of the electric flux density is the same as the volume charge density.
 Gauss law is an alternative statement of coulomb’s law. Divergence
theorem to coulomb’s law results in Gauss law.
 Application of Gauss’s Law
Gauss’s Law is used to determine electric field. The surface is chosen
such that the electric flux D is normal or tangential to the Gaussian
surface. If D is normal, then D.dS= DdS since D is constant on the
surface. If D is tangential, then D.dS = 0.

1. Point Charge
Consider a point charge Q at the origin. Determine D at
point P. Choose a spherical surface, Gaussian surface,
containing a point P on the surface.

𝒂𝒓 is the unit vector normal to the Gaussian surface. Applying gauss’s

law

4πr2 is surface area of the Gaussian sphere. Hence,

 Application of Gauss’s Law
2. Infinite Line Charge
Consider infinite line of uniform charge density ρL along the
z axis. Determine D at point P. Choose a cylindrical surface,
Gaussian surface, containing a point P on the surface.

We apply Gauss’s law to an arbitrary length ℓ of the line.

Hence

3. Infinite Sheet Charge

Consider infinite sheet of uniform charge density ρS lying on
a z=0 plane. Determine D at point P. Choose a rectangular
box that has two of its faces parallel to the sheet. D is normal
to the sheet.
𝑫 = 𝐷𝑍 𝒂𝒁
 Application of Gauss’s Law
3. Infinite Sheet Charge

D.dS on the sides of the box is zero because there is no

component along ax and ay. If the top and bottom area of
the box has area A, then
𝑫 = 𝐷𝑍 𝒂𝒁

A parallel plate capacitor has two plates with equal and

opposite charge
4. Uniformly Charged Sphere
Consider a sphere with radius a with a uniform charge
density ρv. Determine D radially everywhere. Construct a
Gaussian surface with r ≤ a and r ≥ a.
For r ≤ a, the total charge enclosed by the spherical
surface of radius r is
 Application of Gauss’s Law
4. Uniformly Charged Sphere
For r ≤ a, the total charge enclosed by the spherical
surface of radius r is

Using ψ = Qenc
or

For r ≥ a, the total charge enclosed by the spherical

surface of radius r is
and

or
 Electric Potential
Recap: The electric field intensity E due to a charge distribution can be obtained
from Coulomb’s law in general or from Gauss’s law when charge distribution is
symmetric. There can be one more way to obtain E from electric scalar potential.
It is to be noted that scalar is easier to handle than vector.

Move a point charge Q from point A to B in an electric

field E as shown in the diagram. From coulomb’s law,
the force on Q is

The work done in displacing the charge by dl is

-ve sign means work is being done by the external field. The total work done,
called the potential energy, in moving the Q from A to B is

Potential energy per unit charge is known as potential difference, VAB between two
points A and B.
 Relationship of E & V
The potential difference between points A and B is
independent of the path.
𝑉𝐵𝐴 = −𝑉𝐴𝐵

𝑉𝐵𝐴 + 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑬 ∙ 𝒅𝒍 = 0 ….eqn 1

It means E along a closed path is equal to zero. It implies that no net work is
done in moving a charge along a closed path in electrostatic field. Applying
stokes theorem to the above equation.
𝑬 ∙ 𝒅𝒍 = 𝜵 × 𝑬 ∙ 𝒅𝑺 = 0 or 𝜵×𝑬=𝟎 …eqn 2

Any vector satisfying eqn 1/ eqn 2, is said to be conservative or irrotational.

These eqns are referred as Maxwell’s equation for static electric fields. They
present conservative nature of electrostatic field.
𝑉=− 𝑬 ∙ 𝒅𝒍 It means

𝑑𝑉 = −𝑬 ∙ 𝒅𝒍 = −𝐸𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 𝐸𝑦 𝑑𝑦 − 𝐸𝑧 𝑑𝑧
 Relationship of E & V
𝑑𝑉 = −𝑬 ∙ 𝒅𝒍 = −𝐸𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 𝐸𝑦 𝑑𝑦 − 𝐸𝑧 𝑑𝑧

𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
But 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Comparing 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝐸𝑥 = − 𝐸𝑦 = − 𝐸𝑧 = −
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Now 𝑬 = 𝐸𝑥 𝒂𝒙 + 𝐸𝑦 𝒂𝒚 + 𝐸𝑧 𝒂𝒛

𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝑬=− 𝒂𝒙 − 𝒂𝒚 − 𝒂𝒛 Recall
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
It implies 𝑬 = −𝜵𝑉
Electric field intensity is the gradient of potential V. –ve sign means E is opposite
to the direction in which V increases. E is directed from higher to lower level of V.
Note that the curl of the gradient of a scalar function is always zero.

𝜵 × 𝜵𝑉 = 0 It implies 𝜵×𝑬=𝟎
 Electric Potential
 For the potential difference, VAB, A is the initial point and B is the final
point.
 -ve VAB, means work is being done by the field. +ve VAB, means a gain
in the potential energy.
 VAB is independent of the path.
 VAB is measured in joules per coulomb or commonly referred to as
volts (V).
If the E field is due to a point charge at the
origin, then

or

VA and VB are potentials ( or absolute potentials) at positions A and B,

respectively.
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐵 = 𝑉
𝑄
𝑟𝐴 ⟶ ∞, 𝑉𝐴 = 0 𝑉= 𝑟𝐵 = 𝑟
4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟
 Continuity equation
The principle of charge conservation says that the time rate of decrease of
charge within a given volume must be equal to the net outward current flow
through the closed surface of the volume. The total current coming out of
the closed surface is I out

Qin is the total charge enclosed by the surface.

Using divergence theorem Qin

𝜕𝜌𝑣
𝜵∙𝑱=− Called the continuity of current equation.
𝜕𝑡
The equation has been derived from the principle of conservation of charge and
essentially states that there can be no accumulation of charge at any point. For
steady state, RHS=0, i.e, no change in current density. Then, LHS = 0, shows that
the total charge leaving a volume is the same as the total charge entering it.
 Boundary Conditions
So far we have considered the existence of electric field in a
homogeneous medium.
 Boundary Conditions for dielectrics
1. Boundary between two different dielectrics:
Consider the E field existing in the region of two different dielectrics
characterized by 𝜖1 = 𝜖0 𝜖𝑟1 and 𝜖2 = 𝜖0 𝜖𝑟2

As Δh → 0
𝑬1𝑡 = 𝑬2𝑡
The tangential components of E are the same on two sides of the
boundary. It means E is continuous across the boundary.
 Boundary Conditions for dielectrics
⇒

Dt undergoes some change across the surface and is said to be

discontinuous across the boundary.

𝑫1𝑛 = 𝑫2𝑛
 Boundary Conditions
𝑫1𝑛 = 𝑫2𝑛 ⇒
Dn undergoes no change (or continuous) across the boundary but En is
discontinuous across the boundary.
𝑬1𝑡 = 𝑬2𝑡
Boundary conditions for electrostatics for
𝑫1𝑛 = 𝑫2𝑛 the dielectric – dielectric interface

2. Boundary between conductor and dielectrics:

Consider the conductor to be perfect or very good
conductor (σ→∞ and ρc→0)
The procedure is same as that of the dielectric–
dielectric interface except that E = 0 inside the
conductor. Considering the closed path abcda in
the figure
 Boundary Conditions: conductor-dielectric

As Δh → 0 𝑬𝑡 = 0 Now 𝑫 = 𝜖𝑬 = 0

As Δh → 0 ∆𝑄 = 𝜌𝑠 ∆𝑆 = 𝑫2𝑛 ∆𝑆 − 𝑫1𝑛 ∆𝑆
∆𝑄
It means 𝐷𝑛 = = 𝜌𝑠 𝐷𝑛 = 𝜌𝑠
∆𝑆
Important points:
1. No electric field exist inside a conductor. It means 𝑬 = 0 and 𝜌𝑣 = 0
2. Since 𝐸 = – 𝛻𝑉 = 0 , there can be no potential difference between
any two points in the conductor. Or we can say that conductor is an
equipotential body.
3. The electric field is external to the conductor and normal to its
surface.
 Boundary Conditions: conductor-free space
3. Boundary between conductor and free space:
Consider the conductor to be perfect or very good conductor (σ→∞ and
ρc→0). The relative permittivity ( 𝜖𝑟 ) of free space is 1.
 Polarization of Dielectrics
Consider an atom of the dielectric consisting of an electron cloud (-Q) and a
positive nucleus (+Q). When an electric field E is applied, both the charges
are displaced by force, F = QE in the direction opposite to each other.

The displacement of charges results into a dipole and the dielectric is said to
be polarized. It means in the polarized dielectric, the electron cloud is
distorted by the applied E field. The distorted charge distribution is equivalent
to the original distribution plus the dipole. The moment of that dipole is
𝒑 = 𝑄𝒅
d is the vector distance between –Q and +Q.
 Polarization of Dielectrics
The intensity of polarization, P ( C/m2) as dipole moment per unit volume is
defined as

The major effect of the electric field on the dielectric is the creation of dipole
moments in the direction of the electric field. Let us consider a dielectric
material as shown in diagram with dipole moment P per unit volume.
When polarization occurs, an equivalent volume
charge density 𝜌𝑝𝑣 is formed throughout the dielectric
while an equivalent surface charge density 𝜌𝑝𝑠 is
formed over the surface of the dielectric. We refer
them as bound (or polarization) surface and volume
charge densities, respectively and are different from
free surface and volume charge densities, 𝜌𝑣 and 𝜌𝑠 .

Bound charges are those that are not free to move and are caused by the
displacement that occurs during polarization.
Polarization of Dielectrics
 Dielectric Permittivity
𝜵 ∙ 𝑫 = 𝜌𝑣
The net effect of the electric field on the dielectric is to increase D inside it
by amount P. It means due to the application of E to the dielectric material,
the flux density is greater than it would be in free space.

or where
 Poisson’s and Laplace Equation
 We can determine electric field E using Coulomb’s law or Gauss
law for a given charge or charge distribution in a region. We can
also determine the E for specified scalar field, potential V in a
region, i. e., 𝐄 = −𝛻𝑉
 In practical cases, neither the charge distribution nor the
potential is specified in a region. They are only specified at
boundaries.
 For these type of problems, the field and the potentials are
determined by using Poisson’s equation or Laplace equation.
 Laplace equation is a special case of Poisson’s equation.
 Poisson’s and Laplace Equation
Consider a linear and homogeneous material medium. From the Gauss’s
Law
and
𝜌𝑣
𝛻 ∙ −𝜀𝛻𝑉 = 𝜌𝑣 𝛻2𝑉 =− …………….eqn 1
𝜀

Eqn 1 is called the Poisson’s equation. This states that the potential
distribution in a region is dependent on the local charge distribution. A
special case of this equation occurs for a charge free region (ρv = 0).

𝛻 2𝑉 = 0

Which is called Laplace’s equation. This is due to the reason that in many
boundary value problems, the charge distribution is on the surface of the
conductors for which the free volume charge density is zero.
 Solution of Poisson’s and Laplace Equation
Consider a parallel plate capacitor as shown in the z

diagram. Poisson’s equation is 𝜌𝑣 S V2

2
𝛻 𝑉=−
𝜀
𝜕2𝑉 𝜕2𝑉 𝜕2𝑉 𝜌𝑣
2
+ + 2 =− S V1 x
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜀 y

The plates are equipotential surfaces

𝜕2𝑉 𝜕2𝑉 𝜕2𝑉 𝜌𝑣
2
= =0 ⇒ 2 =−
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜀
Integrating 𝜕𝑉 𝜌𝑣 𝑧 𝜌𝑣 𝑧 2
=− + 𝐶1 𝑉 = 𝐶1 𝑧 − + 𝐶2
𝜕𝑧 𝜀 2𝜀
Boundary conditions tells V = V1 at z = 0. 𝐶2 = 𝑉1
Boundary conditions tells V = V2 at z = d.
𝜌𝑣 𝑑 2 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 𝜌𝑣 𝑑
𝑉2 = 𝐶1 𝑑 − + 𝑉1 𝐶1 = +
2𝜀 𝑑 2𝜀
 Solution of Poisson’s and Laplace Equation
𝜌𝑣 𝑧 2 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 𝜌𝑣 𝑑
𝑉 = 𝐶1 𝑧 − + 𝐶2 𝐶2 = 𝑉1 𝐶1 = +
2𝜀 𝑑 2𝜀
𝑉2 − 𝑉1 𝜌𝑣 (𝑑 − 𝑧)
𝑉= 𝑧− 𝑧 + 𝑉1
𝑑 2𝜀
Electric field is
𝜕𝑉 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 𝜌𝑣 (2𝑧 − 𝑑)
𝐸=− =− +
𝜕𝑧 𝑑 2𝜀

E2

V2

E1
V1

0 d
 Solution of Poisson’s and Laplace Equation
Consider a parallel plate capacitor as shown in the
diagram. Laplace’s equation is 2
𝛻 𝑉=0 𝜕2𝑉
=0
Integrating 𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕𝑉
=𝐴 𝑉 = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵
𝜕𝑥
A and B are constants and to be solved by using
boundary conditions.

𝑉0 𝑥
Final solution is 𝑉=
𝑑
Solution of Poisson’s and Laplace Equation
Thank you !