ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL

AND CAPACITANCE
BY
UTSAV VOHRA
[B.Tech, M.Tech (Gold Medalist)]
 Electric Potential
• Electric Potential- Electric potential at a point inside the EF of a charge
'q' is defined as the work done in bringing a unit positive test charge
from inifinty to that point.
W P
VP 
+ +q' +q' q'
q ꝏ
P
If q '   1C ,
V P  W  P

• It is a scalar quantity.
• S.I. unit is J/C or Volt (V)
 Electric Potential Difference
• Electric potential difference- Electric potential difference b/w two
points in the EF of a charge 'q' is defined as the work done in moving
a unit positive test charge from one point to another.
V  VPQ  VQ  VP
WQ W If q'  1C ,
+ VPQ    P
q
+q' +q' q' q' VPQ  WP Q
Q P ꝏ
WQ  W P
VPQ 
q'
WPQ
V  VPQ 
q'
• It is a scalar quantity.
• S.I. unit is J/C or Volt (V)
Electric potential and Electric Potential Energy
• Consider a charge '+q' placed at O.
• Let P be a point at a distance of 'r' from O in the
EF of charge +q where electric potential/electric
potential energy is to be determined. +q F +q0
dx

• Suppose 'q0' is initially at infinity. O r

P B A ꝏ
x
• We have to do some work in briging q0 from
infinity to the point P.
• Consider a small displacement 'dx' from A to B at
a distance of 'x' from charge 'q'.
• Let small amount of work done in displacing
through dx be 'dW'.
 dW  F.dx
dW  Fdx cos1800
dW  Fdx
• Total work done in bringing q0 from infinity to 'r' is-
W   dW 1 1  VP 
kq 1
W  kqq0     VP
W    Fdx r  r r
kqq0 For Electric potential
r
kqq0 W P 
W    2 dx r energy-

x For Electric potential- By work energy
r
W P theorem, this work
W  kqq0  x dx
2
VP 
 q0 will store in the form
kqq0 of P.E.
  1
r

W  kqq0   VP  kqq0
r  q0 W P U 
 x  r
Dependence of V and E with r
• Potential difference b/w two points-
W A B
VAB 
q0
r
 
2
1
W A B  kqq0   +q +q'
 x  r1
B A
1 1 r2
W A B  kqq0   
 r2 r1  r1
kqq0 1 1
VAB    
q0  r2 r1 
1 1
VAB  kq  
 r2 r1 
• NOTE- If you move in the direction of EF, potential decreases (for both
+ve and -ve charges)
 Electrostatic Potential Energy
• Electrostatic potential energy of a system of point charges is defined
as the amount of work done in assembling the charges at their
locations by bringing them in from infinity.
• Case 1- System of 2 point charges-

+q1 r +q2 +q1 r -q2

kq q kq1q2
U 1 2 U 
r r

U = +ve (Due to repulsive forces) U = -ve (Due to attractive forces)

(Work is done) (Work is obtained)
• Case 2- System of 3 point charges-
q1
U  U12  U 23  U 31

r12 r31 kq1q2 kq2 q3 kq3q1

U  
r12 r23 r31
r23
q2 q3

• Case 3- Potential energy in an external field-

q1 (V1) W
V 
q1
q
r
q2(V2) W  q  V

kq1q2
q2 W  q1V1  q2V2 
r
Q. Find potential energy of the given system-
a
A. U  U AB  U BC  U CD  U AD  U AC  U BD q
A B
q

kqq  kqq  kqq kqq  kqq kqq

U     
a a a a 2a 2a a a
U 0
D C
q -q
a

Q. Find potential at point O and D. q a q

A B
A. VO = VAO + VBO+ VCO+ VDO
kq kq  kq kq
VO    

a/ 2  
a/ 2  
a/ 2  
a/ 2  a O a

2 2kq
VO  D C
a q
a
-q
VD  VAD  VBD  VCD
kq kq  kq
VD   
a 2a a
kq
VD 
2a
 Equi-potential Surface (EPS)
• A surface around a charge or a charge distribution that has same
electric potential at every point is called an equi-potential surface.

B +q
A

EPS for a point EPS for a line

charge EPS for a sheet
charge
(spherical) charge
(cylindrical)
kq (parallel sheet)
VA  VB 
r
• EPS for a dipole-

• EPS for similar charges-

• NOTE- Work done in moving a charge from one point to another on an

EPS is zero because potential of all points is same so potential difference
is zero.
W = q(△V) = q(V - V) = 0
Q. Calculate work done by an electron in moving around the nucleus.
A. Work done = 0 because electron is moving around the nucleus in an
orbit which is an EPS.
• Properties of EPS-
1) No work is done in moving a test charge over an EPS. E

EPS
WAB  q(VAB )  q(VA  VB )  0 +q dl
A B

2) EF is always normal to an EPS at every point.

Reason- If the field was not normal to the EPS then it would have a non-
zero component along the surface. So, to move a test charge against this
component, some work would have to be done. But, we know work done
in moving a charge over an EPS is zero. Hence, EF should be normal to EPS.
3) EPSs are closer to each other in the regions of strong EFs and farther
apart in the regions of weak EFs.
E = -dV/dr
'E' is electric field
'dV' is potential difference
'dr' is gap b/w two EPSs
If dV is constant, dr α (1/E)
4) 2 EPSs can never intersect each other because at the point of
intersection, there would be two values of potential which is not possible.
A
Q. What is the relation b/w WAC and WBC?
A. Since potentials of points A, B and C are
C +q
same, so WAC and WBC will be equal and
B
equal to zero.
Q. What is the relation b/w WAC and WBC? A

A. WAC = WBC
C
Because WAC = q'(VC - VA) +q

and, WBC = q'(VC - VB) B

Also, VB = VA (Points on EPS)
So, WBC = WAC
Q. Why electrostatic forces are conservative in nature?
A. Since work done in moving a charge q' from a point A to a point B in an
uniform EF is independent of the path and just depends on the initial and
final point, so electrostatic forces are conservative in nature.

A A q'
E C
q' E
B B

WAB = q'(VB - VA) WAB = WAC + WCB

= q'(VC - VA) + q'(VB - VC)
= q'(VB - VA)
 Electric Potential at an Axial Point of a Dipole
• Suppose there is a dipole made up of ±q
and length 2a, such that dipole moment,
p  q  2a
• Let P be a point on the axis of the dipole
at a distance of 'r' where net electric
potential is to be calculated.
• Potential at P is given as-
VP = VA + VB
k (q) kq
VP  
r a r a
   (r  a)  (r  a) 
VP  kq  
 ( r  a )( r  a ) 
 2a 
VP  kq  2
 r  a 
2

kp
VP  2
r  a2
For a dipole, a << r,
kp
So, P
V  2
 a 
r 2 1  2 
 r 
0
kp
Vax  2
r
 Electric Potential at an Equitorial Point of a
dipole
• Suppose there is a dipole made up of ±q and
length 2a, such that dipole moment,
p  q  2a
• Let P be a point on the equitorial axis of the
dipole at a distance of 'r' where net electric
potential is to be calculated.
• Potential at P is given as-
VP = VA + VB
k (q) kq
VP   0 So, Veq  0
y y
 Electric Potential at any point of a dipole
P

VP = VA + VB
r1
= -kq/r1 + kq/r2 r r2
Since r >> a,
-q +q
So, r1 = r + acosθ A a θ a
θ B
and, r2 = r - acosθ
 1 1 
VP  kq 
 r  a cos r  a cos 
kp cos
VP  2
r  a 2 cos2 
Q. Calculate potentia at a point 12 cm away on the axis of a dipole having
charge ±5μC and length 1Ȧ.
A. Dipole moment, p = 5 x 10-6 x 1 x 10-10 = 5 x 10-16 C-m
Vax = kp/r2
Vax = (9 x 109 x 5 x 10-16)/(0.12)2
Vax = 0.31 x 10-3 V
 Relationship b/w E and V (or ∆V)
• Suppose a point charge '+q' is placed at O. E

• Let a test charge '+q0' be displaced from a point A to point

A q0
B in the EF of '+q' by a small displacement 'dr' towards the dr
charge '+q'. B
• Let the potential of point A be 'V' and of point B be 'V +
dV'. +q O

• Small amount of work done in displacing q0 from A to B is

given as-
dW  F .dr Also, dW  q0 (VB  VA )
dW  ( q0 E )(dr ) cos 180 0 dW  q0 [(V  dV )  (V )]
dW   q0 Edr ....(1) dW  q0 dV ....(2)
From (1) and (2), we get,
q0 dV  q0 Edr
dV
E
dr

• NOTE-
1) If V is variable, use E = -dV/dr
2) If V is constant, use E = V/L
3) If E is variable, use V    E.dr
4) If E is constant, use V = (E)(L)
Q. Calculate force on electron. 0.5 m
e-
A. Since V is constant here,
So, E = V/L = 10/0.5
So, E = 20 V/m 10 V

Now, we know, F = qE
So, F = -1.6 x 10-19 x 20
So, F = 3.2 x 10-18 N (Against EF) (towards +ve terminal)
Q. Calculate potential difference b/w the two plates.
+σ -σ
A. Since E is constant here,
So, V = (E)(L)
  
Enet   
Here, E = σ/ϵ0 (done in chapter 1) 2 0 2 0 0

So, V = (σ/ϵ0)(d) = σd/ϵ0 d

Q. In a region, potential is given by V(x) = 4x2. Calculate force experienced
by 1μC placed at x = 1 m.
A. Since potential is varying just in x direction, so,
E = -dV/dx
E = -8x
At x = 1 m, E = -8 x 1 = -8 V/m
So, F = qE = -8 x 1 x 10-6
F = -8 x 10-6 N
or, F = 8 x 10-6 N (in the direction of EF)
Q. Potential in a region is given as V = 10x2 + 5y2 - 3z2. Calculate the three
components of EF and net EF at point (-1, 2, 3).
A. Since potential is varying in all three directions, so we will use partial
derivative here.
  V V V 
E     
 x y z 
such that,
V V V
Ex   ; Ey   ; Ez  
x y z
V
Ex    20 x N/C
x
V
Ey    10 y N/C
y
V
Ez    6 z N/C
z
So, E  E x  E y  E z
So, E  (20 xiˆ  10 yˆj  6 zkˆ) N/C
At
(-1,
2,
3),
E(
20(
1)iˆ10
(2)ˆ
j6
(3 ˆ)N/C
)k
So, iˆ20
E(20 ˆ ˆ)N/C
j18
k  E  (20
)2
(20
)2
(
18)2
33
.53
N/C
net
Q. Figures show some equipotential surfaces. What can you say about the
magnitude and the direction of EF?

5V 10 V 15 V
(i) (ii)
300 300 300
10 20 30 r (in cm)

A. E = -dV/dr where 'dr' is perpendicular distance b/w any two EPSs and
'dV' is potential difference b/w them.
Direction of 'E' will be perpendicular to EPS and in direction of decreasing
potential.
(i) E = -(30-60)/(0.20-0.10) = 300 V/m
(ii) E = -(5-10)/(0.1cos600) = 100 V/m
 Potential due to a Thin Metallic Charged
Spherical Shell/Solid Sphere
Q. Is it possible that in a region, EF is
zero but potential is not zero?
+q
r P E
A. Yes
Consider a thin spherical shell of radius R

'R' having charge '+q' with centre as O.

Let P be a point at a distance of 'r' from
centre O where electric potential is to V    E.dr    Edr cos 00
be determined.
Case 1- P lies outside the sphere (r > R) V  kq r  2 dr

Potential at a point is given as- kq 1

V  V
r r
Case 2- P lies on the surface (r = R)
V = kq/R = constant
Case 3- P lies inside the surface (r < R)
We know, EF inside a thin metallic sphere
is zero.
But, V    E.dr    (0)dr cos 00
Kq
V  constant 
R

1 1
• NOTE- E point chargeα 2 ; Vpoint chargeα
r r
1 1
E dipole α 3 ; Vdipole α 2
r r
 Capacitors and Capacitance
• Capacitance is the property of a conductor which tells us about the
capacity of the conductor to hold charge over its surface.
VαQ Q
If V = 1V, then C = Q
or, Q α V V • So, capacitance of a body is
or, Q = CV the amount of charge given
to it, to raise its potential by
where 'C' is the capacitance of the body.
1 volt.
Unit - C/V or Farad (F) • 1 Farad is the capacitance of
1μF = 10-6 F a body for which 1 C charge
1pF = 10-12 F is required to raise the
potential by 1 V.
 Capacitance of a Spherical Capacitor
Consider a spherical metal body of radius R, carrying charge Q and
charged at potential V.
Q
We know, V = KQ/R
So, V = Q/4πϵ0R V R

Also, C = Q/V
So, C = 4πϵ0R
or, C α R
 Principle of Parallel Plate Capacitor
• Symbol of constant capacitance parallel plate capacitor-
• Symbol of variable capacitance parallel plate capacitor-
• Principle-
Parallel plate capacitor is a device in which large amount of +Q -Q +Q
charge can be stored in a very small space.
A B
Suppose there is a metallic plate A having +Q charge.
Bring another metal plate B near A. By induction, -Q
develops on left side of B (towards A) and +Q on right side
(away from A).
-Q of B tries to decrease VA and +Q of B tries to increase VA.
But, -ve of B is nearer to A, so its influence is more.
So, net VA decreases and thus C increases.
Now, ground B.
So, +ve of B neutralises with the electrons from ground.
Now, B is only -vely charged.
It decreases VA too much and so, net capacitance increases by large
amount.
+Q -Q +Q +Q -Q

A B B
e- A
 Capacitance of a Parallel Plate Capacitor
• Suppose there is a parallel plate capacitor made up
of two plates having charge densities +σ and -σ.
• Let 'A' be the area of each plate, 'd' be the
separation b/w the plates.
• Let '+Q' and '-Q' be the charge on the plates such
that σ = Q/A.
• The EF in the region b/w the plates is given by-
  
E0   
2 0 2 0 0
Q Q
E0  [ σ  ]
A 0 A
• The potential diff. b/w the plates is given  C  A
by-  C 
V  E0 (d )
1
Q  C
V (d ) d
A 0
If the capacitor is filled with a
• So, Capacitance of parallel capacitor is
medium of permittivity ϵm,
given as-
A m
Q Cm 
C d
V
Cm m
C
Q So,  r or K
 Qd  C0 0
 A 0 

A 0
C0  Relative Dielectric
d permittivity constant
 Cm Capacitance of ppc with medium
r or K  
C0 Capacitance of same ppc with vacuum
Cm r C0
Q. If a dielectric of relative perm. 5 is inserted b/w the plates of the
capacitor, then what will be the new capacitance?
A. C' = 5C0
Q. If capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is increased by 5 times by
inserting a dielectric medium, then what is ϵm of the medium?
A. C' = 5C0
So, ϵr = 5
We know, ϵm = ϵr x ϵ0
So, ϵm = 5 x 8.85 x 10-12
So, ϵm = 5.31 x 10-11 C2/Nm2
 Capacitance of a PPC with a Metal Slab
• Suppose there is a parallel plate capacitor made up
of two plates having charge densities +σ and -σ.
• Let 'A' be the area of each plate, 'd' be the
separation b/w the plates.
• Let '+Q' and '-Q' be the charge on the plates such
that σ = Q/A.
• Let a metal slab of thickness 't' be inserted b/w the
plates as shown in figure.
• Charge will be distributed over this surface as show
in figure.
• EF b/w the plates of capacitor and metal slab is given as-
  
E0   
2 0 2 0 0
Q Q
E0  [ σ  ]
A 0 A
• EF inside the conductor or metal slab is-
Em = 0
• The potential in the region b/w the plates is given by-
V  Em (t )  E0 (d  t )
Q
V 0 (d  t )
A 0
Q(d  t )
V
A 0
• Capacitance of the PPC is given as-
Q
C
V
Q
C
Q(d  t ) A 0
A 0
Cms 
d t
A 0 A 0
Since, C0  and Cms 
d d t
So, Cms  C0
 Capacitance of a PPC with a Dielectric Slab
Q. Show that capacitance of a PPC increases on
inserting a dielectric slab b/w the plates.
OR
Show that on inserting a dielectric slab, net EF
decreases.
• Suppose there is a parallel plate capacitor made
up of two plates having charge densities +σ and -
σ.
• Let 'A' be the area of each plate, 'd' be the
separation b/w the plates.
• Let '+Q' and '-Q' be the charge on the plates such
that σ = Q/A.
• When a dielectric slab of thickness 't' is inserted b/w the plates, then
each molecule(like water)/ion(like copper sulphate)/atom(like
semiconductors) of the dielectric slab gets polarised due to induction as
shown in figure.
• Hence, an EF develops inside the dielectric opposite to the applied EF
i.e. EF of the capacitor.
• So, net EF b/w the plates of the capacitor plates decreases [E0 - Ei].
 Q
E0   Since, r  1,
0 A 0 Q A 0
Cds  
 Q V 
 
t  So, Cds  C0
Ei    d t
 
m A 0r  r 

A 0
V  Ei (t )  E0 (d  t ) Cds 
 1
Q Q d  t 1  
V (t )  (d  t )  r 
A 0r A 0
Q  t 
V   
r 
d t
A 0 
 Capacitors in Series and Parallel
• Series- Charge remains same, p.d. divides.
Q = C1V1; Q = C2V2; Q = C3V3
Also, V = V1 + V2 + V3 and V = Q/Cs,
So, Q/Cs = Q/C1 + Q/C2 + Q/C3
So, 1/Cs = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3
• Parallel- p.d. remains same, charge divides.
Q1 = C1V; Q2 = C2V; Q3 = C3V
Also, Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 and Q = CpV,
So, CpV = C1V + C2V + C3V
So, Cp = C1 + C2 + C3
Q. Find net capacitance b/w A and B for the given circuit.

A. C2 and C3 are in parallel and similarly, C4 and C5 are in parallel.

So, Cp1 = 2 + 2 = 4 F and Cp2 = 2 + 2 = 4 F.
Now, C1 and Cp1 are in series and similalrly, C6 and Cp2 are in series.
So, Cs1 = 2 F and Cs2 = 2 F.
Now, Cs1 and Cs2 are in parallel,
So, Cnet = 2 + 2 = 4 F.
Q. Find out net capacitance b/w A and B in the following cases-
(i) (iii)

(ii) (iv)

(v)
A. (i) The given circuit can be redrawn as-
K1 ( A / 2) 0
C1 
d
K ( A / 2) 0
C2  2
d
K ( A / 2) 0 K 2 ( A / 2) 0
Cnet  C1  C2  1 
d d
K  K 2 A 0
Cnet  1
2d
(ii) The given circuit can be redrawn as-
K1 A 0 K A K A
C1  ; C2  2 0 ; C3  3 0
d 3 d 3 d 3
1 d d d
  
Cs 3K1 A 0 3K 2 A 0 3 A 0
1 d  1 1 
    1
Cs 3 A 0  K1 K 2 
d  K 2  K1  K1K 2  3A 0  K1K2 
1
    Cs   
Cs 3 A 0  K1K 2  d  K2  K1  K1K2 
(iii) Try yourself. (v) The given circuit is equivalent
(iv) The given circuit is equivalent to- to-
M-1: M-1:

Cnet = C + C +C = 3C
M-2: Cnet = C + C = 2C
M-2:

Since, p.d. b/w the three capacitors

is same. Cnet = C + C = 2C
Therefore, they are taken in parallel.
• Wheat stone bridge principle-

If C1/C2 = C3/C4
OR
C1/C3 = C2/C4
then, charge through C5 = 0 or p.d. across C5 will be zero.
Q. Find net capacitance b/w A and B for the following circuits-
(i) (ii)

A. (i)

This circuit can be redrawn as- So, CAB = 18/5 F.

Using wheat stone bridge principle,

4/6 = 2/3, so,removing cap. b/w C and D.
(ii)

This circuit can be redrawn as-

The wires not having any capacitor have zero p.d. so can be joined.
So, the circuit reduces to-

So, Cnet = 3 + 3 + 3 = 9
Q. Find charge and p.d. on each capacitor.
(i) (iii)

(ii) (iv)
Q. Find potential of point P and Q Q. Find net capacitance b/w
in the given circuit. points A and B in the following
circuits-
(i)

(ii)
Q. It is required to construct a 10 μF capacitor circuit which can be
connected to a 180 V supply. Capcitors of 10 μF are available but they can
withstand only 50 V. Design a combination that can yield the desired
result.
 Energy and Energy density of a Capacitor
• A capacitor is a device to store energy. The process of charging up a
capacitor involves the transferring of electric charges from one place
to another.
• The work done in charging the capacitor is stored as its electrical
potential energy.
• This energy is supplied by the battery at the expense of its stored
chemical energy and can be recovered by allowing the capacitor to
discharge.
• Consider a capacitor of capacitance 'C'. Initially its
two plates are uncharged.
• Suppose the positive charge is transferred from
plate 2 to plate 1 bit by bit.
• In this case, external work has to be done because at
any stage plate 1 is at higher potential than plate 2.
• Suppose at any instant the plates 1 and 2 have
charges Q' and -Q' respectively, as shown in figure.
• Then the p.d. b/w the plates will be-
Q'
V '
C
• Suppose now a small additional charge dQ' be
trasnferred from plate 2 to plate 1. The work done
will be-
Q'
dW  V '.dQ'  dQ'
C
• The total work done in transferring a charge Q from plate 2 to plate 1
will be- Q
Q' 2 Q
 Q'  1 Q2
W   dW   dQ'     .
0
C  C 0 2 C
• This work done is stored as electrical potential energy U of the
capacitor. 1 Q2 1
U .  .CV 2  .QV  Q  CV 
1
2 C 2 2

• Energy density-
• A charged capacitor stores energy in the form of electric field.
• Consider a parallel plate capacitor, having plate area 'A' and plate
separation 'd'. Capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor is given by-
A 0
C
d
• If σ is the surface charge density on the capacitor plates, then EF b/w
the plates is given by- 
E or   E
0
0
• Charge on either plate of capacitor is-
Q  A 0 EA
• Therefore, energy stored in the capacitor is-
U
Q2  EA  1  E 2 Ad
 0
2

2C 2 A 0 d  2
0

• But, Ad = volume of the capacitor b/w its two plates.

• Therefore, energy stored per unit volume or energy density of the EF is
given by-
U U 1
u   0 E 2
Vol. Ad 2
Q. If several capacitors are connected in series or parallel, show that the
energy stored would be additive in either case.
A. For series, Q = constant
Q2 1 Q2  1 
Total energy, U  .  .  1  1  ...
2 C 2  C1 C2 C3 
Q2 Q2 Q2
U    ...
2C1 2C2 2C3
U U1 U2 U3 ...

For parallel, V = constant

Total energy, U  1 CV 2  1 C1  C2  C3  ...V 2
2 2
1
U  C1V 2  C2V 2  C3V 2  ...
2
U U1 U2 U3 ...
 Sharing/Redistribution of Charges
• Suppose there are 2 capacitors of capacitance C1 and C2 having charge
Q1 and Q2.
• Potentials of the capapcitors are V1 and V2.
V1 Before sharing V2
C1 C2

Q1 = C 1 V 1 Q2 = C2V2
• Suppose we connect these two capacitors with a wire. Charge flows
from higher potential to lower potential till their potentials become
equal. After sharing V
V
C1 C2

Q'1 = C1V Q'2 = C2V

• So, after sharing of charge,
Q'1 = C1V and Q'2 = C2V
By conservation of charge,
Q1 + Q2 = Q'1 + Q'2
C1V1 + C2V2 = C1V + C2V
V = C1V1 + C2V2/(C1 + C2)
where 'V' is common potential
Q. Show that there is always loss of energy in sharing of charge.
1 1
A. i  2
 2 2
E C V
1 1 C V
2 2
 C1  C2 
1  C1V1  C2V2  E  E 
1 C1C2
V  V 2
2
1 1
2
2  C1  C2 
 i f
2 C1  C 2  1 2

E f  C1V  C2V
2 2

2 2 C1V1  C2V2 
2  always  ve

 C1  C2 V
1 2 2C 1  C 2  Ei  E f  0
2 Ei  E f
 Loss of energy
 Effects on Various Parameters of Capacitor
1) Inserting a dielectric slab
a) Battery remains connected-
C = k (C0) ↑
Q = CV = K (Q0) ↑
V = constant
U = (1/2)QV = K (U0) ↑
EF = V/d = constant
where 'K' is dielectric constant
b) Battery removed-
C = k (C0) ↑
Q = constant
V = Q/C = V0/K ↓
U = Q2/2C = U0/K ↓
EF = V/d = E0/K ↓
where 'K' is dielectric constant
2) Increasing the separation b/w the plates
a) Battery remains connected-
C = Aϵ0/d ↓
V = constant
Q = CV ↓
U = (1/2)CV2 ↓ EF = V/d ↓
b) Battery removed-
C = Aϵ0/d ↓
Q = constant
V = Q/C ↑
U = Q2/2C ↑
EF = V/d = constant
• Similar ques. can be made by changing the area of the plates also.
 Dielectrics and their Polarization
• A dielectric is a substance which doesn't allow the flow of charges through
it but it permits them to exert electrostatic forces on one another through
it. A dielectric is essentially an insulator which can be polarised through
small localised displacement of its charges.
• Examples- Glass, wax, water, air, wood, rubber, plastic, etc.
• Polar dielectrics- A molecule in which the centre of mass of positive
charges (protons) does not coincide with the centre of mass of negative
charges (electrons) is called a polar molecule. The dielectrics made from
them are called polar dielectrics.
• These molecules have permanent dipole moments of the order of 10-30 C-
m.
• Examples- HCl, H2O, etc.
• Non-polar dielectrics- A molecule in which the centre of mass of positive
charges (protons) coincides with the centre of mass of negative charges
(electrons) is called a non-polar molecule. The dielectrics made from
them are called non-polar dielectrics.
• They have normally zero dipole moment (individually).
• Examples- H2, N2, O2, CO2, CH4, etc.
• Polarization in an external EF-
1) For Non-polar dielectrics-
In the absence of any EF, the individual dipole moments of all the
molecules of a non-polar dielectric is zero. So, net dipole moment is also
zero.
In the presence of an external EF E0, the centres of positive charges are
displaced in the direction of EF and the centres of negative charges are
displaced in the opposite direction.
• This induces dipole moment in each molecule
and a net dipole moment is also developed in
the dielectric in the direction of applied EF.
2) For Polar dielectrics-
• The molecules of a polar dielectric have
permanent dipole moments. In the absence of
any external EF, these dipole moments are
randomly oriented due to thermal agitation in
the material. So, total dipole moment of the
dielectric is zero.
• When external EF is applied, these dipole
moments tend to align with the field due to
which a net dipole moment is developed in the
direction of field.
• The extent of polarization depends on relative values of two opposing
energies:
a) The P.E. of the dipole in the external field which tends to align the
dipole with the field.
b) Thermal energy of agitation which tends to randomise the alignment of
the dipole.
• Hence both polar and non-polar dielectrics develop a net dipole moment
in the presence of an external electric field. This fact is called
polarization of the dielectric.
• The polarization P is defined as the dipole moment produced per unit
volume and its magnitude is usually referred to as the polarization
density.
• The direction of P is same as that of the external field E0.
 Dielectric Constant
• Consider a rectangular dielectric slab placed in a
uniform EF E0 acting parallel to two of its faces.
• Its molecular dipoles align themselves in the
direction of E0. This results in polarization of the
dielectric in such a way that the volume charge
density in the interior is zero and there is a net
uncancelled (induced) negative charge on the left
face and positive charge on the right face.
• Since the slab as a whole remains electrically
neutral, the magnitude of positive induced
surface charge is equal to that of negative charge.
• Thus the polarized dielectric is equivalent to two
charged surfaces with induced surface charge
densities ±σP.
• In case of homogeneous and isotropic dielectric,
the induced surfaces set up an EF Ep (field due to
polarization) inside the dielectric opposite to the
external field E0, thus reducing the original field in
the dielectric.
• The resultant field E in the dielectric will be equal
to E0 - Ep and directed in the direction of E0.
• The ratio of original field E0 and the reduced field
E0 - Ep in the dielectric is called dielectric constant
(K) or relative permittivity (ϵr).
E0 E0
 
E E0  E P
• Polarisation density- The induced dipole moment developed per unit
volume of a dielectric when placed in an external EF is called polarisation
density. It is denoted by P.
• Let σP be the surface charge density of the dielectric, then
Qp
p 
A
where Qp is the charge acquired on the faces.
• We have considered the whole dielectric slab as a large dipole having
dipole moment equal to Qpd.
• The dipole moment per unit volume or polarisation density is given as-
dipole moment of dielectric Q p d Q p
P   p
volume of dielectric Ad A
• Thus the polarisation density may be defined as the charge induced per
unit surface area.
• Electric susceptibility- If the field E is not large, then the polrisation P is
proportional to the resultant field E existing in the dielectric, i.e.,
P  E or P  0 E
where  (chi) is a proportionality constant called electric susceptibility. The
multiplicative factor ϵ0 is used to keep  dimensionless.
P

0 E
• Thus the ratio of the polarisation to ϵ0 times the EF is called the electric
susceptibility of dielectric.
• The dielectrics with constant  are called linear dielectrics.
• Relation b/w K and  - P Dividing both sides by E we get,
 E  Eo 
The net EF in a polarised dielectric is- 0 E
1 o  
E  Eo  E P 0 E E
or, E  Eo 
p P 0 1  
But EP   or,   1  
0 0
• Dielectric strength- When a dielectric is placed in a very high EF, the
outer electrons may get detached from their parent atoms. The dielectric
then behaves like a conductor. This phenomenon is called dielectric
breakdown.
• The maximum EF that can exist in a dielectric without causing the
breakdown of its insulating property is called dielectric strength of the
material.
• The unit of dielectric strength is same as that of EF i.e. V/m but the
common practical unit is KV/mm.
 Behaviour of Conductors in EFs
1) Net EF is zero in the interior of a conductor.
• When a conductor is placed in an external field Eext, its
free electrons begin to move in the opposite direction
of Eext. Negative charges are induced on the left side
end and positive on the right end.
• This process continues till the EF Eind set up by the
induced charges becomes equal and opposite to the
field Eext.
• The net field E (= Eext - Eind) inside the conductor will
be zero.
2) Just outside the surface of a charged conductor, EF is normal to the surface.
• If the EF is not normal to the surface, it will have a component tangential to
the surface which will immediately cause the flow of charges, producing
surface currents. But no such currents can exist under static conditions.
• Hence EF is normal to the surface of the conductor at every point.
3) The net charge in the interior of a conductor is zero and any excess charge
resides at its surface.
• Consider a conductor carrying an excess
charge 'q' with no currents flowing in it.
• Choose a gaussian surface inside the
conductor just near its outer boundary.
• As the field E = 0 at all points inside the
conductor, the flux φE through the gaussian
surface must be zero.
• According to Gauss's theorem,
q
E   E.ds 
0
As E  0, so q  0
• Hence there will be no charge in the interior of the conductor because
the Gaussian surface lies just near the outer boundary.
• The entire excess charge 'q' must reside at the surface of the conductor.
4) Potential is constant within and on the surface of a conductor.
• EF at any point is equal to the negative of the potential gradient, i.e.,
E = -dV/dr
• But inside a conductor E = 0 and moreover, EF has no tangential
component on the surface, so dV/dr = 0 or V = constant
• Hence electric potential is constant throughout the volume of the
conductor and has the same value (as inside) on the surface.
• Thus the surface of a charged conductor is an equipotential surface.
• If a conductor is charged, there exists and EF normal to its surface. This
indicates that the potential on the surface will be different from the
potantial at a point just outside the surface.
5) Electric field at the surface of a charged conductor is proportional to the
surface charge density.
• Consider a charged conductor of irregular shape. Let σ be
the charge density at any point of its surface.
• Imagine a gaussian surface as shown in the figure. The pill
box lies partly inside and partly outside the conductor. It
has a cross-sectional area ∆S and negligible height.
• EF is zero inside the conductor and just outside, it is
normal to the surface. The contribution to the total flux
through the pill box comes only from its outer cross-
section given by- E  ES
• Charge enclosed by pill box, q = σ∆S
• By Gauss's theorem,
q
E 
0
S
ES 
0

or, E 
0
As E points normally outward, so

E nˆ
0
where nˆ is a unit vector normal to the surface in the outer direction.
6) Electric field is zero in the cavity of a hollow charged conductor.
• Consider a charged conductor having a cavity, with no charges inside the
cavity.
• Imagine a Gaussian surface inside the conductor quite close to the cavity.
• Everywhere inside the conductor, E = 0.
• By Gauss's theorem, charge enclosed by this Gaussian surface is zero
(because E = 0, so q = 0).
• Consequently, the EF must be zero at every point inside the cavity
(because q = 0, so E = 0).
• So, the entire excess charge +q lies on its surface.
 Electrostatic Shielding
• The phenomenon of making a region free from any EF is called
electrostatic shielding. It is based on the fact that EF vanishes inside
the cavity of a hollow conductor.
• Such a field free region is called a Faraday cage.
• Applications-
1) In a thunderstorm accompanied by lightning, it is safest to sit inside
a car, rather than near a tree or on the open ground.
2) Sensitive components of electronic devices are shielded from
external electric disturbances by placing metal shields around them.
3) In a coaxial cable, the outer conductor connected to ground provides
an electric shield to the signals carried by the central conductor.
 Spherical Capacitor
• A spherical capacitor consists of two concentric
spherical shells of inner and outer radii 'a' and
'b'.
• The two shells carry charges -Q and +Q
respectively.
• Since the EF inside a hollow conductor is zero, so
E = 0 for r < a. Also the field is zero outside the
outer shell, i.e., E = 0 for r > b.
• A radial field E exists in the region between the
two shells due to the charge on the inner shell
only.
• Consider a spherical Gaussian surface of radius
'r' such that a < r < b.
 Q Q
E  E.4r 2  or E 
0 4 0 r 2
• The p.d. (caused by the inner sphere alone) between the two shells will
be-
Q 1 1
b b b
Q
V    E.dr   Edr   r 2
dr    
a a
4 0 a 4 0  a b 

 E points radially inward and dr points outward so E.dr  Edr cos180 0

 -Edr 
• The capacitance of the spherical capacitor is-
Q Q 4 0 ab
C  or C 
V Q 1 1 ba

4 0  a b 
 Cylindrical Capacitor
• A cylindrical capacitor consists of two coaxial conducting
cylinders of inner and outer radii 'a' and 'b'.
• Let the two cylinders have uniform linear charge
densities of ±λ C/m.
• The length L of the capacitor is so large (L >> radii a or b)
that the edge effect can be neglected.
• The EF in the region b/w the two cylinders comes only
from the inner cylinder, the outer cylinder does not
contribute due to shielding.
• Consider a cylindrical Gaussian surface of radius 'r' such
that a < r < b as shown in figure.
• Using Gauss's theorem, the flux through Gaussian surface must be-
q L
E  or E.2rL 
0 0

So, E 
2 0 r

• P.d. b/w the two cylinders is-

 
b b
V    E.dr   Edr  E and dr are in opposite directions
a a

 b1
 
2 0 a r
dr

 b
V ln
2 0 a

• Total charge on each cylinder is Q = Lλ

Q L 2 0 L
• So, capacitance of cylindrical capacitor is- C  or C 
V  b b
ln ln
2 0 a a