Subject Name: Machine Drawing & CAD

Subject Code: ME-4003

Semester: 4th
Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

Unit-1 Drawing Conventions

An engineer needs to communicate his ideas, proposals and decisions to his colleagues,
subordinates superiors, buyers and users. Many of them may be engineers. The communication
may be through spoken and written language but additionally an engineering idea is more
accurately, conveniently and clearly communicated through drawings. The drawing speaks
through graphical language and is effectively understood by engineers and artisians who
normally are responsible to convert ideas into products. An engineering drawing conveys all the
ideas about the product – such as material to be used, machining operations and more
importantly the size of parts, shapes and assembly procedure. However, both preparing such
drawing and reading them requires in depth training and present text aims at that.
Before you ready yourself to learn to communicate through drawing importance of such
communication must be borne in mind. They become the tool of implementation of plan (like
building, plant and structure) ideas and imagination (like design of machines and parts thereof).
Having been implemented they become legal documents as building constructed and parts of
machine made on contract. Deviation of actual entity may become the source of litigation
between one who awards contract and the awardee. The drawing will serve as evidence to
favour or disfavour the contractor. Therefore making right drawing is essential.
TYPES OF MACHINE DRAWING
Assembly Drawing
Any machine is represented totally in assembly drawing with parts placed in right positions. It is
preferable that the dimension of the parts of the machine are not shown as they would crowd
the drawing. Instead overall dimensions are shown. This drawing may be used during
assembling.
Part Drawing
Each part of the machine is drawn separately with a number of views so that its manufacture
will become convenient. Besides dimensions surface finish and limits, the part drawing shows
finishing processes like heat treatment and any other surface finish
Shop Floor Drawing
This drawing comprises both part & assembly drawing & facilitate manufacturing.
Catalogue Drawings
The skeletal drawing with leading dimensions & without sections are used in catalogues for
presenting before buyers & users.
Instruction Manual Drawing
These are meant for users & are assembly drawings of a machine with parts numbered for
identification.
Drawings with Exploded View
These drawing shows parts separated in full view and numbered. The parts appear in exact
sequence of assembly and can be assembled easily even if one does not have such experience.
No dimensions are placed on exploded view drawing.
Drawings with Schematic Representation
It is an important characteristic of machine drawing that several parts that are repeatedly used
in machines are assigned symbols. For example, gears are represented by circles, springs by lines
and threads by other schemes. There are many parts that come ready made from other
manufacturers like ball and roller bearing pneumatic, electric and hydraulic transmission
systems. They all have symbolic representations. If machine uses such parts the details of
standard parts is omitted and symbols occupy their positions.

Page no: 1 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

Patent Drawing
These drawing are more loaded towards establishment of innovation & inventions Though it
may carry overall or leading dimensions, the detailed dimension may be missing.
Sectional Views
Sectional views, commonly called sections, are used to show interior detail that is too
complicated to be shown clearly and dimensioned by the traditional orthographic views and
hidden lines. A sectional view is obtained making an imaginary cut through the part, and by
drawing the features on the cut surface, as shown in Figure 1.1. In a drawing, the exposed or
cut surfaces are identified by section lining, or crosshatching. Section views show internal part
detail as solid lines instead of hidden lines, which improve communication. Hidden lines and
details behind the cutting-plane line are usually omitted unless they are required for clarity. A
sectional view can sometimes replace one of the regular views, for example, a regular front
view as shown in Figure 1.2.

Fig 1.1. Cutting a part and showing a section view.

Fig1.2. A section drawing

Page no: 2 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

The Cutting-Plane Line

A cutting-plane line indicates where the imaginary cutting takes place. The position of
the cutting plane is indicated, when necessary, on a view of the object or assembly by
a cutting-plane line, as shown in Figure 1.3. The ends of the cutting- plane line are
bent at 90 degrees and terminated by arrowheads to indicate the direction of sight for
viewing the section. Cutting planes are not shown on sectional views. The
cutting-plane line may be omitted when it corresponds to the centerline of the part or
when only one sectional view appears on a drawing.

Figure 1.3. A Cutting plane line.

If two or more sections appear on the same drawing, the cutting -plane lines are
identified by two identical large, single-stroke, Gothic letters. One letter is placed at
each end of the line. Sectional view subtitles are given when identification letters are
used and appear directly below the view, incorporating the letters at each end of the
cutting-plane line, thus: SECTION A-A or, abbreviated, SECT A-A.
Section Lining
Section lining indicates the surface that has been cut and makes it stand out clearly.
Section lines usually consist of thin parallel lines, drawn at an angle of approximately 45
degrees to the principal edges or axis of the part, as in Figure 1.4.
Because the exact material specifications for a part are usually given elsewhere, the
general use section lining (i.e., the 45 degree solid parallel lines) is recommended for
general use. When it is desirable to indicate differences in materials, other symbolic
section lines are used, such as those shown in Figure 1.5. If the part shape would cause
section lines to be parallel or nearly parallel to one of the sides or features of the part,
an angle other than 45 degrees can be chosen.

Figure 1.4. Section lining.

Page no: 3 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

Figure 1.5 Symbolic section lining

The spacing of the hatching lines is uniform to give a good appearance to the drawing.
The pitch, or distance, between lines varies from .06 to .18 inch, depending on the size
of the area to be sectioned. Section lining is similar in direction and spacing in all
sections of a single component. Wood and concrete are the only two materials usually
shown symbolically. When wood symbols are used, the direction of the grain is shown.
Types Of Sections
Full Sections
When the cutting plane extends entirely through the object in a straight line and the
front half of the object is theoretically removed, a full section is obtained, Figure 1.6
(B). This type of section is used for both detail and assembly drawings. When the
cutting plane divides the object into two identical parts, it is not necessary to indicate
its location. However, the cutting plane may be identified and indicated in the usual
manner to increase clarity.

Figure 1.6. Full section

Page no: 4 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

Half Sections
A symmetrical object or assembly may be drawn as a half section, Figure 1.7 (C),
showing one half up to the center line in section and the other half in full view. A
normal center line is listed on the
section view. The wording, half section, can be confusing because one thinks of
showing half the part. Remember, a half section shows one-fourth of the part, not
one-half!

Figure 1.7 Half section

The half section drawing is not normally used where the dimensioning of internal
diameters is required. This is because many hidden lines would have to be added to the
portion showing the external features. This type of section is used mostly for assembly
drawings where internal and external features are clearly shown and only overall and
center-to-center dimensions are required.
Offset Sections
In order to include features that are not in a straight line, the cutting-plane line may be
offset or bent, so as to include several planes or curved surfaces, Figure 1.8. An offset
section is similar to a full section in that the cutting plane extends through the object
from one side to the other. The change in direction of the cutting-plane line is not
shown on the sectional view.

Figure 1.8. An offset section

Page no: 5 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

Broken-out Section
When certain internal and external features of an object can be shown without drawing
another view, broken-out and partial sections are used, Figure 1.9. A cutting-plane line
or a break line is used to indicate where the section is taken. The break line is normally a
jagged line, which better indicates the break. Broken-out sections save drawing time and
drawing space. Most CAD systems have a freehand sketching tool to create the break
line.

Figure 1.9. Broken-out Section

Aligned Section
A aligned section is not a true projection of the cut surface. It is often used when a
part contains webs, ribs, spokes, or similar features. It revolves or aligns special part
features to clarify them or make them easier to represent in section. One can
conceptually think about a aligned section as a specialized offset section, Figure 2.10.
The cutting plane can be bent to pass through all of the nonaligned features in the
un-sectioned view.

Fig1.10. Aligned section

Page no: 6 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

Revolved Sections
A revolved section is made by revolving the cross-section view 90 degrees about an axis of revolution and
superimposing the section view on the orthographic view. Visible lines adjacent to the revolved view can
be either drawn or broken out using conventional breaks, as shown in Figure 1.11 (B). When the revolved
view is superimposed on the part, the original lines of the part behind the section are deleted. The cross
section is drawn true shape and size, not distorted to fit the view. The axis of revolution is shown on the
revolved view as a center line. Another example is shown in Figure 1.12.
Revolved sections are useful for describing a cross section without having to draw another view. In
addition, these sections are especially helpful when a cross section varies or the shape of the part is not
apparent from the given orthographic views.

Figure 2.11. Revolved section

Page no: 7 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

Figure 1.12. Revolved section

Removed Section
A removed section differs from the revolved section in that the section is removed to an open area on the
drawing instead of being drawn directly on the view. Removed sections are used when there is not
enough room on the orthographic view for a revolved section. Removed sections are used to show the
contours of complicated shapes, such as the wings and fuselage of an airplane, blades for jet engines or
power plant turbines, and other parts that have continuously varying shapes. Frequently, the removed
section is drawn to an enlarged scale for clarification and easier dimensioning, Figure 1.13

Figure 1.13. Removed section

Normally, the cross-section view is drawn adjacent to the orthographic view and close to the position of the
cutting plane, which is identified with either a center line or a cutting plane line. If a number of removed
sections are done on a part, cutting plane lines may be drawn with labels to clarify the position from which
each section is taken. The removed section view is then labeled, such as SECTION A-A as shown in Figure
1.14, to correspond to the labeled cutting plane line.
Surface Finish
The surface obtained by casting, forging or moulding operations on the work piece is rough. It is to be
finished by machining operations. The surface finish or the surface texture is the amount of geometric
regularity produced on the surface or a work piece. In high speed machines to withstand severe operating
conditions with minimum friction and wear, a particular surface finish is essentially required. An engineer
or designer must learn to note and read surface finish on the drawing. He is responsible for specifying the
correct surface finish for maximum performance and service life at the lowest cost. By proper surface
finish, friction and hence the wear of the two mating parts is reduced. Bearings, journals, piston pumps,
cylinders, gears, sliding parts, etc are the objects which require good surface finish. Smooth finish is

Page no: 8 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

essentially required on high precision pieces, such as gauges. Surface finish is also important to the wear
service of certain pieces subject to dry friction, such as machine tool bits, threading dies, stamping dies,
rolls, clutch plates, brake drums, etc. For rack and pinion, chain-sprockets, gear meshing, etc., surface finish
is required to ensure quiet operation. Smoothness is also important for the visual appearance of finished
products. The degree of surface finish is a factor of cost during manufacturing.
Surface Finish Characteristics. It is not possible to produce absolutely smooth surface. All surfaces have
irregularities which can be controlled during manufacturing. The characteristics of surface finish are
roughness, waviness, lay and flaws. All smooth surfaces have finally spaced irregularities, in the form of
peaks and valleys, called roughness. Waviness irregularities are the longer roughness variations on the
surface. Lay is the primary direction of the surface pattern made by machine tool marks. Flaws are
infrequent irregularities occurring at random places on the surface.

Symbols for Indicating Surface Finish

The quality of surface finish on a metal surface produced by any production method other than machining
is indicated on the drawing by tick symbol as shown in above image. This basic symbol consists of two legs
of unequal length inclined at approximately 600 to the line representing the surface to be machined with
the vertex touching it.
If the surface finish is to be obtained by removing the material by any of the machining processes, a
horizontal bar is to be added to the basic symbol converting it into equilateral triangle as shown in image
below. .
If the surface finish is to be produced without the removal of the material, or when a surface is to be left in
the very state resulting from the preceding manufacturing process, whether this state was achieved by
removal of the material or otherwise, a circle is inscribed in the basic symbol as shown in image below.

(a) Basic symbol for Surface Roughness by any Production Process other than Machining
(b) Symbol for Surface Roughness by Machining Process
(c) Symbol for Surface Roughness without Removal of Material
If the usual manufacturing process by themselves ensure the acceptable surface finish, the specification of
the surface finish is unnecessary, hence need not be indicated.
To fully define the quality of surface finish, it is necessary to indicate the different characteristics of surface

Page no: 9 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

roughness such as, roughness values or grades, production method, surface treatment or coating, sampling
length, direction of lay, machining allowance, other roughness values along with the surface finish symbol.
Therefore it is very essential to indicate the exact place for each of these characteristics in the surface finish
symbol. The exact place and the method of indicating of these different characteristics in the surface finish
symbol are detailed below.
Indication of Surface Roughness
The surface roughness may be indicated by value in micrometer, grade number or symbol as follows:
(a) Roughness value in micrometer which is the arithmetical mean deviation from the mean line of the
profile.
(b) Roughness grade numbers.
(c) Triangle symbol.
The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) recommends the first two types. Method of indicating the surface
roughness by all the three methods are explained below.
Indication of Surface Roughness by Values in Surface Finish Symbol
The value of surface roughness which is the arithmetical mean deviation from the mean line of the profile,
abbreviated as Ra is expressed in micrometer or microns (1 microns = 0.001 mm). Table 4 shows the
recommended values of surface roughness.
Indication of Surface Roughness by Grades in Surface Finish Symbol
The surface roughness is also indicated by the grade number instead of their numerical values. The Bureau
of Indian Standards has recommended twelve grades of surface roughness. These standard grades of
surfa e rough ess are u ered as N , N , N ………N . For Russian systems, the standard grades of
surface roughness are denoted as (Ref Table 5).
Table 4 Surface roughness: Values, Grades and Symbols (British System)

Page no: 10 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

Table 5 Surface Finish : Delta Symbol (Russian System)

Indication of Surface Roughness by Triangle Symbol

Although the Bureau of Indian Standards prefers the indication of surface roughness by grades, or by values,
from the consideration of the requirements of the general engineering industries, it is suggested to indicate
the surface roughness on drawing by symbols. The BIS recommended symbols for indicating the surface
roughness are shown in Table 4. For the roughness values greater than 25 microns, the symbol ~is used.

Surface Finish Symbol with all Characteristics

Image below shows a surface finish symbol with all the characteristics of surface roughness indicated in
their appropriate places. Instead of the roughness values in µm, the corresponding grade numbers may be
indicated.

Use of Symbols and Abbreviations

Symbols and abbreviations are intended for saving time and space. Some symbols and abbreviations used
in Engineering Drawing are given in Table 6 for reference.

Page no: 11 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

Table 6 Abbreviations and Symbols

Term Abbreviations Term Abbreviations Symbols
Across Corner A/C Material MATL
Across Flat A/F Mechanical MECH
Approved APPD Number No.
Approximate APPROX Not to Scale NTS
Assembly ASSY Outside Diameter OD
British Standard
BSF Pitch Circle PC
Fine
British Standard
BSW Right Hand RH
Witworth
Cast Iron CI Rivet RVT
Cast Steel CS Reference REF
Case Hardened CH Screw SCR
Centre line CL Sheet SH
Chamfered CHMED Serial Number Sl. No.
Countersunk CSK Standard STD
Counter Bore C’BORE Spot face SF
Cylinder CYL Specification SPEC
Diameter DIA Spherical SPHERE
Drawing DRG Square SQ
Dimension DIM Symmetrical SYM
Extruded EXTD True Position TP
External EXT Traced TCD
Figure FIG Unified Fine UNF
Hydraulic HYD Round RD
Hexagonal HEX Undercut U/Cut
Horizontal HORZ
Indian Standard IS Beam I
Inside diameter ID Channel ]
Number of
Internal INT Z
teeth (Gear)
Machine M/C Parallel II
Tee (Structural
Machined M/CD T
section)
General Introduction:
A machine drawing is a graphical representation of assemblies and sub assemblies of machine
components. Here, either two or more than two components are involved in assembly. In many cases,
common machine components like gears, screws, nuts, bolts, and so on are repeated in drawings.
Therefore, in order to minimize efforts and ensure easiness in making drawings, common conventional

Page no: 12 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

representations have been developed as a part of graphical language. These are nothing but a
conventional representation of machine parts.
A machine drawing consists of many standard features and components such as threads, tapped holes,
knurlings, splines, springs, gears, welded joints, structural sections, welded joints, and so on. Since these
features or components are common to almost all machine drawings, they can be represented by common
conventions. This reduces detailing in drawing of each such feature or component.
Objectives:
After going through this topic you will be able to
 Select proper symbols for mechanical components
 Interpret technical drawings that have symbols
 Save effort and time in assembly, where different machine parts are repeated
Conventions of Machine Parts & Their Representation:

Page no: 13 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

Page no: 14 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

APPLICATIONS OF RIVETED JOINTS

A riveted joint is a permanent type of fastener used to join the metal plates or rolled steel sections together.
Riveted joints are extensively used in structural works such as bridges and roof trusses and in the
construction of pressure vessels such as storage tanks, boilers, etc. Although welded joints are best suited
to several of these applications than the riveted joints, however, riveted joints are ideal in cases where the
joints will be subjected to pronounced vibrating loads. Riveted joints are also used when a non-metallic
plate and a metallic plate are to be connected together. They are also used when the joints are not
expected to be heated while joining as in welding, which may cause warping and tempering of the finished
surfaces of the joints. The disadvantage of riveted joints are: (i) more metal is removed while making of the

Page no: 15 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

holes, which weakens the working cross sections along the line of the rivet holes, and (ii) weight of the
rivets increases the weight of the riveted members.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN A BOLT AND A RIVET
As a fastener, a riveted resembles a bolt, but differs from it in the shape and the application as well.
Although the shape of a rivet is similar to that of a bolt, unlike the bolts, it is used as a permanent fastener
to with stand shear forces acting perpendicular to its axis, whereas a bolt is used as a temporary fastener to
with stand axial tensile forces.
RIVET & RIVETING
A rivet is a round rod made either from mild steel or non-ferrous materials such as, copper, aluminium, etc.,
with a head is, and formed at one end during its manufacture and its tail end being slightly tapered. The
length of the shank of the rivet must be sufficient enough to accommodate the connection plates and
provide enough material for forming a head at its shank end. In general, the shank of the rivet will be equal
to sum of the thickness of the connecting plates plus 1.5 to 1.7 times the diameter of the rivet. If,
l = length of the shank of the rivet
d = diameter of rivet
t = thickness of each of the connecting plates
the , l = Σt + .5 to .7 d

Head

Shank

Tail

Riveting is an operation whereby two plates are joined with the help of a rivet. Adequate mechanical force
is applied to make the joint strong and leak proof. Smooth holes are drilled (or punched and reamed) in two
plates to be joined and the rivet is inserted. Holding, then, the head by means of a backing up bar as shown
in figure, necessary force is applied at the tail end with a die until the tail deforms plastically to the required
shape.
Forms and proportions of rivet heads
Various types of rivet heads for the use in general engineering work and boiler work as recommended by
the bureau of Indian Standards. The different proportions of these rivet heads are given in terms of the
nominal diameter d of the rivet. The rivet head to be used for general purposes for diameter below 12 mm
are specified in the Indian Standard code IS:2155-1962 and for diameters between 12 and 48 mm are
specified in the Indian Standard code IS:1929-1961. The rivet heads to be used for boiler work are specified
in the Indian Standard code IS: 1928-1961. The rivet heads to be used for ship building are specified in the
Indian Standard code IS:4732-1968.

Page no: 16 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

Page no: 17 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

Types of riveted joints:

Riveted joints are mainly of two types
1. Lap joints
2. Butt joints
Lap Joints:
The plates that are to be joined are brought face to face such that an overlap exists, as shown in figure
4.4.1. Rivets are inserted on the overlapping portion. Single or multiple rows of rivets are used to give
strength to the joint. Depending upon the number of rows the riveted joints may be classified as single
riveted lap joint, double or triple riveted lap joint etc. When multiple joints are used, the arrangement of
rivets between two neighbouring rows may be of two kinds. In chain riveting the adjacent rows have rivets
in the same transverse line. In zig-zag riveting, on the other hand, the adjascent rows of rivets are
staggered. Different types of lap joints are sketched in figure
Rivet Head

Fig Single Riveted Lap Joint

Fig Double Riveted Lap Joint (Zig-Zag riveting)

Page no: 18 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

Fig. Double Riveted Lap Joint (Chain riveting)

Butt Joints:
In this type of joint, the plates are brought to each other without forming any overlap. Riveted joints are
formed between each of the plates and one or two cover plates. Depending upon the number of cover
plates the butt joints may be single strap or double strap butt joints. Like lap joints, the arrangement of the
rivets may be of various kinds, namely, single row, double or triple chain or zigzag.

Figure : Butt joint with single strap

Fig. Single Strap Single Riveted Butt Joint

Fig. Double Strap Double Riveted Butt Joint

Page no: 19 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

Important terms used in riveted joints:

a) Pitch: This is the distance between two centers of the consecutive rivets in a single row. (usual
symbol p)
b) Back Pitch: This is the shortest distance between two successive rows in a multiple riveted joint.
(usual symbol pt or pb )
c) Diagonal pitch: This is the distance between the centers of rivets in adjacent rows of zigzag riveted
joint. (usual symbol pd )
d) Margin or marginal pitch: This is the distance between the centre of the rivet hole to the nearest
edge of the plate. (usual symbol m)
WELDED JOINTS
Welding is a process of fastening the metal parts together permanently by the application of heat(fusion
welds) or pressure (pressure or forge welding) or both (resistance welding). Both ferrous (steel, cast-iron)
and Non-ferrous metals (like brass copper and alloy) can be joined by welding. The welding is cheaper,
stronger, easier and faster than riveting. The various types of welding process are
a. Gas welding
b. Arc welding
i. Metal Arc Welding (MAW)
ii. Gas metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
iii. Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
iv. Tungsten Inert Gas Welding (TIG)
v. Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG)
c. Forge Welding
d. Resistance Welding
e. Thermistor Welding
f. High Energy Welding
The welded joints are broadly classified into
a. Butt joint
b. Lap joint
c. Corner or Fillet joint
d. Tee joint
e. Edge joint
Symbolic representation of weld
The standard welding symbol is given below.
Arrow Line and reference Line
The position of the arrow line with respect to the weld is of no special significance. The side of the joint on
whi h the arrow li e is draw is alled arrow side . The side of the joint remote to the arrow line is called
other side . The refere e li e has sig ifi a e o the weld side. If the weld sy ol is pla ed BELOW the
refere e li e, the weldi g should e do e i the ARROW “IDE . If the weld sy ol is pla ed ABOVE the
refere e li e, the weldi g should e do e i the OTHER “IDE . If the weld sy ol is pla ed oth ABOVE
a d BELOW the refere e li e, the weldi g should e do e i oth the ARROW ANDOTHER “IDE“ .
Basic Weld Symbol
The basic symbols recommended by BIS for specifying the type of weld are shown in the fig

Page no: 20 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

Downloaded from be.rgpvnotes.in

Page no: 21 Follow us on facebook to get real-time updates from RGPV

 We hope you find these notes useful.
You can get previous year question papers at
https://qp.rgpvnotes.in .

If you have any queries or you want to submit your

study notes please write us at
rgpvnotes.in@gmail.com