Electromagnetics

ELEC 325

Part-2: Electrostatic

Chapter 4 – Part2
Gauss’s Law and Potential

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 See this interactive Flux Passing Through
Surface Demo
http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/ElectricFlux/

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 Topics and Objectives
» 4.1 Introduction
» 4.2 Coulomb’s Law and Field Intensity
» 4.3 Electric Field Due to Continuous Charge Distributions.
» 4.4 Electric Flux Density.
» 4.5 Gauss’s Law (Mawell’s Equation)
» 4.6 Applications of Gauss’s Law
» 4.7 Electric Potential
» 4.8 Relationship between E and V (Maxwell’s Equation)
» 4.9 An Electric Dipole and Flux Lines
» 4.10 Energy Density and Electrostatic Field
 4.5 Gauss’s Law and Maxwell’s Equation
» “The electric flux passing through any closed surface is
equal to the total charge enclosed by that surface.”

• The integration is performed over a closed surface, i.e.

gaussian surface.
 4.5 Gauss’s Law and Maxwell’s Equation

» Gauss’ Law: The total flux through any closed surface is

equal to the total charge enclosed by that surface, i.e

 =  = Qenc =  D  dS = Total Charge enclosed Q =  v dv

S

Gauss’s law in integral form Q =  D  dS =   v dv

S v

Applying the divergence theorem:

 D  dS =    Ddv
S

We get Gauss’s law in point (differential) form

v =   D
 4.6 Applications of Gauss’ Law

A Point Charge
Gauss's Law applies to any charge contribution, but let us apply it now to
the simplest case, that of a single point charge Q.
Construct a spherical Gaussian surface of radius r around the charge Q.
Since D is everywhere normal to the Gaussian surface, that is
Applying Gauss Law, applying Guass’s law

D = Dr ar

Q =  D  dS =Dr  dS = Dr 4r 2
Q Q
Dr = , or D= ar
4r 2
4r 2

For E=
 4.6 Applications of Gauss’ Law
B. Infinite Line Charge
Consider an infinitely long straight line charged with linear charge density  L
, which is in units of Coulombs per meter.
To determine D at a point P, we choose a cylindrical surface
containing P to satisfy symmetry condition
Construct a cylindrical Gaussian surface of radius  around the
charge  L with an arbitrary length L
Since D is constant and normal to the cylindrical Gaussian surface,
applying Guass’s law to an arbitrary length L

Find E =

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 Another Example: Coaxial Transmission Line
We have two concentric cylinders, with the z axis down their centers. Surface
charge of density S exists on the outer surface of the inner cylinder.

A -directed field is expected, and this should vary

only with  (like a line charge). We therefore choose
a cylindrical Gaussian surface of length L and of
radius , where a <  < b.

The left hand side of Gauss’ Law is written:

…and the right hand side becomes:

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 Coaxial Transmission Line (continued)

We may now solve for the flux density:

and the electric field intensity becomes:

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 Coaxial Transmission Line: Exterior Field

If a Gaussian cylindrical surface is drawn outside (  b), a

total charge of zero is enclosed, leading to the conclusion that

or:
 4.6 Applications of Gauss’ Law

C. Infinite Sheet of Charge

Consider the infinite sheet of uniform charge lying on the z = 0 plane.

Determine D at point P.
 4.6 Applications of Gauss’ Law
C. Infinite Sheet of Charge

Choose a rectangular box that is cut symmetrically by the sheet of charge and
has two of its faces parallel to the sheet as shown.
Notice that D is normal to the sheet,
D = Dz az

 
 S  dS = Q =  D  dS = Dz   dS +  dS 
top bottom 

 S A = Dz ( A + A)
S S
Dz = D= az
2 2

Find E ?

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 4.6 Applications of Gauss’ Law

D. Uniformly Charged Sphere

An insulating sphere of radius a has a uniform volume charge distribution .

 v C / m3
Find the D field everywhere, that is, at an inside point r <a, and also at an outside
point r > a.

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 4.6 Applications of Gauss’ Law
D. Uniformly Charged Sphere

For the case where 𝒓 ≤ 𝒂:

We construct a spherical Gaussian surface of radius r and apply Gauss's Law.
The total charge within the given radius:

2  r
4 3
Qenc =  v dv = v  =0 =0 r=0r 2
sin drd d =  v r
3
The flux at any point within the given radius 
2 
 =  D  dS = Dr   sin dd
r 2

 =0  =0

 = Dr 4r 2
 = Qenc 4r 3 r
Dr 4r = 2
 v  D = ρv ar
3 3
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 4.6 Applications of Gauss’ Law
D. Uniformly Charged Sphere

For the case where 𝒓 ≥ 𝒂:

We construct a spherical Gaussian surface of radius r and apply Gauss's Law.
The total charge within the given radius:

2  a
4 3
Qenc =   v dv =  v  =0 =0 r=0r 2
sin drd d =  v a
3

The flux at any point within the given radius 

2 
 =  D  dS = Dr   sin dd
r 2

 =0  =0

 = Dr 4r 2
 = Qenc
4 a 3
a 3
Dr 4r 2 =  v  D = 2 ρv ar
3 3r
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 4.6 Applications of Gauss’ Law
D. Uniformly Charged Sphere

» For r  a :
r
D = ρv ar
3 |D|
ra
» For :

a3
D = 2 ρv ar
a/3 v
3r

a
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Example and Practice:
Example 4.8
Given that 𝑫 = 𝑧𝜌𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜑𝒂𝒛 C/m2, calculate the charge
𝜋
density at (1, , 3) and the total charge enclosed by the
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cylinder of radius 1m with −2 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 2 m.
 v from D =

Q =   v dv =
v

Another way?

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Example and Practice:
Question 3
A charge distribution in free space has 𝜌𝑣 = 2𝑟 𝑛𝐶/𝑚3 for
0 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 10 𝑚 and zero otherwise. Determine E at r=2m and
r= 12m.

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Electromagnetic Simulation
And More Simulations
http://www.falstad.com/mathphysics.html

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 4.7 Electric Potential

Suppose we wish to move a point charge Q from point A to point B in

an electric field E a distance dL (to final position B),
the work expended is:

dW = Fappl dL = QE dL = -QE dL [J] Why the negative sign?

B (final) A (initital)
E
+ +
Fappl dL

dL

The path is along an electric field line (in the opposite direction),
and over the differential path length, the field can be assumed constant.

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 4.7 Electric Potential
B
the total work done will be W = −Q  E  dl
A

B
W
Dividing by Q results in, VAB = = −  E  dl
Q A

.
dW = Fappl dL = QE dL = -QE dL [J]

B (final) A (initital)
E
+ +
Fappl dL

dL

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 4.7 Electric Potential

Note That:

• In determining 𝑉𝐴𝐵 , A is the initial point while B is the final point.

• If 𝑉𝐴𝐵 is negative, there is a loss in potential energy in moving Q from A

to B (work done by the field).

• If 𝑉𝐴𝐵 is positive, there is a gain in potential energy in moving Q from A

to B (work done by external agent).

• 𝑉𝐴𝐵 is independent of the path taken.

• 𝑉𝐴𝐵 is measured in Joules per Coulomb (Volts V).

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 4.7 Electric Potential
We now have the work done in moving charge Q
from initial to final positions. This is the potential
energy gained by the charge as a result of this
position change.

The potential difference is defined as the work done (or potential energy gained)
per unit charge.
We express this quantity in units of Joules/Coulomb, or volts:

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 Potential Difference in a Point Charge Field
In this exercise, we evaluate the work done in
moving a unit positive charge from point B to
point A, within the field associated with point charge Q

where

.A .B and where in general:

rB
r
A

+
Q

The path used in getting to point A from

point B is immaterial, since only changes
in radius affect the result. Path independence
would also qualify this field as conservative, but we need to show
this.
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 4.7 Electric Potential: Point Charge

If the E is produced by a point charge Q located at the origin, then

rB rB
Q
VAB = −  E  dl = −  ar  drar
rA rA
40 r 2

Q 1 1
VAB =  −  = VB − VA
40  rB rA 
The Potential at any point is the potential difference between
that point and a chosen point at which the potential is zero.
Assuming zero potential at infinity, the potential at any point
due to a point charge located at the origin is,

r
V = −  E  dl

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Potential Functions Associated with Line, Surface,
and Volume Charge Distributions

Line Charge:

Surface Charge:

Volume Charge:

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If the reference is not at infinity (at any location) then
Q
V (r ) = +C
40 r
The potential at any point can be determined in two ways:
If charge distribution is known (use one of the equations
in the table above.

If E is known use,
V = −  E  dl + C

The potential difference

B
W
VAB = VB − VA = −  E  dl =
A
Q

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Example and Practice:

Two point charges Q1 = −4C and Q2 = 5C , located at

( 2,−1,3) and (0,4,−2) , respectively. Find the potential at
(1,0,1) assuming zero potential at infinity.

Q1 Q2
V (r ) = + + C0
40 r − r1 40 r − r2

V () = 0, C0 = 0

r − r1 = (1,0,1) − (2,−1,3) = (−1,1,−2) = 6

r − r2 = (1,0,1) − (0,4,−2) = (1,−4,3) = 26

10−6  − 4 5 
V (1,0,1) =  +  = −5.872kV
Then, 40  6 26 

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Group Exercise:
Question 1

A 5nC point charge is located at (−3,4,0) and a line charge at

y = 1, z = 1 carries a uniform charge of 2nC / m

(a) If V = 0 V at O (0,0,0) , find V at A(5,0,1) .

(b) If V = 100 V at B(1,2,1) , find V at C (−2,5,3) .
(c) If V = −5 V at O (0,0,0) , find VBC

Solution:

The potential at any point V = VQ + VL

What is VQ and what is VL

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 4.8 Relation Between Potential and Electric Field

The maximum rate of increase in potential should occur in a direction exactly

opposite the electric field:
unit vector normal to an equipotential
surface and in the direction of increasing
potential

Equipotential surfaces

E points in the direction

aN
of maximum rate of decrease
E in potential -- in the direction
of the negative gradient of V.

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 Electric Field in Terms of V in Rectangular Coordinates

The differential voltage change can be written as the sum of changes of V in the three coordinate
directions:

We also know that:

So that:

We therefore identify:

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 Electric Field as the Negative Gradient of the
Potential Field

We now have the relation between E and V

This is obtained by using the del operator, on V

A more compact relation therefore emerges, which is applicable to static electric fields:

E is equal to the negative gradient of V

The direction of the gradient is that of the maximum rate of increase in the scalar field, or normal
to all equipotential surfaces.
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 Electric Field – Potential and Maxwell’s Equation

VBA = −VAB
VBA + VAB =  E  dl = 0
• This means that the line integral along a closed path must be zero.
• Physically it means that no net work is done in moving a charge along a closed
path in an electrostatic field.

• From Stokes’s Theorem  E  dl =  (  E )  dS = 0

  E = 0 (Maxwell' s second equation)

• Then, we can say: E = −V

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