5.1.

Multilevel concept
Inverter:
The Inverter is an electrical device that converts direct current (DC) to alternate
current (AC). The inverter is used for emergency backup power in a home. The
inverter is used in some aircraft systems to convert a portion of the aircraft DC
power to AC. The AC power is used mainly for electrical devices like lights,
radar, radio, motor, and other devices.

Multilevel Inverter:
Now a day’s many industrial applications have begun to require high power.
Some appliances in the industries, however, require medium or low power for
their operation. Using a high power source for all industrial loads may prove
beneficial to some motors requiring high power, while it may damage the other
loads. Some medium voltage motor drives and utility applications require
medium voltage. The multi-level inverter has been introduced since 1975 as an
alternative in high power and medium voltage situations. The Multilevel inverter
is like an inverter and it is used for industrial applications as an alternative in
high power and medium voltage situations.

General DC-AC Inverter Circuit

The need for the multilevel converter is to give high output power from the
medium voltage source. Sources like batteries, supercapacitors, the solar panel
are medium voltage sources. The multi-level inverter consists of several
switches. In the multi-level inverter, the arrangement switches’ angles are very
important.

Types of Multilevel Inverter:

Multilevel inverters are three types.

• Diode clamped multilevel inverter

• Flying capacitors multilevel inverter
• Cascaded H- bridge multilevel inverter
 • What is the concept of multilevel inverters?
• Multilevel inverters (MLIs) are improved alternative devices to regular two-level inverters, to
decrease dv/dt and di/dt ratios while providing an increased number of output levels in
current and voltage waveforms.

Concept of Multilevel Inverter

First, take the case of a two-level inverter. A two-level Inverter creates
two different voltages for the load i.e. suppose we are
providing Vdc as an input to a two-level inverter then it will provide
+ Vdc/2 and – Vdc/2 on output. In order to build an AC voltage, these
two newly generated voltages are usually switched. For switching
mostly PWM is used as shown in Figure 2.1, reference wave is shown in
the dashed blue line. Although this method of creating AC is effective
but it has few drawbacks as it creates harmonic distortions in the
output voltage and also has a high dv/dt as compared to that of a
multilevel inverter. Normally this method works but in few
applications, it creates problems particularly those where low
distortion in the output voltage is required.

PWM voltage output of a two-level inverter

The concept of multilevel Inverter (MLI) is a kind of modification of a
two-level inverter. In multilevel inverters we don’t deal with the two-
level voltage instead in order to create a smoother stepped output
waveform, more than two voltage levels are combined together and
the output waveform obtained in this case has lower dv/dt and also
lower harmonic distortions. The smoothness of the waveform is
proportional to the voltage levels, as we increase the voltage level
the waveform becomes smoother but the complexity of the
controller circuit and components also increases along with the
increased levels. The waveform for the three, five and seven level
inverters are shown in the below figure, where we clearly see that as
the levels are increasing, the waveform becoming smoother.

5.2.Diode clamped inverter

Diode clamped multilevel inverters use clamping diodes in order to
limit the voltage stress of power devices. It was first proposed in 1981
by Nabae, Takashi and Akagi and it is also known as a neutral point
converter. A k level diode clamped inverter needs (2k – 2) switching
devices, (k – 1) input voltage source and (k – 1) (k – 2) diodes in order
to operate. Vdc is the voltage present across each diode and the
switch. Single-phase diode clamped multilevel inverter is shown in
the figure below:
One phase of a diode clamped inverter
The concept of diode clamped inverter can better be understood by
looking into a three-phase six-level diode clamped inverter. Here the
common dc bus is shared by all the phases, use five capacitors and
six levels. Each capacitor has a voltage of Vdc and same is the
voltage limit of switching devices. One important fact should be
noted while considering the diode clamped inverter is that five
switches will remain ON at any time. Six level, three-phase dc
clamped multilevel inverter is shown in the figure below.

Six level three phase inverter

Outputs of each phase can be understood by the following table.
Here reference voltage is the negative Vo. Condition 0 means switch
is OFF and vice versa. Output waveforms of six level dc clamped
inverter is shown below:

Waveform of Six Level Inverter

Vab is the voltage due to the phase lag b and a voltage.

Applications of Diode Clamped Multilevel Inverters

The most common application of diode clamped multilevel inverter
is when a high voltage Dc and Ac transmission lines are interfaced.
This can also be used in variable speed control of high power drives.
Static variable compensation is also an application of diode
clamped multilevel inverters.

Applications of Diode Clamped Multilevel Inverter:

• Static var compensation

• Variable speed motor drives
• High voltage system interconnections
• High voltage DC and AC transmission lines
Advantages of Diode Clamped Multilevel Inverters
• The capacitance of the capacitors used is low.
• Back-to-back inverters can be used.
• Capacitors are precharged.
• At fundamental frequency, efficiency is high.
Disadvantages of Diode Clamped Multilevel
Inverters
• Clamping diodes are increased with the increase of each level.
• The DC level will discharge when control and monitoring are not
precise.

5.3. Flying Capacitor

The configuration of this inverter topology is quite similar to previous
one except the difference that here flying capacitors is used in order
to limit the voltage instead of diodes. The input DC voltages are
divided by the capacitors here. The voltage over each capacitor and
each switch is Vdc. A k level flying capacitor inverter with

A Flying Capacitor Multilevel Inverter with five voltage levels

(2k – 2) switches will use (k – 1) number of capacitors in order to
operate. The figure below shows a five-level flying capacitor
multilevel inverter.

If we compare above figures, it shows that the number of switches,

main diodes and DC-bus capacitors are same in both the cases. The
only difference between the two topologies is that the previous one
uses clamping diodes in order to limit the voltage while this topology
uses flying capacitors for this purpose, and as capacitors are
incapable of blocking the reverse voltage, which diodes do, the
number of switches also increases. Voltage on each capacitor is
differing from the next as it has a ladder structure. Voltage difference
between two back to back capacitors determines the voltage in the
output frame.

Advantages of Flying Capacitor Multilevel Inverters

Static var generation is the best application of Capacitor Clamped
Multilevel Inverters.

• For balancing capacitors’ voltage levels, phase redundancies

are available.
• We can control reactive and real power flow.

• Induction motor control using DTC (Direct Torque Control) circuit

• Static var generation
• Both AC-DC and DC-AC conversion applications
• Converters with Harmonic distortion capability
• Sinusoidal current rectifiers
Disadvantages of Flying Capacitor Multilevel
Inverters
• Voltage control is difficult for all capacitors.
• Complex startup.
• Switching efficiency is poor.
• Capacitors are expensive than diodes.
So, that was all about Multilevel Inverters and their topologies.

Note 2.
Basic Features
•
• The topology consists of diodes, capacitors and switching devices.
•
• Although theoretically this topology has been designed to give
infinite levels, but due to practical limitations this only gives up to
six levels of voltage.
•
• Each leg consists of switching devices which are generally
transistors.
•
• Every inverter limb consists of cells connected in inward nested
series.
•
• Every cell has a single capacitor and two power switches. Power
switch is a combination of a transistor connected with an anti-
parallel diode.
•
• Unlike diode clamped inverter, this topology uses capacitors for
clamping.
•
• An inverter with N cell will have 2N switches and N+1 different
voltage levels including zero.
•
• We can also have negative voltage levels, and so all in all we can
say that N cell multilevel inverter can give 2N+1 voltage levels.
 •
• Capacitors nearer to the load have lower voltage.
•
• Capacitors nearer to the source voltage (Vdc) have higher voltage.
•
• The number of level depends upon the number of conducting
switches in each limb.
•
• It is also known as Imprecated Cell Inverter.
• They are called Flying Capacitor Multilevel Inverter, because the
capacitors float with respect to earth’s potential.

Voltage Balancing of Capacitors

One of the major advantages of using a Flying Capacitor Multilevel Inverter is its
ability to operate at voltages higher than the blocking capacity of each power cell
consisting of diode and switching element.

Current co-efficient of each limb is equal and opposite in polarity. That is why
there is no net change in the charge of capacitors.
The cell and capacitor voltage difference is maintained within a safe band and
hence there is no chance of unbalancing the capacitor voltages.

Switching Strategy
To synthesize a sinusoidal waveform at the output, switching strategy needs to be
defined. It is quite simple. Every voltage is applied at output with a certain
electrical angle. Careful application of the angle gives low harmonic distortion and
required amplitude at the output.

More than one switching strategies are available for a single voltage level. Three
conditions should be followed for the right choice:

• For every change in the state, only one switch shift should be allowed.
• Capacitor’s voltage balance should be maintained.
• All the switching devices should be used equally.
•
5.4. Cascaded type multilevel inverters
Cascaded H-bridge Multilevel Inverters
This inverter uses several H-bridge inverters connected in series to provide a
sinusoidal output voltage. Each cell contains one H-bridge and the output voltage
generated by this multilevel inverter is actually the sum of all the voltages
generated by each cell i.e. if there

One phase of a cascaded H-bridge multilevel inverter

are k cells in an H-bridge multilevel inverter then a number of output voltage

levels will be 2k+1. This type of inverter has an advantage over the other two as it
requires fewer components as compared to the other two types of inverters and so
its overall weight and price are also less. Below Figure shows a k level cascaded
H-bridge inverter.

In a single-phase inverter, each phase is connected to a single dc source. Each level

generates three voltages which are positive, negative and zero. This can be
obtained by connecting the AC source with the DC output and then using different
combinations of the four switches. The inverter will remain ON when two switches
with opposite positions will remain ON. It will turn OFF when all the inverters
switch ON or OFF. To minimize the total harmonic distortion, switching angles are
defined and implemented. The calculations for the measurement of switching angle
will remain the same. This inventor can be categorized further into the following
types:

• 5 levels cascaded H Bridge Multilevel Inverter

• 9 levels cascaded H Bridge Multilevel Inverter
In 5 level cascaded H Bridge Multilevel Inverters, Two H Bridge Inverters are
cascaded. It has 5 levels of output and uses 8 switching devices to control whereas
in 9 level cascaded H Bridge Multilevel Inverters, Four H Bridge Invertors are
cascaded. It has 9 output levels and use and use 16 switching devices.

Applications of Cascaded H-bridge Multilevel Inverters

Cascaded H Bridge Multilevel Inverters are mostly used for static var applications
i.e., in renewable resources’ of energy and battery based applications. Cascaded H
Bridge Multilevel Inverters can be applied as a delta or wye form. This can be
understood by looking at the work done by Peng where he used an electrical
system parallel with a Cascade H Bridge. Here inverter is being controlled by
regulating the power factor. Best application is when we used as photovoltaic cell
or fuel cell. This is the example of Parallel connectivity of the H Bridge Multilevel
Inverter.

Example of 3 phase Wye Connection

H Bridge can also be used in car batteries to run the electrical components of the
car. Also, this can be used in the electrical braking systems of the vehicles.

Scientists and engineers have also proposed the multiplicative factor on Cascade H
Bridge Multilevel. It means that rather than using a dc voltage with the difference
in levels, it uses a multiplying factor between different levels of the multilevel i.e.,
every level is a multiplying factor of the previous one.
Advantages of Cascade H Bridge Multilevel Inverters
• Output voltages levels are doubled the number of sources

• Manufacturing can be done easily and quickly

• Packaging and Layout are modularized.
 • Easily controllable with a transformer as shown in the Fig 2.5
• Cheap

Cascaded Inverter with transformer

Disadvantages of Cascade H Bridge Multilevel Inverters

• Every H Bridge needs a separate dc source.

• Limited applications due to a large number of sources.

Applications of Cascaded H-Bridge Multilevel Inverter

• Motor drives
• Active filters
• Electric vehicle drives
• DC power source utilization
• Power factor compensators
• Back to back frequency link systems
 • Interfacing with renewable energy resources.
Advantages of Multilevel Inverter:

The multilevel converter has several advantages, that is:

1. Common Mode Voltage:

The multilevel inverters produce common-mode voltage, reducing the stress

of the motor and don’t damage the motor.

2. Input Current:

Multilevel inverters can draw input current with low distortion

3. Switching Frequency:

The multilevel inverter can operate at both fundamental switching frequencies

that are higher switching frequency and lower switching frequency. It should
be noted that the lower switching frequency means lower switching loss and
higher efficiency is achieved.

4. Reduced harmonic distortion:

Selective harmonic elimination technique along with the multi-level topology

results the total harmonic distortion becomes low in the output waveform
without using any filter circuit.
 5.5. Comparison of multi-level inverters

settings
Table 1. Advantages and disadvantages of the classical topologies (DC-MLI, FC-MLI, and CHB-MLI).

Types of MLI Advantages Disadvantages

• A good option
for industrial
applications.
• Exhibits high
fundamental frequency
switching efficiency. • The
• Can precharge complexity of
the capacitors as a voltage balancing
group. circuit.
• Control • The
DC-MLI method is simple. unequal share of
[18,35,41,55,57,58,59,60,61] • Reduces the losses between
number of required DC inner and outer
sources. switches.
• Appropriate • Increased
for fault-tolerant number of
application. clamping diode as
• The use of the level increased.
neutral clamping
switches can solve the
issue of voltage
balancing and uneven
loss sharing between
 Types of MLI Advantages Disadvantages

the switching devices in

neutral point clamped
(NPC) converters.

• Reduces the
number of required DC
sources. • The
• Phase complexity of voltage
redundancies are balancing circuit.
available for balancing • Requires
the voltage levels of the numerous capacitors
FC-MLI capacitors. for high levels.
[22,35,41,57,59,62,63] • Appropriate for • High losses
fault-tolerant application. and switching
• Real and reactive frequency for real
power flow can be power transmission.
controlled • High
• No need for installation cost
filters to reduce
harmonics.

• Less number
of output voltage
levels.
• Modular and • Requires more
simple structure. number of gate driver
• Easy to extend circuits.
to higher levels. • Requires
• Requires only several DC sources to
unidirectional switches. increase the output
• Appropriate for voltage.
fault-tolerant • Limited to
application. certain applications
CHB-MLI
• Potential of where separate DC
[22,23,59,64,65,66,67] electric shock is sources are available.
reduced due to the • Switches have
separate DC sources. to bear blocking
• Asymmetric voltage equal to the
source configuration input voltage value.
can be employed. • Loss of
• Can be modularity
implemented as a single (asymmetric source
DC source configuration).
configuration. • Implement
cost is high
(asymmetric source
configuration).
 • Switches are
differently voltage
rated (asymmetric
source configuration).

5.6. Application of Multi level Inverters

1. Energy and power systems.
2. Regenerative conveyors in production.
3. Transportation.
Multi-level inverters have updated from being an emerging technology to a
well-established and attractive solution for medium voltage high power
applications.

The continuous development of technology and the evolution of industrial

applications will open new challenges and opportunities that could further
motivate improvements in multi-level inverters.

Multilevel Inverters in Renewable Energy System Applications

Due to the MLI’s capabilities of producing high-quality voltage waveforms through low switching
frequency operation, they are thus preferred for high and medium power applications [41,88]. MLIs
have widely used in various applications such as power supplies (PSs) applications; renewable energy
systems (RESs) such as photovoltaic (PV) systems, wind energy conversion systems (WECS) and
fuel cells (FC); electric vehicles (EV); induction heating (IH) and numerous other fields. Many MLI
topologies have been integrated with RESs in grid-connected systems for the addition of the power
generated by the RESs to the grid

Wind Energy Conversion Systems (WECS)

An attempt to the use of a CHBMLI topology to interface split winding wind alternators (SWAs)
to the grid was made by [90]. The experimented SWA-CHBMLI system was found efficient in
interfacing a large wind turbine to the grid; the system also achieved better power quality at the PCC,
thereby making the system more efficient. In recent years, scholars have been paying attention to
MLIs designs with fewer numbers of gate drivers and switches to reduce the required installation space
and the cost of MLIs. A hybrid modular multilevel converter was presented by [91] for the connection
of large wind turbines to the grid. The system is a promising converter topology on the grid-side of a
back-to-back connected full-scale converter of a WECS since it combined MMC and HB module
features. It can improve the reliability of the entire WECS. A study by [92] presented a novel two-stage
CSD multilevel system that used a lower number of switches to achieve a high number of voltage
levels; the system also addressed the issue of high voltage spikes under R-L loads as the system has
a path for the reverse load currents. The system was considered suitable for integration in medium-
voltage renewable energy systems. The use of a modular cascaded MLI in a fault-tolerant distributed
control system has been evaluated by [93] for the integration of wind turbines to the grid. The inverter
was found capable of synchronizing with the grid frequency without any damage to the in-coming
currents, which is a necessary condition after clearing a grid fault or when first connecting to the grid

Fuel Cells (FC)

• A hybrid cascaded MLI was designed and developed by for fuel cell application by using the
variable frequency inverted sine wave carrier modulation technique (VFISPWM).
• This modulation technique aims to improve the output voltage while giving low THD and
reduced switching losses.
• Another work by came up with a fuel cell-based system with H-bridge DC/AC inverter and a
three-level boost converter. To make sure the system operates in stable conditions, two
feedback control loops were designed and added to the system.
• The developed multilevel DC-DC converters can be used in RESs for power generation at a
reduced cost. A hybrid cascaded multilevel inverter CMLI has been proposed by [96] for fuel
cell power conditioning systems. The developed system can generate high voltages at higher
speeds with a high conversion efficiency while ensuring low switching losses. The developed
system can be used in high-power fuel cell systems.
Electric Vehicles (EVs)
The cascaded H-bridge converters have been used by [100,101], for the balancing of the voltage of
battery cells. In the studies, each battery cell was controlled using one H-bridge cell while a separate
control of the charging and discharging cycles ensured voltage balance.

The converter generated multilevel output voltage, and this is considered suitable for motor drives.
A hybrid cascaded multilevel converter was proposed by; the proposed system was for battery energy
management and EV motor drives were proposed. The system was capable of balancing the terminal
voltage or SOC between the employed battery cells; hence, it exhibited a good fault-tolerant
characteristic, which boosts the reliability of the system. The study by presented a new modular multilevel
topology that contains electrochemical cells; the system was proposed for use in battery electric vehicles.
The multilevel nature of the output voltages significantly reduced the THD of the motor currents and
minimized motor power losses. Hence, the system can be used for the elimination of the balancing circuits
of the battery pack of electric vehicles. The performance of modular multilevel converters that contain
battery cells has been evaluated by in electric vehicles for traction drive. The system significantly reduced
the motor current distortion, thereby improving the motor efficiency.
Induction Heating (IH)
The provision of induction heating power simultaneously at two frequencies using multilevel
converters has been proposed by [107]; this was aimed at achieving higher efficiency, better control,
greater reliability, and reduced electromagnetic interference. A CMLI has been used by [108] to accelerate
high frequency and high-power application of induction heating power supply. The study by [109]
developed a new IH power supply system based on a multilevel neutral point clamped inverter (MNPCI).
The system reduced the DC link voltage by half, thereby reducing the switching losses and improving the
system efficiency. Furthermore, reference [110] reported the use of MNPCI in an IH system with maximum
harmonic control. The system achieves natural switching with the highest heating power efficiency and
lowest harmonic distortion. In [111]. A modular MLC has been applied in the tundish induction heating
power supply (TIHPS) for the heating of molten steel. In [112], the multilevel neutral point clamped
inverter (MNPCI) has been used as part of a super frequency induction heating power supply system with
an optimum control algorithm. Thus, a new multilevel neutral point clamped inverter was developed as a
component of the IH system.

Photovoltaic Systems (PVs)

Much attention has been given to PV-based power generation due to its
numerous advantages, such as ease of allocation, longer life, absence of noise, lack
of pollution, lesser installation time, high mobility and components’ portability, and
ability to produce power output that can meet peak load requirements. Hence, PV
arrays have found many industrial applications, such as in battery recharging
systems, solar hybrid vehicles, satellite power systems, solar-based water-pumping
machines, etc. For this reason, many countries are investing heavily in renewable
energy-based projects. However, there are certain problems associated with PV
generation systems, such as low conversion efficiency and interference from climate
conditions. The power of PV cells is directly a function of the solar
intensity/radiation but depends less on the temperature [113]. A complete PV system
is comprised of solar panels, batteries, DC-DC voltage converters, and controllers.
The work of the DC-DC voltage converters is to match the load characteristics with
the characteristics of the solar panels. There are three categories of DC-DC voltage
converters, namely boost, buck, and buck–boost converters.
The photovoltaic power characteristics are nonlinear, as illustrated in Figure 7.
The characteristics of a PV cell are analyzed using parameters such as open-circuit
voltage (Voc) and short-circuit current (Isc). Regarding the Isc, it is the maximum
value of the current produced by a cell; this parameter is sensitive to irradiance. On
the other hand, the Voc is the maximum value of the voltage that a solar cell can
produce at zero current [114]. There is the equivalent circuit generic model to
represent PV cells. Which has a single diode with series resistance and a shunt
resistance as shown in Figure 8. The current source represents photon-generated
current (Iph) by PV, which is proportional to the solar irradiation. The resistance
(Rs) represents the contacts and connections-related losses, while the leakage
currents in the diode are represented by parallel resistance (Rsh) [113,115].
Figure 7. The current I– voltage V characteristics of a PV module.

Figure 8. The equivalent circuit of PV cell.

6. Multilevel Converters in PV Systems

The application of multilevel inverter (MLI) in PV systems to improve power quality and efficiency
has received considerable interest recently. The selection of an appropriate converter for PV applications
is one of the challenges since that has an impact on the behavior of the photovoltaic (PV) system.
Therefore, many multilevel converters for the photovoltaic (PV) systems have been reported in the
literature [113]. The study by [132] presented an MLC for PV systems with integrated ESS. The developed
MLC can provide constant power irrespective of the weather conditions. The proposed MLC showed a
smooth transition from the charging mode to the discharging mode. Hence, the cascaded H-bridge (CHB)
converter can be used in grid interconnections owing to its modular attributes, high-quality output
waveforms, and ability to connect to medium voltage grids. A CHB-MLC with DC-DC stage isolation has
been presented by [133] for large-scale PV systems. The proposed CHB converter offered quality currents
with low distortion. Its modular design ensured that it could operate in high voltage conditions and could
improve the power quality. The study by [134] presented an improved CMLI with a reliable configuration
for reduction of current leakages in transformerless PV systems; conduction and switching losses were
also reduced, making high switching frequency operation possible.

The study by [135] presented a CHB converter for use in PV systems; the system utilized an H6-bridge
power cell rather than the H-bridge type. The system significantly improved the current quality and output
voltage in partial shading conditions compared to the CHB type; this improved the system efficiency and
the energy injected into the grid. A modular MMC was used in grid-connected PV systems by [136]. The
proposed system can perform in both active and reactive power conditions, and this extends the
applicability of the PV systems. A hybrid modular MMC for grid-connected PV systems was presented by
[137]; this system can be used in high power systems by simply increasing the number of submodules per
phase.
6.1. Multilevel Inverters for Grid-Connected PV Systems
Different multilevel converter topologies have been investigated and compared
in the literature [138,139] to highlight the most suitable topology for PV applications
that can operate under fundamental and high frequencies, deliver high-quality
waveform with lower THD, achieve better electromagnetic compatibility, and
exhibit high efficiency. In [140], a modified multilevel inverter topology was
presented. This topology generates a seven-level voltage waveform with low
harmonic contents. This inverter was confirmed suitable for use in photovoltaic
applications for power delivery from PV panels of different voltage/current ratings
to the grid. The study by [141] presented a new MLI configuration with fewer
switches compared to the traditional MLI configuration; this configuration required
no additional components, such as capacitors and inductors. It is a convenient
configuration owing to its asymmetrical PV sources. It also exhibits fault-tolerant
and modular capabilities. Owing to the greater number of sources, this structure
offers higher voltage levels and provides a suitable sinusoidal voltage waveform.
Being that this structure requires no filter, this inverter has a considerably low size
and weight. A new basic asymmetrical MLI has been proposed by [142] for use in
PV systems; this MLI was designed with a maximum number of components though
the number of components required is still lower than in the classical MLI
topologies. The system succeeded in generating 31 output levels and performed
excellently under different load types. This topology also produces highly efficient
AC output with low THD.
Some of the recently proposed MLIs with a reduced number of components for
use in grid integration have been comprehensively reviewed by ] based on the
selection of components, comparative factors, and their suitability. The design of a
modular CHBMLI for use in single- or three-phase grid-connected applications has
been presented by [144,145]. The idea behind this topology is to aid in improving
the flexibility and efficiency of PV systems, ensure better PV module utilization, as
well as to ensure maximum solar energy extraction.
Performance analysis of the grid-connected photovoltaic system using two
multilevel inverter topologies has been performed in [146]. The MPPT controller
was implemented using a neural network algorithm to maximize the output power
of the PV systems according to changes in the environmental conditions. The
investigated inverter topologies performed excellently through the cascaded inverter
and achieved lower current THD compared to the NPC topology. However, it is
more expensive due to the number of power switching transistors it requires. The
study by [147] presented a hybrid modular MLC (H-MMC) for the integration of
solar power into the grid. With the connection of the PV-panels in each of the
submodules of the converter, the proposed topology is suitable for high power use
but requires that the number of submodules in each phase be increased. There are
numerous advantages of hybrid-MMC compared to traditional MMC, such as lower
capacitor count, higher voltage levels, higher efficiency, no circulating current, and
less footprint. This converter was equipped with a global Maximum Power Point
Tracking (MPPT) algorithm that requires only the current and voltage signals of just
one submodule. The distributed nature of the MPPT addressed the drawbacks of
global MPPT under partial shading. Table 2 is a comparison of the recent multilevel
inverters for grid-connected PV systems in terms of inverter type, voltage levels,
MPPT technique, number of used switches, and THD.
. Challenges and Future Work Areas
Renewable energy systems have gained more application in the power grid due
to the advancements in power electronics devices and related technologies.
However, this has generated many concerns in terms of the power quality,
protection, energy storage, the intermittent nature of the energy fed to the grid, and
system reliability. Hence, several standards and codes have been developed for grid
interfaced RESs to ensure the power quality at the grid is maintained [42,170]. In
view of the reviewed literature, there are areas in this regard that demand more
studies; these are highlighted as follows:
• The intermittent nature of the produced power by RESs remains one of
the major issues in grid-connected RES. It is believed that the contribution of
RESs to the global energy market will increase in the future; hence, this
problem of power fluctuations in grid-connected RESs demands to be
addressed.
• Multilevel inverters (MLIs) have been widely used in both grid-
connected and industrial applications over time owing to their numerous
advantages. However, researchers have recently begun to introduce hybrid
topologies which are developed from the classical topologies; these hybrid
methods are developed to meet the high grid code standards and address the
power quality problems in a cost-friendly manner [16,23,58]. Being that most
of these new topologies have not been evaluated in the grid-connected RESs,
there is a need to investigate their performance in grid-integrated applications.
• The MMC, a commonly used MC, remains the most suitable for large-
scale RES application. MMC has become the basic building block for
multiterminal direct current (MTDC) and DC grids due to its salient features,
The MMCMTDC systems embedded into the present power system will
significantly enhance system reliability and efficiency, support renewable
energy integration, and improve the economy and flexibility of power
transmission. However, there are still several technical challenges in the
modeling, control, and protection of the MMC-MTDC systems
• More studies are needed on the performance analysis of the recent MLIs
to efficiently address the issues encountered in the grid-connected RESs
applications. Studies should also focus on the role of MLIs in smart grid
technologies.
• Even though the Reduced Switch Multilevel Inverter (RS MLI)
topologies can be used in RES integration, especially for PV applications, in
consideration of the reduced total standing voltage (TSV), more RS MLI
topologies should be developed to increase the suitability for the integration
of both PV and wind energy systems [88].
• The integration of renewable energy systems to grids using suitable MLIs has
gradually been moving grid systems towards the future smart grid. This comes with great
challenges but also presents some opportunities for MLI topology development and control.
Thus, there are numerous innovations in this field.
• The regulation of DC-link voltage, as well as the control of the MPPT in MLIs, usually
requires a PI-based controller which is associated with certain limitations. Several soft
computing and hybrid methods-based control systems can be evaluated for better
multidimensional control [42].
• The efficiency of the MPPT algorithm is affected by many factors but the most obvious
is the nonlinear nature of the PV system, the system working condition, and the variations in
ambient conditions. Most times, the algorithm developers do not consider these changes, and
this has been the source of system failure in certain working conditions. Thus, the design of
the PV module controller is a tedious task that demands more attention to achieve stability
[31,116].
• A key determinant of the proper MPPT to be selected is to find the optimal MPPT
method with fast performance, low tracking errors, and no oscillation around the GMMP. The
evaluation of MPPT techniques normally comes with various degrees of complexity; hence,
many studies are still ongoing, trying to address most of the identified problems. It is,
 therefore, recommended that efforts should be geared towards finding a simpler, faster, and
cost-efficient MPP tracker that could offer better reliability and efficiency

Abbreviations

MLI Multilevel Inverter

PV Photovoltaic

MPPT Maximum Power Point Tracking

RESs Renewable Energy Sources

THD Total Harmonic Distortion

EMI Electro-Magnetic Interference

MMPP Multiple Maximum Power Points

GMPP Global Maximum Power Point

PWM Pulse Width Modulation

CHB-MLI Cascaded H-Bridge Multilevel Inverter

DCMLI Diode Clamped Multilevel Inverter

FCMLI Flying Capacitor Multilevel Inverter

SDCS Separate DC Source

SWAs Split-Winding Alternators

MMC Modular Multilevel Converter

PCC Point of Common Coupling

CSD Cascaded Switched-Diode

BESS Battery Energy Storage System

 SOC State of Charge

MCSI Multilevel Current-Source Inverter

PPP Peak Power Point

TSV Total Standing Voltage

VFISPWM Variable Frequency Inverted Sine Carrier PWM

Iph Photon-Generated Current

Advancements in Multilevel Inverters

A multilevel inverter (MLI) is a modification of a two-level inverter where two different voltages for the
load are created. More than two voltage levels are combined in a multilevel inverter in order to create
a smoother stepped output waveform. The smoothness of the waveform changes according to the
voltage levels. With the increment in the voltage level, the complexity is increased, but the waveform
becomes smoother.

The demand for automotive inverters has increased drastically in recent years with the fast adoption
of battery electric vehicles, plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, and hybrid electric vehicles, which are
essential components of alternative energy vehicles.

The automotive industry has seen a significant technological shift after opening the path for
widespread acceptance of electric transportation. Various countries are implementing measures such
as fuel economy standards, deploying support infrastructure for alternative propulsion vehicles, and
providing consumer incentives to help bridge the ownership cost gap between alternative energy
vehicles and conventional vehicles in order to reduce carbon emissions and increase the adoption of
alternative energy vehicles.

Conclusion

Multilevel inverters can manage high power and currents, as well as the related electromagnetic
compatibility (EMC) difficulties, and enable fail-safe operation to ensure reliability and safety for the
users.

With the emerging technologies and advancements in multilevel inverters, the global automotive
inverter market is expected to grow at a fast pace owing to the continuous shift toward electric
mobility.

As already known, a multilevel inverter plays a vital role in the powertrain of an electric vehicle by
converting DC current coming from the battery into AC current for the AC motor in the drivetrain to
function, and it provides an impetus to the electric vehicle industry as well.
5.7. PWM techniques for MLI
The PWM schemes of multilevel inverters are classified in to two types the multicarrier sub-
harmonic PWM (MC-SHPWM) and the Multicarrier switching fre- quency optimal pulse width
modulation (MC-SFOPWM)

MULTILEVEL INVERTER SCHEMATIC DIAGRAMS

Fig 1(a) shows a two level inverter. Fig 1(b) shows a three level inverter. Fig 1(c) shows N level
inverter. All the ca- pacitors comprises to a voltage of Vdc.

Figure 1 Schematic Diagram of (a) Two level Inverter (b) Three Level

Inverter (c) N Level Inverter

Fig 2(a) shows the output voltage of a two level inverter. Fig 2(b) shows the output voltage a
three level inverter. Fig 2(c) shows the output voltage of an N level inverter.

Figure 2 Output Voltage of (a) Two Level Inverter (b) Three Level

Inverter (c) Five Level Inverter

3 DIODE CLAMPED MULTILEVEL INVERTER

For an N level (between the phase and the negative rail)

diode clamped inverter,
The number of levels in the line-to-line voltage waveform
will be k=2N-1 (1)
The number of levels in the line to load neutral of a star or
wye load will be p=2k-1 (2)
The number of capacitors required, independent of the
number of phase, is Ncap=N-1 (3) While the number of clamping diodes per phase is
Dclamp=2(N-1) (4)

voltage pulses are modulated such that their duration is proportional to the instantaneous value of
the sinusoidal waveform at the centre of the pulse; that is, the pulse area is proportional to the
corresponding value of the modulating sine wave.
If the carrier frequency is very high, an averaging effect occurs, resulting in a sinusoidal
fundamental output with high-frequency harmonics, but minimal low-frequency harmonics.

Switching Frequency Optimal Pulse width

Modulation SFOPWM Technique

Steinke [12] proposed SFOPWM, a carrier based method where addition of triplen
harmonic to the fundamental frequency Sinusoidal lowers the peak magnitude, thus
allowing operating in over modulation region. This in- creases the inverter output
voltage without compromising on the quality of the output waveform [3][4].

Equations (9) to (12) are used to obtain the modulating

wave.

Voffset = (max (Va,Vb,Vc ) + min (Va,Vb,Vc ))/2 (9) VaSFO = Va – Voffset (10)
VbSFO = Vb – Voffset (11) VcSFO = Vc – Voffset (12)

The zero sequence modification made by the SFOPWM technique restricts its use
to three phase three wire sys- tem; however it enables the modulation index to be
in- creased by 15.47% before over modulation or pulse drop- ping occurs.
The amplitude modulation index and frequency modula- tion index are given in
(13) and (14) respectively.

ma = Am / (m-1)Ac (13) mf = fc / fm (14) Where m is the number of carrier waves

also the level of the inverter, required for pulse generation.

Sinusoidal Natural PWM and Sinusoidal PWM Techniques

Operation of a multilevel inverter at low switching fre- quency is the Sinusoidal

natural PWM and alternately sinusoidal PWM technique is operation at high
switching frequency.

5.8. Single phase and three phase impedance source

inverters
A Z-source inverter is a type of power inverter, a circuit that converts direct
current to alternating current. It functions as a buck-boost inverter without making use
of DC-DC converter bridge due to its unique circuit topology.
Impedance (Z-) Source networks provide an efficient means of power conversion
between source and load in a wide range of electric power conversion applications (dc–
dc, dc–ac, ac–dc, ac– ac) [3], [4]. Z-source-related research has grown rapidly since it was
first proposed in 2002 by Prof. F. Z. Peng. A comprehensive pulse width modulation
scheme for Z-source inverters was proposed by Prof. P. C. Loh and Prof. D. M.
Vilathgamuwa [10]. The numbers of modifications and new Z-source topologies have
grown exponentially. Improvements to the impedance networks by introducing coupled
magnetics have also been lately proposed for achieving even higher voltage boosting,
while using a shorter shoot-through time [6]. They include the Γ-source, T-source, trans-
Zsource, TZ-source, LCCT-Z-source (proposed in 2011 by Dr Marek Adamowicz and
utilizing high frequency transformer connected in series with two dc-current-blocking
capacitors) [16], high-frequency transformer-isolated, and Y-source [5] networks. Among
them, the Y-source network (proposed in year 2013 by Dr Yam P. Siwakoti) is more
versatile and can in fact be viewed as the generic network, from which the Γ-source, T-
source, and trans-Z-source networks are derived [6]. The incommensurate properties of
this network open a new horizon to researchers and engineers to explore, expand, and
modify the circuit for a wide range of power conversion applications.

Types of invertersEdit
Inverters can be classified by their structure:
1. Single-phase inverter:

This type of inverter consists of two legs or two poles. (A pole is connection of two switches
where source of one and drain of other are connected and this common point is taken out).
2. Three-phase inverter:

This type of inverter consists of three legs or poles or four legs (three legs for phases and
one for neutral).
But, inverters are also classified based on the type of input source. And they are,
1. Voltage-source inverter (VSI)

In this type of inverter, a constant voltage source acts as input to the inverter bridge. The
constant voltage source is obtained by connecting a large capacitor across the DC source.
2. Current-source inverter (CSI)

In this type of inverter, a constant current source acts as input to the inverter bridge. The
constant current source is obtained by connecting a large inductor in series the DC source.
Disadvantages
Typical inverters (VSI and CSI) have few disadvantages. They are listed as,

• Behave in a boost or buck operation only. Thus the obtainable output voltage range is
limited, either smaller or greater than the input voltage.
• Vulnerable to EMI noise and the devices gets damaged in either open or short circuit
conditions.
• The combined system of DC-DC boost converter and the inverter has lower reliability.
• The main switching device of VSI and CSI are not interchangeable.

Advantages of ZSI

The advantages of Z-source inverter are listed as follows,

• The source can be either a voltage source or a current source. The DC source of a ZSI can
either be a battery, a diode rectifier or a thyristor converter, a fuel cell stack or a
combination of these.
• The main circuit of a ZSI can either be the traditional VSI or the traditional CSI.
• Works as a buck-boost inverter.
• The load of a ZSC can either be inductive or capacitive or another Z-Source ntwrk.

Applications
1. Renewable energy sources
2. Electric vehicles
3. Motor drives
4.