2

Metal Casting Processes

Course Contents
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Advantages and Applications of
Metal Casting
2.3 Pattern Making
2.4 Pattern Materials
2.5 Pattern Allowances
2.6 Types of Patterns
2.7 Pattern Colours
2.8 Mould Materials
2.9 Sand Preparation and Conditioning
2.10 Sand Testing
2.11 Core
2.12 Types of Cores
2.13 Core Boxes
2.14 Mould
2.15 Moulding Processes
2.16 Gating System
2.17 Metal Melting Furnaces
2.18 Crucible Furnaces
2.19 Cupola Furnace
2.20 Moulding Machines
2.21 Casting Processes
2.22 Casting Defects and Remedies
2.23 Metals for Casting
2.24 Salvaging of Casting

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2.1 Introduction
− Casting or founding is the process of producing metal or alloy component parts.
− The parts of desired shapes are produced by pouring the molten metal or alloy into a
prepared mould and then allowing the metal or alloy to cool and solidify.
− This solidified piece of metal or alloy is called as casting.
2.1.1 Steps Involved in Making a Casting
Following are the steps to be followed while making a sand casting:
1. Pattern making: Make the pattern of wood, metal or plastic.
2. Sand mixing and preparation: Select particular sand, test it and prepare the necessary
sand mixtures for mould and core making.
3. Core making: With the help of patterns prepare the mould and required cores.
4. Melting: Melt the metal or alloy to be cast.
5. Pouring: Pour the molten metal or alloy into the mould and remove the casting from the
mould after solidification of metal.
6. Finishing: Clean and finish the casting.
7. Testing: Test and inspect the casting and remove the defects, if any.
8. Heat treatment: Relieve the casting stresses by using various heat treatments.
9. Re-testing: Again inspect the casting and deliver it.
2.2 Advantages and Applications of Metal Casting
Advantages:
− Casting is one of the most versatile manufacturing processes.
− It provides the greatest freedom of design in terms of shape, size and quality of product.
− Casting provides uniform directional properties and better vibration damping capacity to
the cast components.
− Complex and uneconomical shapes which are difficult to produce by other processes can
be easily produced by casting process.
− A product obtained by casting is one piece; hence there is no need of metal joining
processes.
− Very heavy and bulky parts which are difficult to get fabricated, may be cast.
− It also produces machinable parts.
− Casting process can be mechanized and generally used for mass production of
components.
Applications:
− A few applications of casting or cast components are given below :
− Transportation vehicles (in automobile engine and tractors)
− Machine tool structures
− Turbine vanes and power generators
− Mill housing
− Pump filter and valve
− Railway crossings and aircraft jet engine blades

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− Agricultural parts and sanitary fittings

− Construction, communication and atomic energy applications, etc.
2.3 Pattern Making
− A pattern is a mould forming tool in the hands of foundrymen.
− A pattern is defined as a model or replica of the object to be cast.
− A pattern exactly resembles the casting to be made except for the various allowances.
− If one object has to be cast, then also pattern is required.
− It is a model or form around which sand is packed to give rise to a cavity called as mould
cavity; in which molten metal is poured and the casting is produced.
− The ways in which a pattern differ from a casting are as follows :
o A pattern is slightly larger than the casting because a pattern carries allowance to
compensate. For metal shrinkage.
o Also, pattern carries allowances for machining so as to clean and finish the
required surfaces.
o Pattern also has the necessary draft for its easy removal from the sand mass.
o It carries additional projections, called as core prints, to produce seats for the
cores.
o A pattern may not have holes and slots which a casting will have. Such holes and
slots make a pattern complicated, hence can be drilled in the casting after it has
been made.
o The material from which casting and pattern is made, is also different.
2.3.1 Functions of a Pattern
− The main functions of a pattern are as follows :
− To prepare a mould cavity of appropriate shape and size for the purpose of making a
casting.
− To produce seats for the cores in the mould in which cores can be placed, for producing
cavity in the casting. Such seats in the mould are called as core prints.
− To establish the parting line and parting surfaces in the mould.
− To minimize casting defects.
− To help for positioning of a core before the moulding sand is rammed.
− It should minimize the overall casting cost.
2.4 Pattern Materials
Selection of materials for pattern
− The following factors should be considered while selecting proper material for pattern :
− The number of casting to be made; metal patterns are preferred for large quantity of
production.
− Degree of accuracy in dimensions and the quality of surface finish required on the
casting.
− Method of moulding to be used i.e. hand or machine.

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− Type of casting method to be used i.e. sand casting, investment casting, etc.
− Shape, size and complexity of the casting.
− Casting design parameters.
− Type of moulding material to be used.
2.4.1 Materials for Making Patterns
− The common materials of which the patterns are made are as follows :

1. Wood 2. Metal 3. Plastic

4. Plaster 5. Wax

1. Wood:
− It is the most common material for making patterns for sand casting because of
following advantages :
Advantages:
− It is cheap and easily available in large quantities.
− It can be easily shaped and machined to different configurations and forms.
− Good surface finish can be easily obtained.
− Due to lightness in weight its manipulation is easy and it can also be repaired easily.
Limitations:
− Wooden patterns are weak as compared to metal patterns.
− They cannot withstand rough handling.
− They possess poor wear resistance and hence they are abraded easily by sand action.
− They absorb moisture, hence get warped and change the shape and size.
Applications:
− Wooden patterns are mostly used where number of casting to be made is small and the
size of pattern is large.
− The common woods used in pattern making are :
a. White pine c. Maple e. Teak
b. Mahogany d. Cherry f. Shisham
2. Metals:
Metal patterns are cast from wooden patterns.
Advantages:
− They do not absorb moisture.
− They are stronger and accurate, hence more life as compared to wooden patterns.
− They have greater resistance to abrasion and wear.
− They can withstand rough handling.
Limitations:
− As compared to wooden patterns they are more expensive.
− They are heavier than wooden patterns.
− Ferrous material patterns get rusted.

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− They cannot be repaired easily.

Applications:
− Metal patterns are used where large numbers of castings have to be produced from the
same patter.
− The various metals and alloys employed for making patterns are :
a. Aluminium and its alloys d. Cast iron
b. Steel e. White metal
c. Brass
3. Plastic:
− Plastic is now a days considered as a pattern material due to their following advantages :
Advantages:
− Light weight and high strength.
− Resistance to wear and corrosion.
− Provides good surface finish.
− They are easy to make and less costly also.
Limitations:
− Plastic patterns are fragile; hence light sections may need metal reinforcements.
− They may not work well when subjected to conditions of severe shock.
4. Plaster:
− Plaster of Paris or gypsum cement is used as a patterns material because of following
− advantages :
Advantages:
− Complicated shapes can be cast without any difficulty.
− It can be easily worked with the help of wood working tools.
− It has high compressive strength.
− Unlike metals it expands while solidifying.
Applications:
− Plaster is used for making small and intricate patterns and core boxes.
5. Wax:
Advantages:
− They provide good surface finish.
− After being moulded, the wax pattern is not taken out; rather the mould is inverted and
heated and the molten wax comes out or gets evaporated, hence there is no chance of
the mould cavity getting damaged while removing the pattern.
− Also, they provide high accuracy to the castings.
Applications:
− Wax patterns are exclusively used in investment casting process.

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2.5 Pattern Allowances

− A pattern is always made larger than the final casting, because it carries certain
allowances due to metallurgical and mechanical reasons.
− The following allowances are provided on the pattern :

a. Shrinkage or contraction allowance b. Machining allowance

c. Draft or taper allowance d. Distortion allowance
e. Raping or shake allowance
a. Shrinkage or contraction allowance:
− Almost all the metals used in the casting work shrink or contract during cooling from
pouring temperature to room temperature.
− This contraction takes place in three forms i.e.
o Liquid contraction
o Solidifying contraction
o Solid contraction
− To compensate liquid and solidifying contraction, gates and risers are provided in the
mould, whereas for solid contraction adequate allowances are provided on the pattern.
− The different metals shrink at different rates because shrinkage is the metal property,
hence corresponding allowances are also different.
− The shrinkage of metal depends on the following factors :
− The metal to be cast
− Pouring temperature of the molten metal
− Dimensions of the casting
− Method of moulding
− Shrinkage allowance for different cast metals is given in the following Table 2.1 :
Table 2.1: Shrinkage allowance for different metals
Metal Grey cast iron Steel Aluminium Bronze Brass Magnesium
Allowance
6.95 to 10.4 20.8 16.5 10.5 to 21 15.4 16.5
mm/meter

b. Machining allowance:
− Machining allowance or finish allowance is the amount of dimension on a casting which
is made oversized to provide stock for machining.
− A casting may require machining all over or on certain specified portions.
− Such portions or surfaces on the pattern are given adequate allowance in addition to the
shrinkage allowance.
− The amount of machining allowance depends upon following factors :
o Metal of casting
o Machining method used
o Casting method used

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o Shape and size of the casting

o Amount of finish required on the machined portion
− Ferrous metal needs more allowance than the non-ferrous metals. and similarly,large
castings need more allowance than small castings.
− Machining allowance varies from 1.5 mm to 16 mm, but 3 mm allowance is more
common for small and medium castings.
c. Draft allowance:
− Draft allowance or taper allowance is given to all vertical faces of a pattern for their easy
removal from sand without damaging the mould.
− This slight taper inward or outward on the vertical faces is known as draft.
− It can be expressed either in degrees or in mm/meter.
− Generally, it is more on internal surfaces as compared to external surfaces.
− The amount of draft allowance depends on following factors :
o Shape and size (height) of the pattern
o Method of moulding
o Material of moulding
− This allowance varies from 10 mm to 25 mm per meter. on external surfaces and 40 mm
to 65 mm per meter on internal surfaces.
− Fig. 2.1 shows two patterns i.e. one without taper allowance and other with taper
allowance.

(a) Pattern without allowance (b) Pattern with allowance

Fig.2. 1: Taper or draft allowance
− It can be seen that, it is easy to withdraw the pattern having taper allowance out of the
mould without damaging the mould cavity.
d. Distortion allowance (Camber allowance):
− The tendency of distortion is not common in all the castings.
− The casting will distort or warp if :
o It is of irregular shape.
o It is of or V-shape.
o The arms having unequal thickness.

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o One portion of the casting cools at a faster rate than the other.

Fig. 2.1 (c): Distortion or camber allowance

− To eliminate this defect, an opposite distortion is provided on the pattern, so that the
effect is balanced and correct shape of the casting is produced.
− The amount of distortion allowance varies from 2 mm to 20 mm as per the size, shape
and casting material. Refer Fig. 2.1 (c).
e. Rapping or Shake allowance:
− When a pattern is to be taken out from the mould, it is first rapped or shaken by striking
it with a wooden piece from side to side.
− This is done so that the pattern surface becomes free from adjoining sand of the mould.
− Due to this, there is little increase in the size of the mould cavity.
− For this purpose, a negative allowance is provided on the pattern i.e. the dimensions are
kept smaller.
− It is normally provided only to the large castings and negligible for small and medium
sized castings.
2.6 Types of Patterns
− The type of pattern to be used for a particular casting will depend on following factors :
o Quantity of casting to be produced
o Size and shape of the casting
o Type of moulding method
o Design of casting.
− The various types of patterns which are commonly used are as follows :
1. Single piece or solid pattern 7. Sweep pattern
2. Two piece or split pattern 8. Skeleton pattern
3. Loose piece pattern 9. Segmental pattern
4. Cope and drag pattern 10. Follow board pattern
5. Gated pattern 11. Lagged-up pattern
6. Match plate pattern

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1. Single piece or solid pattern:

− It is the simplest of all the patterns and it is made in one-piece and does not carry loose
pieces or joints. Refer Fig. 2.2.

Fig. 2.2: Single piece pattern

− It is generally used for making large sized simple casting.
− It is less expensive as compared to other types of pattern.
− Depending upon the quantity of the casting to be produced, it is usually made up of
wood or metal.
− For making the mould, single piece pattern is used either in the cope or in the drag.
− Stuffing box of steam engine can be cast by using single piece pattern.
2. Two piece or split pattern :
− Patterns of complicated shape castings cannot be made in one-piece because of the
difficulties associated with the moulding operations.
− Such patterns are made in two pieces, called as split pattern or two piece pattern. Refer
Fig. 2.3 (a).

(a) Split pattern (b) Three piece pattern and its moulding arrangement
Fig. 2.3: Two piece pattern
− Its upper and lower parts are accommodated in the cope and drag portions of the
mould, respectively.
− For keeping the alignment between the two parts of the pattern, dowel pins are used.

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− Patterns of more complicated casting are made in more than two pieces for their easy
removal and they have three piece flasks for the moulding purpose. Refer Fig. 2.3 (b).
− Casting of taps and water stop cocks are produced by using split patterns
3. Loose piece pattern :
− Some patterns embedded in the moulding sand cannot be withdrawn, hence such
patterns are made with one or more loose pieces for their easy removal from the
moulding box.
− These patterns are known as loose piece patterns. Refer Fig. 2.4.

Fig. 2.4: Loose piece pattern

− Loose pieces like A and B as shown in Fig. 2.4 remain attached with the main body by
using dowel pins.
− These patterns consume more time for moulding operation and require more labour
work.
4. Cope and Drag pattern :
− It is another form of split pattern.
− The pattern is split about a suitable surface or line.
− Each half of the pattern is fixed to a separate plate and besides the pattern it has
provision for moulding runner and gates.
− Each half of the pattern is moulded separately in a separate moulding box and then
assembled for pouring.
− These patterns are used for producing large casting.
5. Gated pattern:
− To increase the strength and reduce the tendency to warp, gated patterns are generally
made of metals.
− By using gated patterns number of casting can be made at a time, hence they are used in
mass production system.
− The sections connecting various patterns serve as a runner and gates. Refer Fig. 2.5.

Fig. 2.5: Gated pattern

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− This facilitates filling of the mould with molten metal in better manner and reduces the
required time and labour work.
− These patterns are used for producing small castings.
6. Match plate pattern :
− These patterns are made in two pieces i.e. one piece mounted on one side and the other
on the other side of the plate, called as match plate.
− The plate may carry one pattern or group of patterns mounted in the same way on its
two sides. Refer Fig. 2.6.

Fig. 2.6: Match plate pattern

− The plate can be of wood, aluminum, magnesium or steel.
− The match plate has runner and gates attached with it.
− Match plate patterns are generally used in machine moulding because they produce
accurate casting at faster rates.
− Piston rings of I. C. engines are made by using these patterns.
7. Sweep pattern :
− Sweep pattern is just a form made on a wooden board which sweeps the casting shape
into the sand all around the circumference.
− The equipment consists of a base, placed in the sand, vertical spindle and a wooden
template called as sweep.
− The sweep is rotated about the spindle or post, to form the cavity as shown in Fig. 2.7.

Fig. 2.7: Sweep pattern

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− Once the mould is ready, sweep pattern and post can be removed.
− It saves lot of time and labour work as compared to making a full pattern. Sweep
patterns are used for making large casting of circular sections and symmetrical shape;
for example, large kettles of cast iron.
8. Skeleton pattern :
− When the casting size is very large, but easy to shape and few are to be made, then it is
not economical to make a large solid pattern of that size.
− In such cases, a pattern consisting of a wooden frame and strips is made which is called
as skeleton pattern.

Fig. 2.8: Skeleton pattern

− It is filled with loam sand and rammed.
− A strickle is used for giving the desired shape to the sand and for removing the extra
sand.
− Fig. 2.8 shows the skeleton pattern for a hollow pipe.
− Skeleton patterns are used for producing large casting like turbine casing, water pipes, L-
bends, etc.
9. Segmental pattern :
− The working principle of segmental pattern is similar to sweep pattern.
− The main difference between them is that, a sweep is given a continuous revolving
motion to generate the required shape, whereas a segmental pattern is a portion of the
solid pattern itself and the mould is prepared in parts by it.
− It is mounted on a central pivot and it completes one portion of the mould and then
moves to the next portion. Refer Fig. 2.9.

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Fig. 2.9: Segmental pattern

− These patterns are used for producing large circular casting like big gears, wheel rims,
etc.
10. Follow board pattern :
− A follow board is a wooden board and is used for supporting a pattern which is very thin
and fragile.
− With the help of follow board support under the weak pattern, the drag is rammed and
then the follow board is removed. Refer Fig. 2.1 0.
− A follow board also forms the natural parting line of the mould or the casting.
− Follow board patterns are used for casting master patterns for many applications

Fig. 2.10: Follow board pattern

11. Lagged-up pattern
− Cylindrical work pieces such as cylinders, pipes or columns are built up with lag (stave)
construction.
− Lags (staves) are longitudinal strips of wood which are bevelled on each side to make the
joint tight from outside and glued or screwed to the end pieces of wood called as heads.
Refer Fig. 2.11.

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Fig. 2.11: Lagged-up pattern

− Such construction gives the maximum amount of strength to the pattern.
2.7 Pattern Colours
− Actually, there is no universal standard for representation of various types of surfaces by
different colours.
− This varies with different countries and sometimes with different manufacturers also.
− Patterns are provided with certain colours and shade for following reasons :
I. To identify quickly the main pattern body and different pattern parts.
II. To indicate the type of the metal to be cast.
III. To identify loose pieces, core prints, etc.
IV. To visualize machined surfaces, etc.
− An American colour scheme for pattern and core boxes is as follows :
1. Cast surfaces to be machined - Red.
2. Surfaces to be left un machined- Black.
3. Core print seats- Yellow.
4. Loose piece and settings- Red strips on yellow base.
5. Parting surfaces - Clear or no colour.
6. Supports or stop-offs - Black strips on yellow base.
7. Core prints for machined castings - Yellow strips on black background.
2.8 Mould Materials
− Mould material should be such that, the cavity of the mould retains its shape till the
metal has solidified.
− Casting can be made in permanent moulds (made of ferrous metals and alloys) or
temporary refractory moulds (made of refractory sands and resins).
− Moulds can also be made up of wax, carbon, plaster of Paris, ceramics, etc.
− Permanent moulds are used for low melting point materials and they are also costly.
− Hence, most of the castings are produced by using refractory mould materials mainly
refractory sands.

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− The choice of a particular mould material depends on the following factors :

(i) Cost of the material (iv) Accuracy of the casting
(ii) Quality of casting required (v) Shape and size of the casting
(iii) Number of casting required (vi) Material to be cast, etc.
2.8.1 Moulding Sand
− Sand is the most widely used mould material for casting ferrous and nonferrous metals
from few grams to few tons.
− The main reason for this is that, the sand fulfills service requirements at reasonably
lower cost than the other materials.
− When the Sand is properly mixed with other elements, it constitutes one of the best
materials for the mould.
− The sources of moulding sands are river beds, lakes, sea and deserts.
2.8.2 Types of Moulding Sand
All types of sands used in the foundry can be grouped as:

1. Natural sand 2.Synthetic sand 3.Special sands

1. Natural sand:
− Natural sand can be used directly for making moulds as soon as it is received fromits
source.
− It contains binding materials (5 to 20% clay) and needs only water (5 to 8 %) to mix
before making the mould.
− It can maintain moisture content for a long time and also contain considerable amount
of organic matter.
− This type of sand permits easy patching and finishing of moulds.
− Natural sands are less refractory than synthetic sands and also less costly.
− Hence, natural sands are used for cast iron and nonferrous casting.
2. Synthetic sand :
− Synthetic sand consists of natural sand with or without clay, moisture and binder like
bentonite.
− Hence, this sand is formulated sand.
− These types of sand are used for steel and other ferrous and non-ferrous alloy casting.
− Synthetic sand has following advantages as compared to natural sand :
o It requires less proportion of binder.
o Higher refractoriness and permeability.
o Properties can be easily controlled.
o Refractory grain size is more uniform.
o It is more suitable in mass production and mechanised foundries.
o It requires less storage space.

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3. Special sands :
− The special sand includes green sand, loam sand, core sand, parting sand, facing sand
and backing sand.
a. Green sand :
− It is the sand which is in condition and contains 5% of water and 15 to 30% of clay.
− Moulds and cores both can be made up of green sand.
− Green sand moulds are poured in the green condition (not dried).
− It is preferred for producing simple, small and medium sized casting.
b. Loam sand:
− It contains more amount of clay as compared to other sands i.e. up to 50%.
− Loam sand dries hard.
− Its ingredients are fine sand, finely ground refractories, clay, graphite and fibrous
reinforcement.
− It is used for making mould for heavy and large parts.
c. Core sand:
− Core sand is different from moulding sand as it has very low clay content and their grain
size is large to increase the permeability.
− It is silica sand mixed with core oil which is composed of linseed oil, resin, light mineral
oil and other binding materials.
− Core sand is a suitable sand mixture, also used for making cores.
d. Parting sand:
− It consists of dried silica sand, sea sand or burnt sand.
− It is used to keep the green sand from sticking to the pattern and also to allow the sand
on the parting surface of the cope and drag to separate without clinging.
− Its parting compounds may be dry or liquid.
− Dry parting substances are charcoal, ground bone and limestone, ground nut shells, etc.
whereas liquid substances are petroleum jelly mixed with oil, paraffin and stearic acid.
e. Facing sand:
− It is fresh and specially prepared moulding sand which covers ~he pattern all around it,
thus forms the face of the mould cavity.
− It comes in direct contact with the molten metal being poured; hence it should possess
much improved properties than other sands.
− Its use reduces the mould material cost.
− Various facing materials are plum bags, graphite, talc, molasses, etc.
f. Backing sand:
− It is the sand which backs up the facing sand and does not come in direct contact with
the pattern.
− This sand has black colour and hence, sometimes called as black sand.
− It should be cleaned off the foreign matter like fins, nails, etc. before use.
− It is the floor sand which can be used again and again.

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2.8.3 Property of Moulding Sand

Moulding sand is used to produce sound castings. Hence, it should possess following
desirable properties:
1. Flow ability or plasticity :
− It is the ability of the moulding sand to get compacted to a uniform density.
− It assists moulding sand to flow and pack all-around the pattern and take up the desired
shape.
− It increases with the amount of clay and water.
2. Green strength :
− It is the strength of the sand in the green or moist condition.
− A mould which has adequate green strength will retains its shape and does not distort or
collapse, even after the pattern has been removed from the moulding box.
− It helps in making and handling the moulds.
− If the mould is hardened in contact with the pattern surface with adequate green
strength, then high degree of dimensional accuracy and stability can be obtained.
3. Dry strength:
− It is the strength of the moulding sand in the dry state.
− A sand must have sufficient dry strength to withstand erosion of the mould wall sand
enlargement of mould cavity during the flow of molten metal.
− It is related to grain size, binder and water content.
4. Permeability or porosity :
− Molten metal always contain some amount of dissolved gases which are evolved when
the metal solidifies.
− Also, when the molten metal comes in contact with moist sand, it generates steam or
water vapour.
− If these gases and water vapour generated by moulding sand do not find opportunity to
escape completely through the mould, then they will form gas hole sand pores in the
casting.
− Hence, the sand must be porous to allow the gases and steam generated within the
moulds to be removed freely.
− This property of sand is known as permeability or porosity.
5. Refractoriness:
− It is the ability of moulding sand to withstand high temperatures without fusion,
cracking and buckling, hence facilitating a clean casting.
− The amount of this property depends upon the metal which is to be cast.
− If sand lacks this property, then it slags on the surface of the mould and smooth casting
surface can be obtained.
6. Adhesiveness:
− It is the property of moulding sand because of which it is capable of adhering to the
surface of other materials.

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− Also, with this property gaggers are able to hold bulky sand projections of the mould.
− Due to this property, the heavy sand mass is successfully held in a moulding flask and
manipulated as required, without any risk of its falling down.
7. Cohesiveness :
− It is the property of the sand due to which sand particles stick together.
− This property helps in withdrawing the pattern from the mould without damaging the
mould surfaces and edges.
− Due to cohesiveness, the mould faces get adequate strength to withstand the pressure
of the flowing molten metal and do not get washed under this pressure.
− This property is similar to the green strength.
− It depends upon the grain size, clay and moisture content.
8. Thermal stability :
− To avoid breaking, buckling and flaking off of mould surface at higher temperatures,
sand possesses dimensional thermal stability.
− If not, the casting may have defects like cuts and washes.
9. Collapsibility :
− It is the property due to which the sand mould automatically collapses after freezing of
the casting, to allow the free contraction of the metal.
− If this property of the sand is absent, then the casting will result in tears and cracks.
2.8.4 Ingredient of Moulding Sand
The main constituents of moulding sand are :
1. Sand 2. Binder 3.Additives 4. Water

1. Sand:
− The sand which forms the major portion of the moulding sand is essentially a silica grain.
− It is river sand which is used with or without washing.
− The shape of the grains may be round, sub angular, angular or very angular.
− The shape and size of these grains greatly affect the properties of the moulding sand.
− The grains of the moulding sand may be coarse or fine grains.
− The coarse grains have more void space between the grains which increases
permeability, whereas a fine grain lowers the permeability.
− Silica sand, with rounded grains, gives much better compatibility as compared to angular
grains, because sand with rounded grains has the greatest degree of close packing of
particle.
2. Binder:
− Moulding sand binders are less refractory as compared to moulding sand.
− Binders produce cohesion between the moulding sand grains in the green or dry
condition.
− They give strength to the moulding sand so that it can retain its shape as mould cavity.
− If the amount of binder increases, permeability of moulding sand decreases.

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− The most commonly used binders are as follows :

o Organic binders o Inorganic binders
− Organic binders are mostly used for core making. The common binders in this group are:
a. Linseed oil c. Molasses
b. Dextrin d. Pitch
− Commonly used inorganic binders are clay, sodium silicate and Portland cement.
− Clay binder which is most widely used have following types:
a. Bentonite c. Limonite e. Kaolonite
b. Fire clay d. Ball clay
− Out of these all clay binders, bentonite is most commonly used.
3. Additives:
− The basic constituents of moulding sand mixture are sand, binder and water.
− Materials other than the basic ingredients are also added to the moulding sand mixtures
in small quantities for the following purposes :
− To enhance the existing properties.
− To develop certain other properties like resistance to sand expansion defects, etc.
− The most commonly used additives are as follows:
a. Coal dust:
− It is mostly used in the sand for the grey iron casting.
− It reacts chemically with the oxygen present in the sand pores and thus, produces a
reducing atmosphere at the mould metal interface and prevents oxidation of the metal.
− It reduces cohesiveness and strength of the sand.
b. Sea coal:
− It is a finely ground soft coal an<:l is widely used in sands for grey; iron castings.
− It restricts the movement of the mould wall and improves surface finish.
− It reduces hot strength and permeability of the mould and requires more amount of
water in the sand.
c. Corn flour or cereals :
− It promotes wall movement of the mould by being volatized by heat and reduces
expansion defects.
− It improves the strength, toughness and collapsibility and reduces permeability and flow
ability of the sand.
− Its proportion in the sand varies from 0.25 to 2.0 %.
d. Silica flour:
− It increases hot strength and decreases metal penetration into the mould.
− It reduces expansion defects and improves surface finish.
− It may be added up to 35 %.
e. Wood flour:
− It promotes wall movement of the mould.

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− It reduces expansion defects; increases collapsibility; improves surface finish and

thermal stability of the mould.
− It may be added from 0.5 to 2.0 %.
f. Pitch:
− It increases hot strength and surface finish on ferrous casting.
− It is added upto 2.0 %; if higher proportion is added it reduces the green strength.
g. Fuel oil :
− It is added to reduce the requirement of the free water in the sand.
h. Dextrin and molasses:
− Its addition increases the dry strength of the mould.
− It is almost similar to corn flour.
4. Water:
− The amount of clay added to the moulding sand will not give the required strength and
bond, until a suitable quantity of water is mixed with it.
− The amount of water may vary from 1.5 to 8.0 %.
− Water added to the sand mixture partly gets absorbed by clay and partly remains free,
which is called as free water.
− The free water acts as a lubricant and affects following properties: .
o It increases plasticity.
o It improves mould ability.
o It reduces the strength of the sand mixture.
− For given amount of clay and its types, there is an optimum requirement of the water.
− If the amount of water is less, it does not develop proper strength and plasticity,
whereas if water content is more, then it results in excessive plasticity and dry strength.
2.9 Sand Preparation and Conditioning
− The best selected sand and binders will not produce good casting, until they are properly
and efficiently mixed and prepared.
− Sand preparation means mixing the moulding sand ingredients such as sand, binder,
moisture and other additives.
− Mixing can be done manually or by using mechanical mixers.
− An operation in addition with sand preparation is called as sand tempering, which is a
process by which adequate amount of moisture is added to the moulding sand to make
it workable.
− Sand conditioning consists of preparing of the moulding sand, so that it becomes
suitable for moulding purposes.
Functions of sand preparation and conditioning:
The functions of sand preparation are as follows:
− To develop optimum properties in the moulding sand.
− To obtain even distribution of sand grains throughout the bond.
− To add suitable amount of water to activate clay binder.

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− To deliver sand at the suitable temperature.

− To remove impurities from the moulding sand.
Steps involved in preparation of sand:
− Remove all the impurities and undesirable matters such as nails, fins, hard sand lumps,
etc.
− With the help of mechanical mixer i.e. Muller, start the mixing of sand ingredients in dry
state.
− Temper the moulding sand ingredients and continue mixing or mulling action till there is
a uniform distribution of the ingredients.
− Then the sand is treated by an Aeration Process which separates sand grains into
individual particles.
− Aerated sand is easy to handle and use and provides better moulding results.
− Aeration is achieved by power operating riddles, screening, beating the sand or
bypassing the sand stream over toothed belt.
− To avoid difficulties in mould making, sand is cooled below 37°C.
Working of Muller:
− A continuous mixing or mulling action is very much required for mixing sand, binder and
moisture thoroughly.
− It is carried out by using hand shovels or mechanical mixers i.e. Muller.
− Hand mulling is suitable for natural sand but not for synthetic sand.
− A Muller kneads shears, slices through and stirs the sand with the help of revolving
wheels or rollers.
− During the process two wheels along with two plows roll and rotate in a circular path
about the horizontal axis.
− Wheels either rest on the sand or remain about 5 mm to 10 mm above the base of the
rotating pan.
− The wheels may move with the stationary held pan or the wheels may be mounted
rigidly with the rotating pan. Refer Fig. 2.12.

Fig. 2.12: Moulding sand Muller, rotating pan

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− Plows stir the sand and bring it under the wheels, whereas wheels mix the sand with a
squeezing action.
− After mixing of the sand, it may be taken out from a drop door, which is provided at the
bottom of the muller.
2.10 Sand Testing
− Production of sound casting mainly depends upon uniform and good quality of moulding
sand.
− Hence, the moulding sand is expected to have many good properties.
− These properties depend on the shape and size of sand grains and the amount and
distribution of the other constituents added to the sand.
− In order to control these factors effectively, a number of tests are performed in foundry
laboratories, which indicate the moulding sand performance and helps the foundry men
in controlling the moulding sand properties.
− Some of the common tests which are performed in the foundry ·laboratories are as
follows:
1. Moisture content test 5. Mould hardness test
2. Clay content test 6. Refractoriness test
3. Permeability test 7. Compression strength test
4. Grain fineness test
Sample preparation:
− The tests are conducted on a sample of standard sand.
− The samples are prepared by ramming sand in a specimen ram tube on sand rammer.
− The shape of the sand samples varies as per the nature of the test.
− Various sand samples used in testing are :
o Cylindrical green sand sample, for testing compressive and shear strength and
permeability.
o Dry sand core specimen for bending test and tensile strength test.
2.10.1 Moisture Content Test
− Moisture is one of the most important factors which control the properties of moulding
sand.
− Low moisture in the moulding sand does not develop strength properties and high
moisture decreases permeability and adds to other problems associated with moulding
operations.
− The moisture content test is carried out by using separate moisture determining
apparatus.

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Fig. 2.13: Moisture determining apparatus

− It consists of a cast iron base, an infrared heating bulb fitted in a shade and a drying pan
with handle. Refer Fig. 2.13
Procedure:
− 20 to 40 grams of prepared sand sample is placed in the pan.
− The pan is slided and fitted under the shade and the bulb is switched on .
− It is heated by an infrared heater bulb for 2 to 3 minutes.
− The moisture in the moulding sand is thus evaporated.
− The switch is put off; pan removed and sample is reweighted.
− The percentage of moisture can be calculated from the difference in weights of the
original moist and the consequently dried sample of the sand.
− It is then expressed as a percentage of the total weight of the sand sample.
2.10.2 Clay Content Test
− For testing purposes the clay in the moulding sand is defined as particles which fail to
settle one inch per minute when suspended in water.
− These are generally less than 20 microns.
− The apparatus used for this purpose is called as mud or clay content tester.
− It consists of a cast iron base, stirring shaft with paddles driven by an electric motor and
an adjustable support for the glass beaker.
Procedure:
− Take a sample of 50 grams of dry sand which is dried at 1 05°C for an hour.
− Place a sample in a wash bottle and add 475 ml of distilled water and 2.5 to 3 % of
NaOH.
− Stir the contents for 5 minutes using stirrer.
− Fill the wash bottle with water upto the mark indicated on it (generally 6 inches).

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− After the sand, etc. has settled for about 10 minutes, siphon out the water from the
wash bottle, which leaves a minimum depth of water i.e. one inch in the bottom of the
wash bottle.
− Add more water to the sand thus left in the wash bottle and stir the constituents again
till the sand settles down.
− Repeat the above step until the water over the settled sand is clean, which assures that
the whole amount of clay has been removed from the sand.
− The bottle is placed in an oven and after the sand is dried out, a sample is weighed.
− The percentage of the clay is determined by the difference in the initial and the final
weights of the sample.
2.10.3 Permeability Test
− Permeability is that property of moulding sand which permits the escape of water
vapour (steam) and other gases generated in the mould during hot metal pouring.
Permeability depends on the following factors :
o Grain shape and size o Water amount in the moulding
o Grain distribution sand
o Binder and its contents o Degree of ramming
− Before permeability test, a standard sized sand specimen is rammed by a specimen
rammer.
− For measuring the permeability of sand, a permeability tester is used which consists of
following parts (Refer Fig. 2.14) :
o An inverted bell jar, which floats in a water seal and it can permit 2000 c.c. of air
to flow.
o Specimen tube for holding the sand specimen.
o A manometer for measuring air pressure.

Fig. 2.14: Permeability tester

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Procedure:
− 2000 c.c. of air is held in an inverted bell jar and forced to pass through the sand
specimen.
− A situation comes when the air entering in the specimen is equal to the air escaped
through the specimen.
− It gives a stabilized pressure reading on the manometer and it can be read on the
provided scale.
− At the same time, the time required for the 2000 c.c. of air to pass through the specimen
of sand is recorded by using stop watch.
− Finally, calculate the permeability by using following relation :
V ×h
Permiability Number =
a× p×t
Where V = Volume of air passing through the specimen in c.c.
(standard value is 2000 c.c.)
h = Height of the specimen (standard value is 5.08 em)
a = Areas of the specimen in cm 2 (standard value is 20.268 cm 2 )
−
p = Air pressure in gm/cm 2 .
t = Time taken by 2000 c.c. of air to pass through the sand specimen
in minutes.
2000 × 5.08 501.282
Permiability number = =
20.268 × p × t p×t

2.10.4 Grain Fineness Test

− This test determines the grain size, distribution and grain fineness.
− It is performed on the dried sample for which all clay substances have been removed.
− The grain size of moulding sand provides a significant effect on its permeability.
− The apparatus required for determining grain fineness number is shown in Fig. 2.15.

Fig. 2.15: Grain fineness tester

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− It consists of a number of standard sleeves mounted one above the other on a power-
driven shaker.
− There are eleven standard sleeves mounted one above the other and a pan is placed
under the bottom-most sieve.
− The coarsest sleeve is placed at the top and finest sieve at the bottom.
− The rest being placed below one another in order of fineness from top to bottom.
− The whole unit is shaken by an electric motor.
− The sample of dry sand, which is free of clay, is placed in upper-most sleeve and sand is
vibrated for definite period of time.
− The amount. of sand retained on each sleeve is weighed and percentage distribution of
grains is found.
− To obtain the American Foundry Association (AFA) fineness number, the weight of sand
on each sleeve and pan is multiplied by a factor shown against each sleeve and pan as
shown in the Table 2.2.
− The grain fineness number is obtained by adding all the resulting products and dividing
the total by percentage of sand grains retained.
Sum of products
AFA grain fineness number =
Total sum of the percentages of sand retained on pan and each sleeve
2.10.5 Compression Strength Test
− The compression strength testing apparatus for sand is shown in Fig. 2.15 (a).
− It consists of hand wheel which is rotated to build up the hydraulic (oil) pressure on the
specimen.

Fig. 2.15 (a): Compression strength testing equipment

− For measuring the deformation occurring in the specimen the dial indicator is provided
on the apparatus.
− There are two indicators are provided on the apparatus. The first one is used for testing
low strength sands (moulding sands) and the second one is used for testing high
strength sands (core sands).

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− The same apparatus is also used for testing the tensile strength, shear strength,
transverse strength, etc. of sand.
2.11 Core
− Core is a sand shape or form which makes the contour of a casting for which no
provision has been made in the pattern for moulding.
− Core may be made up of sand, plaster, metal or ceramics.
− Core is an obstruction which when positioned in the mould, does not permit the molten
poured metal to fill the space occupied by the core hence produce hollow casting.
− Cores are used as inserts in moulds to form design features which are difficult to be
produced by simple moulding.
Functions of core :
− Core provides a means of forming the main internal cavity for hollow casting.
− Core provides external undercut feature.
− Cores can be inserted to obtain deep recesses in the casting.
− Cores can be used to increase the strength of the mould.
− It can be used as a part of gating assembly.
− It can form a part of green sand mould and can also be used to improve the mould
surface.
Essential characteristics of core:
− A dry sand core must possess following properties :
− It should have sufficient strength to support itself without breaking.
− It should have high permeability and high refractoriness.
− It should have smooth surface to ensure a smooth casting.
− It should have high collapsibility, to assist the free contraction of the solidifying metal.
− It should have those ingredients which does not generate mould gases.
Core Applications
− Core and its form increase the versatility of moulding processes and operations.
− In addition to recess forming and holes in the casting, cores are used as follows :
o Cores are used for mould making.
o Cores can be used as strainer, gates and pouring cups.
o Cores are used for increasing production from match plate pattern.
o Cores can be used as core mould in centrifugal casting process.
o Also it can be used as slab core for increasing castings output from one
mould.
2.11.1 Core Sand and Its Ingredients
− Core sand is a sand mixture suitable for cores.
− Core sand mixture consists of sand grains, binders for green and cured strength and
other additives used for special purposes.
− The commonly used core sand mixture consists of sand, 1 % core oil, 1 % cereal and 2.5
to 6 % of water.

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− Core sand is almost similar to moulding sand but the main difference is that core sand
has very low clay content and larger grain size.
− Large grain size assures higher permeability.
Core sand Ingredients:
Core sand ingredients or core materials are as follows:
a. Granular refractories :
Some of the commonly used granular refractories are :
a. Dry silica sand c. Zircon e. Chamotte
b. Carbon d. Olivin
b. Core binders :
A core binder is used to,
− Hold sand grains together.
− Give strength to cores.
− Make the cores erosion resistant
− Impact adequate collapsibility to cores.
Core binders are of following types:
− Organic binders (core oil, cereal, pitch, wood flour, synthetic resins, etc.)
− Inorganic binders (fire clay, bentonite, silica flour, iron oxide, etc.)
− Other binders (cement, sodium silicate, etc.)
c. Water:
− In a core sand mixture, water content may vary from 3 to 7 % .
− Binders and additives work only when moisture is present.
− Correct amount of water develops good green strength, edge and scratch hardness,
good tensile strength, etc.
− Excessive amount of moisture adds difficulties in making and baking of cores.
d. Additives:
− The additives used for core sand are almost similar to moulding sand, hence refer
section 2.8.4.
2.11.2 Core Making
Core making basically consists of following steps :

1. Core sand preparation 2.Core making 3.Core baking

4.Core finishing or dressing 5.Setting the cores

1. Core sand preparation :

− Core sand preparation is similar to moulding sand preparation. Refer section 2.9.
2. Core making :
− Small cores can be made manually in hand rammed core boxes.
− Cores on mass scale are rapidly produced on various core making machines which are,
o Jolt machine o Shell core machine o Core blower

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o Sand slinger o Core roll over machine o Core extrusion machine

3. Core baking:
− After the cores are prepared they are baked in baking furnace where the moisture is
removed from the core.
− In the green state, cores have round shape hence they are placed on the core plate for
baking, where they tend to flatten.
− The special shapes, which support the green sand cores having curved surfaces, are
known as core driers.
− After supporting on the core drier, they are sent to ovens for baking.
− The core oven may be batch type or continuous type.
4. Finishing of cores :
− After baking, cores are given certain finishing operation before they are finally set in the
mould.
− The fins and other sand projections are removed from the sand surface of the cores by
rubbing or filing, to bring them to correct dimensions and to provide a good surface
finish.
− The cores are also coated with refractory or protective materials to improve their
refractoriness.
− The surface may be coated with heat resistant paint.
− Core coating materials are finely ground graphite, silica and zircon flour.
− Finally core assembling is done; it means two or more parts of the core are joined
together by pasting, welding or bolting before the core can be set in the mould.
5. Setting the cores :
− Core setting means placing cores in the mould.
− To obtain correct cavities in the casting, the cores should be accurately positioned in the
moulds.
2.12 Types of Cores
− Various types of cores of different designs and sizes are used in different ways in
foundry work. A general way of classifying them is, according to their shapes and
positions in the prepared moulds. Their main types are as follows:
1. Horizontal core 4. Balanced core 7. Drop core
2. Vertical core 5. Ram up core
3. Hanging core 6. Kiss core

a. Horizontal core :
− A horizontal core is positioned horizontally in the mould. Refer Fig. 2.16.

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Fig. 2.16: Horizontal core

− According to the shape of the cavity required in the casting, a horizontal core may have
any shape.
− Uniformly sectioned horizontal cores are mostly placed at parting line.
b. Vertical core :
− It is similar to horizontal core, except that it is fitted in the mould with its axis vertical.
Refer Fig. 2.17.
− The top end of the core is provided with more amount of taper, to have a smooth fitting
of the cope on the core.

Fig. 2.17: Vertical core

− A major portion of the vertical core generally remains in the drag.
c. Hanging core :
− Hanging core is also called as cover core as shown in Fig. 2.18.

Fig. 2.18: Hanging or cover core

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− It is supported from above and it hangs vertically in the mould cavity.

− It has no support from the bottom.
− They are provided with a hole through which molten metal reaches the mould cavity.
d. Balanced core :
− Balanced core is supported and balanced from its one end only.
− It requires long core seat, so that the core does not fall into the mould cavity. Refer Fig.
2.19.

Fig. 2.19: Balanced core

− It may be supported on chaplets.
e. Ram up core :
− Ram up core is placed in the sand along with pattern before ramming the mould. Refer
Fig. 2.20.

Fig. 2.20: Ram-up core

− It is used to make internal or external details of a casting.
− It cannot be placed in the mould after the mould has been rammed.
f. Kiss core:
− It does not require core seats for getting support.
− It is held in position between drag and cope due to the pressure exerted by core on the
drag.

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Fig. 2.21: Kiss core

− To obtain a number of holes in a casting, a number of kiss cores can be simultaneously
positioned. Refer Fig. 2.21.
g. Drop core:
− Drop core is also called as stop off core.
− It is used to make a cavity which cannot be made with other types of cores. Refer Fig.
2.22.

Fig. 2.22: Drop core

− It is used when a hole recess or cavity required in a casting is not in line with parting
surface.
2.13 Core Boxes
− Basically, core box is a pattern for making cores.
− They are employed for ramming cores in them.
− Core boxes provide the required shape to the core sand.
The commonly used types of core boxes are as follows:
a. Half core box :
− Half core box is shown in Fig. 2.23 which can make cylindrical cores.
− At one time, half portion of the core is made in the core box.

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Fig. 2.23: Half core box

− After producing number of half core portions, they are cemented together to make full
cylindrical cores.
b. Dump core box :
− It is also called as slab core box.

Fig. 2.24: Dump core box

− It is similar to half core box in its construction but, it makes full core at a time, hence
used to produce rectangular, square or trapezoidal cores. Refer Fig. 2.24.
c. Split core box :
− This type of core box moulds the entire core, but to remove the core after moulding, the
box is separated in two or more parts. Refer Fig. 2.25.

Fig. 2.25: Split core box and rammed core

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− Two portions of the split core box can be aligned temporarily with the help of dowels.
− For making the core, two portions of the split core box are joined and then sand is
rammed.
d. Strickle core box :
− Sand is rammed in the dump core box.
− The top surface of the core in the core box is given a required shape by using trickle
board cut and finished to the desired shape.
− A strickle board strikes off excess sand not confirming to its shape.

Fig. 2.26: Strickle core boxes

− A strickle board is made up of wood and in any shape, as per the requirement. Refer Fig.
2.26.
− This me7thod of producing cores is less costly as compared to others.
5. Gang core box:
− Gang core box contains a number of cavities, so that more than one core can be
rammed at a time. Refer Fig. 2.27.

Fig. 2.27: Gang core box

6. Loose piece core box :
− It is similar to half core box.
− But loose piece core box can produce two halves of a core, which may be neither
identical in size nor in shape.

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Fig. 2.28: Loose piece core box

− It is achieved by inserting loose wooden pieces in the core whenever required. Refer Fig.
2.28.
7. Left and right hand core boxes :
− These core boxes are used to make cores for producing pipe bends.
− Half of the pipe bend core is made in each core box.

Fig. 2.29: Left and right hand core boxes

− Two halves of pipe bends are then rammed, baked and joint together to form a full core.
Refer Fig. 2.29.
2.13.1Core Prints
− Core prints are basically extra projections provided on the pattern.
− They form core seats in the mould when pattern is embedded in the sand for mould
making.
− Core seats are provided to support all the types of cores.
− Though the core prints are the part of pattern, they do not appear on the cast part.

Fig. 2.30: Core print

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− Fig. 2.30 shows a core positioned in the core seat made by the core print provided on
the pattern.
− Core prints are of the following types:
o Horizontal core print o Cover core print o Balance core print
o Vertical core print o Wing core print
2.13.2 Chaplets
− During the casting process, if the core gets shifted from its position in the mould, it will
result in a displace cavity and hence a defective casting is obtained.
− Hence, a core must be firmly supported in the core seat especially to overcome vertical
core movement, which is due to force exerted by poured molten metal.

Fig. 2:31: Cores supported between the chaplets

− For this purpose, chaplets are provided which can support the cores.
− Chaplets are metal shapes which are placed between the mould and core surfaces as
shown in Fig. 2.31.
− As the molten metal is poured, chaplet melts and becomes a part of the casting.
− But the chaplets should be of the same material which is being cast.
− Before use, dirty, rusty, greasy or wet chaplets are properly cleaned and dried.
− Fig. 2.32 shows a number of chaplet forms and shapes available commercially.
2.14 Moulds
− Prepared moulding sand is packed rigidly around the pattern.
− When the pattern is removed, a cavity corresponding to the shape of the pattern
remains in the sand which is known as mould or mould cavity.
− Hence, mould is a sort of container which when poured with molten metal produces a
casting of the mould shape.
− The process of making the mould is called as mould making.
Essential characteristics:
− A mould should possess following properties :
− Mould should have refractoriness to bear the high heat of molten metal.
− It should have strength to hold the weight of the molten metal.

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− Also, it should produce minimum amount of mould gases.

− It should be able to resist the erosive action of the molten metal being poured.
− A mould should resist metal penetration into the walls.
2.14.1Steps in Mould Making
− Steps involved in making a sand mould are as follows :
1. Select a suitable moulding box which can accommodate mould cavity, risers and gating
system.
2. Place the drag half of the box on the moulding board with the aligning pins pointing
downwards.
3. Place the drag pattern with parting surface down on the bottom board. Refer Fig. 2.33
(a).

Fig. 2.32: Making a mould

4. Sprinkle the facing sand all around the pattern carefully so that the pattern does not
stick to the moulding sand.
5. Fill the drag half with moulding sand and ram the sand uniformly in the moulding box
around the pattern.
6. Strike off the excess sand to bring it to the same level of the flask, hence drag half is
completed.
7. Sprinkle parting sand over the top of the drag half and roll it over the drag. Refer Fig.
2.33 (b).

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8. Place the cope pattern on the drag pattern and align by using dowel pins.
9. Place cope half over the rammed drag half.
10. Sprinkle parting sand all around the cope pattern.
11. Erect sprue and riser pins to form suitable sized cavities for molten metal pouring as
shown in Fig. 2.33 (c).
12. Fill the cope with sand and ram it.
13. Remove sprue and riser pins and vent the cope with vent wire.
14. Sprinkle parting sand over the top of the core surface and roll over the cope on the
bottom board.
15. Remove both the cope and drag pattern and repair the mould, if necessary.
16. Cut the gate connecting the sprue basin with the mould cavity.
17. Apply mould coating by a swab.
18. In case of dry sand mould, bake the mould.
19. If required, set the cores in the mould.
20. By inverting cope over the drag close the mould.
21. Finally, clamp the cope with drag and the mould is ready for pouring. Refer Fig. 2.33 (d).
2.15 Moulding Processes
− There are different ways of classifying moulding processes. Some of the common ways
are as follows :
1. As per the method used :
i. Floor moulding iii. Bench moulding
ii. Pit moulding iv. Machine moulding
2. As per the mould materials :
i. Sand moulding
a. Green sand moulding e. Cement banded sand moulding
b. Dry sand moulding f. Skin dried sand moulding
c. Loam moulding g. Core sand moulding
d. Shell moulding h. Carbon-dioxide moulding
ii. Plaster moulding
iii. Metallic moulding
2.15.1 Floor Moulding
− When mould size is large, moulding work is carried out on foundry floor.
− This method is mainly used for medium and large sized casting.
− The mould has its drag portion in the floor itself and cope portion may be rammed in
box and inverted on the floor.
− By this method both green and dry sand mould can be made.
− In floor moulding, venting of moulds sometimes creates problem.
− Hence, a bed of coke may be laid in the bottom of the mould which is later connected to
the atmosphere by using two vent pipes, erected by the sides of the mould.

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− This method is used for producing parts such as wheels, pulleys, cylinder covers, ribbed
plates, etc.
2.15.2 Bench Moulding
− When mould size is small and light in weight, moulding work is carried out on a bench.
− By this method, both green and dry sand mould can be made.
− Both cope and drag are rammed on the bench itself.
− Moulds for both i.e. ferrous and non ferrous casting are made on the bench mould.
2.15.3 Pit Moulding
− Castings which are so large that they cannot be made in flasks are moulded in pit dugon
the floor.
− By this method, very big jobs can be handled and cast easily.
− It is called as pit moulding because the mould is prepared in a pit form.
− The mould has its drag part in the pit and a separated cope is rammed.
− The depth of drag in pit moulding is so large that the moulder can enter the drag and
prepare it.
− A pit is of square or rectangular shape.
− Gates, runner, pouring basin, sprue, etc. are made in the cope itself.
− Cope and drag are then assembled and sometimes a crane is used for closing the mould.
− Pit moulding can be a slow process.
2.15.4 Green Sand Moulding
− It is the most widely used moulding process.
− The green sand is used for moulding process which consists of silica sand, clay, water
and other additives.
− Green sand mixture contains 10 to 15% clay binder, 3 to 6% water and remaining silica
sand.
− Green sand mixture is prepared and mould is made by packing the sand around the
pattern.
− Cope and drag are assembled and the molten metal is poured when the mould cavity is
neither dried nor baked.
− This method is mostly preferred for making small and medium casting and suitable
fornon-ferrous casting.
− The parts like railing and gates, moulding boxes, grills, weights, etc. can be made by this
method.
2.15.5 Dry Sand Moulding
− This method is almost similar to green sand moulding except that the composition of
sand constituents is different in this case.
− While preparing dry sand mixture, special binding materials like resin, clay or molasses
are added to give strong bond to the sand.
− Hence, the dry sand mould possesses high strength .

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− Dry sand moulds are more permeable than green sand moulds.
− Casting produced by this method possesses clean and smooth surfaces.
− As compared to green sand moulding, this method produces casting with fewer defects.
− Dry sand moulding provides better overall dimensional accuracy to the moulds.
− But the main disadvantage of this method is, it requires more labour and consumes
more time in completing the mould and mould baking is also an extra work.
− Due to high cost and time consuming process, it is not used in mass production.
− It is used for producing parts like larger rolls, gear housings, machinery components, etc.
2.15.6 Loam Moulding
− It is a very different method of moulding.
− In this, a rough structure of component is made by hand using bricks and loam sand.
− The sand used is known as loam sand or loam mortar.
− Then the desired shape is given to the made structure with the help. of strickle and
sweeps, hence pattern is not required.
− After preparing the mould, it is baked to give strength.
− This method is mostly used for producing large casting in very small numbers.
− It enables to save time, labour and material because use of pattern is avoided.
− But not used widely because, it takes time for preparing the mould and skilled moulder
is required.
− It is used for producing parts like cylinders, round bottom kettles, gears, huge bells, etc.
2.15.7 Shell Moulding
− Shell moulding is suitable for thin walled articles.
− It consists of making a mould that has two or more thin shell like parts consisting of
thermosetting resin bonded sand.
− Silica sand is mixed with synthetic resin to form a mixture.
− The mixture must be dry and free flowing.
Procedure of making shell mould:
− Fig. 2.33 shows the making of a shell mould and shell core.
− Metal pattern is heated to about 175°C to 350°C and clamped over a box containing
sand mixture.
− The box and pattern are inverted for a short time.
− The mixture when comes in contact with hot pattern, it causes an initial set and binds up
a coherent sand shell next to the pattern, which takes 5 to 10 seconds only.
− The thickness of this shell is about 6 to 8 mm and is dependent on pattern temperature,
dwell time on the pattern and sand mixture.
− The box and pattern are brought in its original position.
− The shell of resin bonded sand is retained on pattern surface while unaffected sand falls
into the box.
− The shell on the pattern IS cured by heating it m oven from 250°C to 350ocfor 1 to 3
minutes.

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Fig. 2.33: Shell moulding process

− The assembly is removed from oven and the shell is stripped off from pattern by ejector
pins.
− In order to obtain clean stripping, a silicon parting agent may be sprayed on the pattern.
− The shell halves are assembled with clamps supported in a flask with baking materials.
− The mould is now ready for pouring.
Advantages:
− Very high surface finish is obtained.
− Sand handling is minimum.
− Permeability of the shell is high; hence gases escape readily through them.
− Less floor area is required.
− Casting defects are minimum.
Limitations:
− The pattern equipment cost is more.
− Not economical for fewer casting.
− Complicated jobs cannot be moulded.
− Weight and size of casting are limited.
Applications:
− It is used where greater dimensional accuracy and smoother surface finish are required
as in automobile casting.
− Also, used for casting steel, iron or non-ferrous alloys.

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2.16 Gating System

− Gating is the term applied to the method of forming channels in the sand through which
the molten metal travels from the sprue hole to the mould and out of the mould to the
riser.
− Gating system refers to all channels by means of which molten metal is delivered to the
mould cavity.
− Since the way in which liquid metal enters the mould has a decided influence on the
quality and soundness of a casting.
− The different passages for molten metal are carefully designed and produced.
− Fig. 2.34 shows the various components of gating system which is composed of:
a. Pouring cups and basins d. Gates
b. Sprue e. Riser
c. Runner

Fig. 2.34: Components of gating system

2.16.1 Pouring Cups and Basins
Pouring cups:
− A pouring cup is a funnel shaped cup which forms the top portion of the sprue.
− It makes easier for the ladle or crucible operator to direct the flow of metal from
crucible to sprue.
Pouring basins:
− The molten metal is not directly poured into the mould cavity.

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− It is poured into a pouring basin which acts as a reservoir from which it moves smoothly
into the sprue.
− It prevents the slag from entering the mould cavity.
− It holds back the slag and dirt, which floats on the top and allows only the clean metal to
enter into the sprue.
− The basin is cut in various shapes into the cope directly.
2.16.2 Sprue
− Sprue is the channel through which the molten metal is brought into the parting plane
where it enters the runner and gates.
− The sprue may be square or round and is generally tapered downwards, to avoid
aspiration of air and metal damage.
− Sprues up to 20 mm diameter are round in section, whereas larger sprues are generally
rectangular.
− In a rectangular sprue, there is less turbulence.
2.16.3 Runner
− In large casting, molten metal is generally carried from the sprue base to several gates
around the cavity through a passage called as runner.
− Depending upon the shape of the casting, the runner may be located in the cope or drag
part.
− To avoid aspiration and turbulence, it should be streamlined.
2.16.4 Gates
− A gate is a channel which connects runner with the mould cavity, through which molten
metal flows to fill the mould cavity.
− The location and size of the gates are so arranged that, they can feed liquid metal to the
casting at a rate consistent with the rate of solidification.
− More than one gate is employed to feed a fast freezing casting.
− The gate should not have sharp edges as they may break during pouring and thus carried
with the molten metal into the cavity.
− The gates should be located where they can be easily removed without damaging the
casting.
− lngate is the end of the gate where it joins the mould cavity and through which the
molten metal will be introduced into the mould cavity.
− The leading edge of the molten metal flowing in a stream follows the path of least
resistance and continues to build up kinetic energy. If a runner extension is used, the
Kinetic energy may be absorbed hence causing a smoother flow of metal in the runners
and into the mould cavity.
− Gate ratio is the ratio of sprue base area to the addition of total runner area and the
total ingate area.

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− Choke is that part of the gating system which has the smallest cross-sectional area. Its
function is to control the flow rate of metal and to hold back slag, foreign particle, etc.
And float these in the cope side of runner.
− The major types of gates are as follows :

a. Parting line gates b. Bottom gates

c. Top gates d. Side gates

a. Parting line gates :

− These gates enter the mould cavity along the parting line separating the cope and drag
portions of the mould. Refer Fig. 2.35.
− These gates are the simplest in nature and construction.
− Such gates are commonly used and are found to give satisfactory service except when
the mould is very deep.

Fig. 2.35: Parting line gate

b. Top gates:
− Top gate is also called as drop gate because the molten metal just drops on the sand in
the bottom of the mould: Refer Fig. 2.36.
− A top gate simplifies the moulding with low consumption of additional metal.
− There is lot of turbulence in this system.

Fig. 2.36: Top gate

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− Also, the dropping liquid metal stream erodes the mould surface .
− It is not favorable for non-ferrous casting.
− Top gates are further classified as :
o Pencil gate o Gate with Strains core o Ring gate
o Edge gate o Finger gate o Wedge gate
c. Bottom gates :
− A bottom gate is provided in the drag half of the mould. Refer Fig. 2.37.
− In this, liquid metal fills rapidly the bottom portion of the mould cavity and rises steadily
and gently up the mould walls.

Fig. 2.37: Bottom gate

− Bottom gates provide less turbulence and erosion in the mould cavity.
− It is not used in large and deep casting because the metal cools gradually as it rises up.
d. Side gates:
− Side gates are provided on either left or right side of the casting.
− Hence, the metal enters into the mould cavity from sides.

Fig. 2.38: Side gate

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− It enters near the bottom first, and then as the level of the metal rises in the mould the
incoming molten metal starts entering near the surface of the rising metal. Refer Fig.
2.39.
2.16.5Riser or Feeder Head
− A riser is a passage of sand made in the cope to permit the molten metal to rise above
the highest point in the casting after the mould cavity is filled up. Refer Fig. 2.35.
− This metal in the riser compensates the shrinkages as the casting solidifies. The functions
of risers are as follows :
o To feed metal to the solidifying casting, so that shrinkage cavities are got rid of.
o It permits the escape of air and mould gases as the mould cavity is being filled
with the molten metal.
o It promotes directional solidification.
o Also, it shows that the mould cavity has been completely filled or not.
− A casting solidifying under the liquid metal pressure of the riser is comparatively sound.
− According to the location of riser, it is classified as top riser and side riser.
Top riser:
− It is also called as dead riser or cold riser. It is located at the top of the casting. Refer Fig.
2.39 (a).

Fig. 2.39 (a): Top riser

− These types of risers fill up the coldest metal and are likely to solidify before casting.
− By using a top riser there is more saving of material as compared to other risers.
Side riser:
− It is also called as live riser or hot riser. It is located between runners and casting. Refer
Fig. 2.39 (b).

Fig. 2.39 (a): Side riser

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− It is filled at the last and contains the hottest metal.

− The risers are further classified as open risers and blind risers
Open risers:
− These risers are open to atmosphere at the top surface of the mould. Refer Fig. 2.40.
− The liquid metal in the riser is fed to the solidifying casting under the force of gravity and
atmospheric pressure till the top surface of riser solidifies.

Fig. 2.40: Open and blind riser

− It is connected to either at the top of cope or on the side of the parting line. Generally,
open riser is cylindrical.
− These type of risers are easy to mould.
Blind risers:
− Blind risers do not break to the top of the cope and are entirely surrounded by the
moulding sand. Refer Fig. 2.40.
− As it is closed at the top, a vent or permeable core at the top of riser may be provided to
have some exposure to the atmosphere.
− It is also connected at the top of the cope or on the side of the casting at the parting line
or in the drag.
− Blind riser is a rounded cavity and it associates a slow cooling rate. Also, it is more
efficient.
− These risers are difficult to mould.
2.16.6 Design of Riser
− The risers are designed to solidify last so as to feed enough metal to enough sections of
the casting. For this purpose, they should loose heat at a slower rate.
− The amount of heat content is proportional to the volume of metal and rate of heat
dissipation depends upon the surface area of the riser.

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− Hence, for a given size, the riser should be designed with a high volume to surface area
ratio.
− This will reduce the loss of heat, so that the riser will remain hot and the metal in molten
state as long as possible.
− To satisfy this condition the riser is spherical or cylindrical in shape. Rectangular shapes
are insufficient hence they are not used. Similarly, spherical shapes are difficult to mould
hence the common shape of riser is cylindrical.
2.17 Metal Melting Furnaces
− Before pouring into the mould, the metal to be cast has to be in the liquid state.
− A furnace is used to melt the metal.
− A furnace contains a high temperature zone surrounded by a refractory wall structure
which withstands high temperatures.
− A foundry furnace re melts the metal to be cast.
− Various furnaces are used for re melting ferrous and non-ferrous materials.
− Blast furnace performs the basic melting operation and an electric arc furnace is used for
re melting steel.
− Heat in a furnace is created by fuel combustion, electric arc, electric resistance, etc. .
2.17.1 Selection of Furnace
− The factors governing the choice of a particular type of furnace for melting a particular
metal are as follows :
o Initial furnace cost.
o Cost of the fuel.
o Type of metal to be melted.
o Melting and pouring temperature required.
o Quantity and quality of metal to be melted.
o Degree of cleanliness or pollution.
o Speed of melting, etc.
2.17.2 Types of Furnaces
− There are various ways of classifying foundry furnaces. The major classification is done
as per the method of melting. Hence, according to the melting method furnaces are
classified as follows:
a. Furnaces for batch melting :
− These furnaces are operated by coal, coke, oil, gas or electricity.
− In this category, crucible furnace, open hearth furnace, air furnace and electric furnaces
are included.
b. Furnaces for continuous melting :
− It includes cupola furnace.
2.18 Crucible Furnaces
− Crucible furnaces are the simplest of all the furnaces used in foundries.

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− These furnaces are used in small foundries where melting is not continuous and a large
variety of metals is to be melted in small quantities.
− In crucible furnaces, whole melting of metal takes place inside a melting pot, which is
called as crucible.
− Crucible is made up of clay and graphite.
− These crucibles are available in various sizes.
− Crucible furnaces can be divided into two groups :
a. Coke fired furnaces b. Oil and gas fired furnaces
2.18.1 Coke Fired Furnaces
− Coke fired furnaces are also called as pit furnaces.
− These furnaces are mostly installed in a pit form and used for melting small quantities of
ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
− They consist of refractory lining inside and chimney at the top.
− Fuel used for generating heat is coke.
− Both natural as well as artificial draughts are used.
− Broken pieces of metal are placed inside the crucible.

Fig. 2.41: Pit furnace

− Coke bed in fired in the furnace in the crucible placed into it.
− Afterward more amount of coke is placed all around the crucible.
− Fig. 2.41 shows a useful design of pit type crucible furnace.
2.18.2 Oil and Gas Fired Furnaces
− As the name indicates, these furnaces utilize oil or gas as a fuel.
− In fact a mixture of oil and air or gas and air is fed into the furnace, which burns inside to
produce the required temperature.
− While burning, the mixture enters tangentially and encircles the crucible.

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− The furnace consists of a cylindrical steel shell, having refractory lining inside and proper
passage for entry of the fuel mixture.
− The crucible is placed on a pad, formed at the bottom.

Fig. 2.42: Gas fired crucible furnace

− To prevent heat loss, a cover is provided at the top.
− These furnaces may be of tilting type or stationary type.
− Fig. 2.42 shows a stationary type gas fixed furnace.
2.19 Cupola Furnace
− Cupola is the most widely used type of foundry furnace.
− Cupola is used for melting scrap metal or pig iron used in the production of iron castings.
− It is an economical furnace for the production of grey cast iron and nodular cast iron
castings.
− It is also used for melting some copper based alloys.
− Cupola is obtained in various sizes and it can be operated for long time.
− Fuel used in cupola furnace is generally a good low sulphur coke, anthracite coal or
carbon briquettes.
2.19.1 Construction of Cupola Furnace
− Cupola is a cylindrical shell constructed from a boiler plate, 6 to 10 mm thick, opened at
top and bottom and it is lined with fire brick and clay.
− At the bottom, it is supported with the cast iron legs.
− Its bottom opening is closed by cast iron doors which can be made to open or close.
Refer Fig. 2.43.
− The bottom opening doors swing out of the way after the melting operation is over
hence remaining contents in the cupola drop down through the opening.
− The working bottom is built up with moulding sand which covers the drop doors.
− This bottom slopes towards the metal tap hole, situated at the lowest point at the front
of the cupola.

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− Tuyeres are the openings through which air under pressure is forced into the cupola.
− Air from the suitable blower, comes through the blast pipe and enters a chamber called
as wind box.

Fig. 2.43: Cupola furnace

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− The wind box completely encircles the cupola and its purpose is to supply air evenly to
all tuyeres.
− Cupolas up to 75 mm diameter may have 3 to 4 tuyeres, whereas large cupolas are fitted
with 8 to 10 or more number of tuyeres.
− Tuyere is provided at a height between 0.6 to 1.2 m above the working bottom and
extends through the shell and refractory wall to the combustion zone.
− Tuyeres having dimensions of 50 x 150 mm or 100 x 300 mm.
− A cupola using 10: 1 ratio of iron to coke, consumes 800-950 m3 of air to melt one tone
of iron.
− A slag is located at a level of about 250 mm below the centre of the tuyeres.
− Slag being lighter, floats over the metal and removed through the slag hole.
− There is a tap hole from where the molten metal is taken out to pour into the mould.
− Cupola is also provided with a charging platform and charging door at a suitable height
to feed the charge in cupola.
− The height of cupola is generally 6 metres.
2.19.2 Cupola Operation
− During operation of cupola following steps are involved :
a. Preparation of cupola :
− The bottom door is dropped to open.
− The contents in the cupola left from the previous melting operation are dumped under
the furnace and removed.
− Slag, coke and iron, sticking to the walls of the furnace, are chipped off.
− Damaged firebricks are replaced by new ones.
− Damaged furnace refractory lining is patched and repaired.
− Foundry Technology
− Eroded· refractory lining at the combustion zone is filled with refractory patching
mixture.
− Patching mixture consists of granister or silica and fireclay.
− For original lining, cupola block is used.
− Once the furnace lining is reconditioned, the bottom opening door is closed.
− Then a sand bottom is prepared.
− A layer of 10 mm thick tempered sand slopping towards the tap hole is rammed over the
bottom.
− A slope is provided for better flow of molten metal.
b. Lighting the fire :
− Cupola is fired three hours before the molten metal is poured into the moulds.
− For starting the cupola, dry and soft wooden pieces are placed on the rammed sand bed.
− Coke is placed over the wooden pieces and the wooden pieces are ignited.
− Air required for the combustion of coke enters from the tuyeres.

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− When initial coke is burning well, an additional amount of coke is added to thedesired
height.
c. Charging of cupola :
− After igniting the coke bed properly, the cupola is charged from the charging door, by
using alternate layers of limestone, iron and coke up to the level of charging door.
− Flux is a substance which aids in forming slag to remove impurities and retards iron
oxidation, lowering the melting point of the slag and increasing its fluidity.
− The ratio of metal to fuel by weight ranges from 4: 1 to 12: 1.
− Metal charge may consist of 30 % pig iron, 30 % cast iron scrap, about 10 % steel scrap
and about 30 % returns i.e. sprue, gates, risers, etc.
− Charging should be completed 45 minutes to 1 hour, before the air blast is turned on.
d. Melting :
− After charging is over, it is kept as such for about 20 to 50 minutes so that the charge is
heated up with natural draft.
− During soaking period, blowers are not started.
− At the end of soaking period, the blast is turned on and the coke becomes fairly hot to
melt the metal charge.
− The melting process starts about 10 minutes after blast is started.
− Molten metal will appear at the hole .
− During this period, tap and slag holes are closed with a thin mixture of moulding sand
bolt.
− Molten iron is allowed to collect for about 5 minutes.
e. Slagging and metal tapping :
− After enough molten metal has been collected, the slag hole is opened and slag is
removed.
− The bolt inserted in the tap hole is knocked out and molten metal is taken out.
− As air blast continues, melting progresses and molten iron is tapped.
− The tap hole is sealed with a conical clay plug (bolt), as soon as the slag appears in the
tap hole.
− Repeat the slagging and tapping, till all the metal is tapped.
− As soon as heating is finished, charging is stopped and the blast is shut off.
− Bottom doors are dropped, allowing them to fall on the floor.
− The water is sprayed on the remains and removed from underneath of the cupola.
2.19.3 Zones in Cupola
− The various zone of cupola are marked in Fig. 2.43 and they are discussed as follows :
a. Well:
− It is a sort of well of molten metal.
− It is situated between the tapered rammed sand bottom and the bottom of the tuyeres.
b. Combustion or oxidation zone:
− This zone is situated 15 to 30 mm above the top of the tuyeres.

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− In this zone, as combustion is carried out, all the oxygen in the air is consumed here.
− Therefore, a lot of heat is liberated and supplied from here to other zones.
− The chemical reactions that take place in this zone are :
C+0 2 ( from air ) → C02 +Heat
2Mn + 0 2 ( from air ) → 7 2Mn02 +Heat
Si + 0 2 ( from air ) → 7 Si02 +Heat
− The temperature of this zone varies from 1540°C to 1840°C.
c. Reduction zone :
− This zone is also called as protection zone.
− It is located above the combustion zone to the top of the coke bed.
− This zone has reducing atmosphere and thus protects the metal from oxidation.
− An endothermic reaction takes place in this one i.e.
C0 2 + C (cock) → 2C02 - Heat
− This reduces the heat in the reducing zone and temperature drops up to 1200 °C.
d. Melting zone:
− It starts from the first layer of metal charge above the coke bed and extends up to a
height of 90 cm.
− Metal charge melts in this zone and trickles down through the coke bed to the well zone.
− The temperature in this zone is about 1600°C.
− Following reaction takes place in this zone.
3Fe + 2CO → 7 Fe3C + C02
e. Preheating zone :
− This zone starts from above the melting zone and extends upto the bottom of the
charging door.
− This zone contains cupola charge as alternate layers of coke, limestone and metal.
− Gases like C02, CO and N2 rising upwards from combustion and reduction zones,
preheat the cupola charge to about 1150°C.
− Thus, preheated charge gradually moves down in the melting zone.
f. Stack zone :
− It extends from above the preheating zone to where the cupola steel ends and spark
arrester is attached.
− Hot gases from cupola pass through this zone and escape to the atmosphere
2.19.4 Advantages and Limitations of Cupola
Advantages:
− Its design is simple.
− Its initial cost is low as compared to other furnaces of same capacity.
− It is economical in operation and maintenance.
− Less floor space is required as compared to the other furnaces.
− It can be continuously operated for long time.

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− It is simple to operate and can be maintained in good condition.

Limitations:
− Close temperature control cannot be maintained.
− As molten metal and coke come in contact with each other, certain elements are lost
while others are picked up, this changes the final analysis of molten metal.
2.19.5 Electric Arc Furnace
− Originally, the electric furnace was used for the manufacturing of small amount of high-
grade tool steels and alloy steels.
− Modem electric furnaces produce a wide range of steels and no longer are considered
suitable only for making a limited range of high quality steels of special compositions.
− There are two main types of electric furnaces which are as follows :
o Direct arc furnace
o induction furnace
2.19.5.1 Direct Arc Furnace
− Electric arc furnace is constructed in the shape of metal shell that is lined with a
refractory material. Refer Fig. 2.54.

Fig. 2.54 : Direct arc furnace

− Usually three phase electric current is used and three large graphite electrodes extend
downwards through holes in the roof.
− The electrodes are moved close to the metal charge to produce an electric arc which,
into, develops sufficient heat to melt the metal.
− The electrodes become shorter as the intense arc continues; therefore, as the melting
progresses in the furnace, the electrodes are slowly moved down automatically to
maintain a continuous arc.

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Operation:
− The interior of the furnace is preheated before placing the metal charge into the
furnace.
− The furnace is charged either by swinging over the roof or through the charging door.
− After placing the cold charge on the hearth of the furnace, electric arc is drawn between
the electrodes and metal surface by lowering the electrodes down till the current jumps
between the electrodes and charge surface.
− This arc gap is regulated by automatic controls which raise or lowers the electrodes and
maintain desired arc gap.
− This arc produces a temperature of 11,000° F (approximately) and melts the metal scrap.
− Before pouring the liquid metal into the ladle, the furnace is tilted backward and the slag
is poured off from the charging door.
− After that, the furnace is tilted forward and the molten metal is taken off into the ladles.
Advantages:
− Unlike crucible furnaces, direct arc furnace undertakes a definite metal refining
sequence.
− Analysis of melt can be kept to accurate limits.
− Efficiency of direct arc furnace is about 70 %.
− It is not difficult to control the furnace atmosphere above the molten metal.
− It can make steel directly from pig iron and steel scrap.
Disadvantages:
− Cost of heating is higher than crucible furnaces.
− Electricity consumption of the furnace is high .
− Controlling of electric arc is difficult.
Applications:
− Generally, high quality carbon steels and alloy steels in bulk are made.
2.19.5.2 Induction Furnace
− The furnace has a steel jacket that is encircled by a coil through which a high frequency
electric current is passed. Refer Fig. 2.45.
− The current in this coil develops an intense heat in the metal charge.
− The water cooled copper coil acts as primary coil supplied by high frequency current of
about 2000 cycles.
− By induction, secondary currents called eddy currents are produced in the metal charge
in the steel jacket.
− These currents flow due to the potential difference between the various parts of the
charge and the resistance of the metal causes current losses which are converted into
heat energy for melting the charge.
− The furnace is generally made of tilting type mounted on two pedestals.
− The capacity range is up to 15 tons.

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Fig. 2.45: induction furnace

− The current carried by the coil may range from 10,000 c.p.s. up to 50,000 c.p.s.
− These furnaces are used to melt comparatively small charges of cast iron and nonferrous
Metals
− Metal temperature in high frequency furnaces may be upto 1760 °C.
Advantages:
− There is possibility of producing a great variety of products.
− Cold charge can be used.
− No metal contamination by electrodes or fuel.
− Rate of energy input can be readily controlled.
− Furnace atmosphere can be easily controlled.
− Additions of elements like nickel, chromium, cobalt, tungsten, vanadium, etc. can be
easily made.
Disadvantages:
− The initial cost of the furnace and its auxiliary equipment is high.
− Due to the high speed of the process, there is little time available for analysing the melt
composition. Hence, the metal charge should. Be carefully selected.
Applications:
− It is very useful for melting alloy steel and high quality steel in small quantity.
2.20 Moulding Machines
− Moulding machines are used for high production of sand casting.
− They are designed to do much of the work previously done by hand, thus eliminating
most of the labour work.
− A moulding machine is also defined as a device which uses large number of correlated
parts and mechanisms, transmits various forces and motions in the required directions
so as to help in the sand preparation.

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− The main functions of moulding machines are :

o Ramming of moulding sand.
o Rolling over or inverting the mould through 180°.
o Rapping of pattern.
o Removing the pattern from the mould.
− Following are the types of moulding machines:

a. Squeeze moulding machines b. Jolt-squeezing machines

c. Jolt moulding machines d. Sand slinger

2.20.1 Squeeze Moulding Machine

− A squeeze moulding machine is very useful for shallow patterns.
− To compress the sand above and around the pattern a squeezer, squeeze head plate or
presser board is used. Refer Fig. 2.46(a).

a. b.
Fig. 2.46: Squeezing machine
− For squeezing action, the squeeze piston may be forced upward, pushing the flask up
against the squeezer or presser board, then the presser board being forced in the flask.
− The sand is rammed harder at the back of the mould and softer on the pattern face.
− Another type of squeezing machine applies ramming pressure to the sand admitting
compressed air into an enclosure above a rubber diaphragm as shown in Fig. 2.55 (b).
− The pressure obtained by the rubber diaphragm is higher than a piston type machine.

2.20.2 Jolt Moulding Machine

− A jar or jolt machine consists of a rugged base cylinder and piston which is attached to
the machine table.
− To accomplish jolting, a flask fitted with the sand is raised and then allowed to drop by
gravity.

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Fig. 2.47: Jolt moulding machine

− The flask rests on the machine table and a sudden jolt is caused when the falling table is
stopped by the solid base of the machine.
− Inertia of the sand causes it to pack with greatest density at the deepest portions of the
− sand and with progressively less density up to the top where the sand packing will be
negligible.
− Depending upon the mould density, the desired number of jolts is used.
− Fig. 2.47 shows the jolt moulding machine which is pneumatically operated.
− Jolting is accomplished by opening the valve which admits air to raise the jolt piston
− When longer edge of the piston reaches the exhaust part in the cylinder walls, the air
escapes which allows the table to fall and strike the base.
− Jolting will continue until the valve remains open.
2.20.3 Jolt-squeezing Moulding Machine
− Jolt squeeze machine overcomes the drawback of both squeeze machine and jolt
machine.
− This machine is mostly used for match plate moulding.

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Fig. 2.48 : Jolt-squeeze machine

− Sand around the pattern is rammed due to jolting action, while that on the upper side is
rammed due to squeezing action. This will result in uniform ramming.
− For providing two separate actions to the machine table, the machine incorporates two
separate cylinders and pistons at its bottom whose timings are well adjusted to give the
desired effects of jolting and squeezing one after the other.
− Fig. 2.48 shows a jolt-squeeze moulding machine using a match plate pattern
2.20.4 Sand Slinger
− This apparatus rams moulding sand by throwing it into the flask at a very high velocity.
− Moulding sand is conveyed to the impeller or ramming head. Refer Fig. 2.49.
− The impeller having cup shaped vanes rotate at high speed in the head.
− It picks up the sand, forms it into wads and throws them downwards into the flask.
− Because of the high speed of the impeller, these wads are discharged in what appears to
be a continuous stream of sand.

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Fig. 2.49: Sand slinger

− The rate of discharging the sand is about 300 to 2000 kg/minute.
− Moulding sand is fed by using a bucket elevator and conveyed to the impellers or
ramming head.
− The impeller head can be positioned anywhere on the mould by swinging the arm.
− Moulds produced on this machine have adequate strength.
− These machines are mostly used in large foundries.
2.21 Casting Processes
Following are the various casting processes which are commonly used:
a. Sand mould casting
b. Plaster mould casting
c. Metallic mould casting
I. Permanent mould casting
II. Slush casting
III. Pressure die casting
d. Centrifugal casting
e. Investment casting
f. Continuous casting
g. C02 - mould casting.
h. Ceramic mould casting
2.21.1 Permanent Mould Casting
− The process is also called as gravity die-casting.
− The main difference between permanent mould casting and sand casting is that, in this
the mould is permanent which is neither destroyed nor remade after each cast.

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− For making permanent mould, high resistant fine grained alloy, iron and steel are
commonly used.
− Pouring in permanent moulds is simply done due to gravity and hence called as gravity
die-casting.
Stages in casting:
− Fig. 2.50 shows a permanent mould which comprises of several blocks joined together
− The mould is first preheated, by using some means, upto a temperature of 400°C.
− The mould is followed by the application of a refractory coating on the mould cavity
surfaces, runner and riser, etc.

Fig 2.50: Section showing one half of a permanent mould

− After attaining the mould temperature, the casting is poured.
− As the metal begins to solidify, cores are removed; otherwise it may shrink onto the
surface of the metal.
− By blowing, the mould is then cleaned, coated with refractory coating, cores are
assembled and closed again for pouring.
Advantages:
− It is a very fast process.
− Moulds pave longer life.
− Better surface finish can be obtained.
− Less skilled operator is required.
− Less floor area is required.
Limitations:
− Moulds are much costlier.
− This method is not suitable for small quantity production.
− Shape and weight of the casting is limited.
− Gates, runners and risers cannot be shifted.
Applications:
− Components produced by this method are :
− Hydraulic brake cylinders

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− Carburetor bodies
− Washing machine gears
− Oil pump bodies
− Aircraft and missile casting, etc.
Slush Casting
− It is basically a permanent mould casting process.
− It is used for producing hollow casting without using cores.
− It is mostly preferred for producing such articles, where accuracy is not required but the
outer surface should have ornamental appearance.
− Molten metal is poured into the mould, which is turned over immediately, so that the
metal remaining as liquid can run out.
− The thickness of solidified shell depends upon the chilling effect from the mould and the
duration for which the metal is allowed to remain in the mould before turning over.
− The metals used for such articles are lead, zinc and various low melting alloys.
2.21.2 Pressure Die-casting
− In pressure die-casting molten metal is poured by pressure into a metal mould known as
die.
− Because the metal solidifies under pressure, the casting confirms to the die cavity in
shape and surface finish.
− The pressure is generally obtained with the help of compressed air or hydraulically.
− The pressure varies from 70 to 5000 kg/cm2
− The main types of die-casting machines are :
a. Hot chamber die-casting b. Cold chamber die-casting
− The principle difference between the two methods is determined by the location of the
melting pot.
− In the hot chamber method, a melting pot is included with the machine and the injection
cylinder is immersed in the molten metal at all time.
− The injection cylinder is operated by either hydraulic or air pressure, which forces the
metal into the dies to form a casting.
− Whereas, cold chamber machine consists of separate melting furnace and metal is
introduced into injection cylinder by hand or mechanical means.
a. Hot chamber Die-casting:
− In this method metal is forced into the mould and pressure is maintained during
solidification either by a plunger or by compressed air.
− Fig. 2.51 shows the main parts of hot chamber machine.
− The plunger acts inside a cylinder formed at one end of the goose neck type casting
submerged in the molten metal.
− Near the top of the cylinder, for entry of molten metal, a port is provided.
− When the bottom of the plunger is above the port, at that time the cylinder is connected
to the melting pot through this port.

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− This downward stroke of the plunger closes this port, cuts off the supply of metal and
applies pressure on the metal present in the goose-neck to force it into the die cavity
through the injecting nozzle.

Fig. 2.51 : Hot chamber die-casting machine

− After sometime, the plunger is raised up, causing the remaining molten metal in the
nozzle and channel to fall back into the casting.
− Before the end of upward stroke, the plunger uncovers the port, through which more
amount of molten metal enters into the cylinder.
− Then the dies are opened and casting is ejected.
− These machines are generally used for producing castings of low melting point metals
like zinc, tin and lead.
b. Cold chamber Die-casting:
− Fig. 2.52 shows the working principle of cold chamber machine.

Fig. 2.52: Cold chamber die casting machine

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− The machine consists of separate furnace for melting the metal.

− The metal is melted separately in the furnace and transferred to cold chamber by using
small hand ladle. Refer Fig. 2.52 (a).
− After closing the die, the molten metal is poured into the horizontal chamber through
the metal inlet.
− To force the metal into the die, the plunger is pushed forwards hydraulically. Refer Fig.
2.52 (b).
− After solidification, the die is opened and the casting is ejected.
− Cold chamber machines are mainly used for making castings in aluminum, brass and
magnesium.
− The life of these machines is more, because the melting unit is separated from the
working parts.
− But, the life of die is less because the machine involves very high pressure i.e. about200
to 2000 kg/cm2
Advantages of pressure die casting:
− High production rates are possible.
− Economical for large production quantities.
− Close tolerances up to ± 0.076 mm on small parts is possible.
− Good surface finish can be obtained.
− Thin sections up to 0.5 mm can be cast.·
− Limitations of pressure die casting :
− Only small parts can be made.
− Only non-ferrous alloys and metals can be commercially cast.
− Due to high cost of equipment and dies, the process is economical only for mass
production.
− Due to entrapped air, the die castings are porous which reduces mechanical properties
of the component.
Applications of pressure die casting:
− Household equipments like decorative parts, mechanical parts of mixers, fans, vacuum
cleaners, washing machines, can openers; refrigerators, etc. can be made.
− Industrial equipments like motor housing, crane parts, motor, rotor fan, impeller wheel,
etc. can be made.
− Automotive parts like windshield frames, window channels, bodies of fuel pump and
carburetor, handles, rear view mirror parts, brake shoe (Al), etc. can be made.
− Toys like pistols, electric trains, model aircraft, automobiles, etc. can be made.
− Other parts like taps, valves, burners, fire alarm system, telephone sets, speakers,
− staplers, typewriters, etc. can be mad
2.21.3 Centrifugal Casting
− Centrifugal casting is also known as liquid forging.
− In this process mould is rotated at high speed and molten metal is poured into it.

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− Due to the centrifugal force, the molten metal is directed outwards from the centre i.e.
towards the inner surface of the mould with high pressure.
− Hence, a uniform thickness of metal is deposited all along the inner surface of the
mould, where it solidifies and the impurities being lighter remains nearer to the rotation
axis.
− This process produces casting with greater accuracy and better physical properties.
− This method is mainly suitable for producing casting of symmetrical shapes.
− Centrifugal casting processes can be classified as :
a. True centrifugal casting
b. Semi -centrifugal casting
c. Centrifuging
a. True centrifugal casting :
− An important feature of true centrifugal casting is that, the axis of rotation of the mould
and that of the casting are the same.
− Also there is no need of central core for producing central hole.
− The axis of rotation· of the mould may be horizontal, vertical or inclined at any suitable
angle.
− During the operation, moulding flask is properly rammed with sand to confirm to the
outer contour of the casting to be made.
− The flask is then dynamically balanced to reduce undesirable vibrations during the
process.
− The finished flask is mounted between the rollers and the mould is rotated slowly. Refer
Fig. 2.53.

Fig. 2.53 : Horizontal true centrifugal casting machine

− The molten metal is poured into the revolving mould.
− The centrifugal force throws the metal towards the outer walls.
− The amount of the metal poured determines the thickness of the casting.
− After pouring is completed; the mould is rotated at its original speed, till it solidifies to
form the required casting.

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− The outer surface of the mould is water cooled, therefore metal solidifies quickly.
− The casting machine is mounted on wheels with pouring ladle which has a long spout
exceeding till the other end of the casting to be made.
− This method is used to cast hollow cylindrical objects such as hollow pipes, gun barrels,
liner bushes, etc.
b. Semi centrifugal casting:
− In semi-centrifugal casting method the mould is completely full of metal as it is spun
about its vertical axis and risers and core may be employed.
− Rotational speed for these methods is not as great as for the true centrifugal process.
− The molten metal 1s poured through a central sprue. Refer Fig. 2.54.

Fig. 2.54: Semi-centrifugal casting

− As the speed of rotation is low, centrifugal force and pouring pressure produced are low.
− The impurities are not collected at the centre.
− The moulds used may be of green sand, dry sand, metal or any other suitable material.
− A central core is used to form the required inner surface of the casting.
− This method is used to produce larger sized symmetrical casting such as discs, pulleys,
gears, sprocket wheels, etc.
c. Centrifuging :
− In this method several casting cavities are located around the outer portion of a mould
and the metal is fed to these cavities by radial gates from the centre.
− The centrifugal force produces sufficient pressure, to force the metal into the cavities.
− This method mainly differs from true centrifugal method in that, the axis of rotation and
that of the mould do not coincide with each other. Refer Fig. 2.55.

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− This method is also called as pressure casting.

Fig. 2.55: Centrifuged casting

− The internal cavities of these castings are irregular in shape and are formed by dry sand
cores.
− This method is also used for unsymmetrical objects.
− It can produce casting of irregular shapes such as bearing caps or small brackets, etc.
2.21.4 Investment Casting
− Investment casting process is also known as lost-wax process.
− The term investment refers to a clock or special covering apparel.
− In investment casting, the clock is a refractory mould which surrounds the pre coated
wax pattern.
− A wax pattern must be made for every casting and gating system also.
− A wax pattern is invested by liquid mould material which is latter allowed to be set and
form a hard layer around the pattern.
− A mould cavity is then obtained by melting the wax pattern.

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− The steps in an investment casting process are as follows (Refer Fig. 2.56) :

Fig. 2.56: Steps involved in making investment casting

a. Die making :
− A die for casting the wax pattern is made.
− These dies can be made by using a metallic master pattern and casting a low melting
point alloy around it.
b. Wax patterns and gating systems :
− Wax patterns and gating systems are produced from the metal dies by injection.
− Wax is injected into the die at a temperature of 70°C to 80°C and at a pressure of 8 to
150 kg/cm2.
c. Assembling the wax patterns:
− The wax patterns so made are then attached to wax gates and Sprues already made with
the help of heated tool known as hot wire welder.

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− Assembling fixtures are used to minimize the operation time.

d. Pre coating :
− The wax assembly is dipped into slurry of a refractory coating material.
− Typical slurry consists of 325 mesh silica flour suspended in ethyl silica solution of
suitable viscosity to produce uniform coating.
e. Investing :
− The coated wax assembly is then invested in the mould.
− This is done by inverting the wax assembly on a table, surrounding it with a paper lined
steel flask and pouring the investment moulding mixture around the pattern.
− The whole system is then vibrated and then the material settles by gravity and the
mould is then allowed to air-set.
f. Wax melting :
− The wax is melted out of the hardened mould by heating it in an inverted position at
about 200°C.
− Sometimes, the wax may be reused.
g. Pouring :
− Prepared moulds are first preheated to a suitable temperature between
− 540°C to 1 040°C and the metal is gravity poured into the sprue.
− Air pressure may then be applied to the sprue with force to fill the mould cavity.
h. Cleaning and inspection :
− After solidification, the casting is vibrated to separate itself from the investment
material.
− The gates, risers, etc. are then chipped off.
− The castings are then subjected to sand blasting.
− Then they are inspected through the specified inspection method.
Advantages:
− Better dimensional accuracy with close tolerances can be achieved.
− Complicated shapes and complex contours can be easily cut.
− Extremely thin sections up to 0.75 mm can be cast.
− Surface finish of the casting is very high.
− Castings are sound and free from defects.
Limitations:
− Size of the casting to be made is limited.
− Suitable only for small sized casting.
− Moulds used are single purpose only.
− Cost of investment material is high.
− It is a time consuming process.
Applications:
− Parts for aerospace industry, aircraft engines, frames, fuel systems, etc.

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− Parts for food and beverage machinery, computers and data processing equipment,
machine tools and accessories.
− Nozzles, buckets, blades, etc. for gas turbines.
− Costume jewellery can be made.
2.21.5 Continuous Casting
− Continuous casting is accomplished by pouring molten metal into one end of a metal
mould, which is open at both the ends, and by keeping it filled always.
− The metal at the lower end is cooled so that it solidifies and solid product thus formed is
extracted in a continuous length from the lower end.
− Continuous casting is the most commonly used process. Refer Fig. 2.66.
− In this, metal in the molten state is transferred from the holding furnace into a special
ladle from where the same is poured onto the top of a bottomless graphite mould of the
required shape.
− The molten metal should be slag free and should be poured with minimum turbulence
to reduce mould friction.
− At the starting of the process, a dummy bar is placed in the mould upon which the first
liquid metal falls.
− The liquid metal gets cooled and is pulled by the pinch rollers along with the dummy bar.
− Metal shrinks from the mould walls, which provides a very small gap between the metal
and the mould, thereby reducing the friction between them and permits cast shape to
move continuously through the mould.
− Pinch and guide rollers regulate the rate of setting of cast shape and keep proper
alignment.
− As the casting passes out of the pinch rollers, it is cut to the required length by using
some cutting method.
Advantages:
− The process is cheaper than rolling from ingots.
− There is no need of rough forming and breakdown rolling operation.
− Casting surfaces obtained are better than the static ingots.
− Grain size and structure of the casting can be regulated by controlling cooling rates.
− Casting is more dense and uniform than individual castings because each portion of the
casting length gets same treatment in the same mould.
− Castings obtained by this process have improved quality.
− As the process is essentially automatic unit labour cost is low.
Applications:
− This process can produce any shape of uniform cross-section such as rectangular,
square, hexagonal, gear toothed, etc. either solid or hollow.
− Production of blooms, billets, slabs and sheets.
− Materials like brass, zinc, copper and its alloys, aluminum and its alloys, alloy steel
maybe cast.

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Fig. 2.57 : Continuous casting process

2.21.6 Ceramic Mould Casting
− Ceramic mould is a variation of the investment mould.
− In this mould, slurry composed of refractory sand grains (Powder of zircon, alumina,
fused silica) and ceramic binder is poured into wax pattern.
− This results in a thin-wall shell of ceramic over the pattern surfaces.

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− After this, pattern is baked in a less expensive fire clay and then it is removed from the
mould and transferred to an oven for further heating mould.
− For producing castings, then the molten metal is poured into the mould cavity through
the sprue.
− In this method, the preheated mould is used during pouring of molten metal which
results in elimination of partial filling of moulding.
Advantages:
− Castings produced by this method do not require machining.
− Casting of intricate objects can be produced by this method.
− This method can cast high melting point alloys to accurate dimensions.
− Thin sections even for high melting point metals and alloys can be produced by this
method.
2.22 Casting Defects and Remedies
− A large number of defects occur in sand casting produced through different methods.
− These defects offer a great problem to the foundry industry.
− Casting defects are usually not accidents, they occur because some manufacturing steps
are not properly controlled.
− A defect may be the result of single cause or a combination of factors.
− The factors which are generally responsible for these defects are :
o Design of casting and pattern equipment
o Moulding and core making equipment
o Mould and core materials
o Metal composition
o Gating and risering
o Melting and pouring, etc.
1. Blow holes:
− Blow holes appear as cavities in a casting.
− These blows are normally rounded and have smooth walls.
− They are not visible from the outside.
2. Porosity :
− This defect occurs in the casting in the form of pinhole porosity or gas porosity.
− Gas porosity is more pronounced with higher melting temperature and slower
solidification of metal.
3. Shrinkage :
− During solidification of metal, there is a volumetric shrinkage.
− They may exist on the surface as depression, called as surface shrinkage or with in the
casting called as internal shrinkage.
4. Inclusions :
− Any separate non-metallic foreign material present in the cast metal is known as
inclusions.

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2. Metal Casting Processes Manufacturing process-II (2141908)

− These inclusions may be in the form of oxides, slags, dirt, sand or gas.

Fig. 2.58: Casting defects

5. Hot tears :
− Hot tears are also called as pulls or hot cracks.
− They are supposed to be more harmful when present internally.
− Their presence is identified by an oxidized surface showing an irregular and ragged
appearance on the fracture.
6. Misrun and cold shuts :
− When the molten metal fails to reach all the sections of the mould, certain part of it
remains unfilled.
− This result in an incomplete casting, the defect is known as misrun.

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Manufacturing process-II (2141908) 2. Metal Casting Processes

− When two streams of molten metal approach each other in the mould from opposite
directions, a physical contact between them is established.
− But, if they fail to fuse together, then it results in discontinuity between them, which is
known as cold shuts.
7. Cuts and washes (scabs) :
− The cavities formed on the mould and core surfaces due to erosion are filled by the
molten metal and it appears on the casting surface as an excess metal in the form of
ragged parts.
− These spots are called as scabs.
8. Mismatch (Shift) :
− Shift is a misalignment between two mating surfaces, leaving a small clearance between
them and changing their location.
− It occurs at· the parting surface between two parts of the mould, called as mould shift or
at core prints i.e. the gap between core and core seats are called as core shift.
9. Hard spots :
− Hard spots on surfaces are generally developed on iron casting, rich in silicon content,
due to local chilling of those spots by moulding sand.
− Due to this, white cast iron is formed at those places and makes them hard.
10. Warpage :
− Warpage is an undesirable deformation in the casting which may occur during or after
solidification.
− The deformation takes place because of internal stresses developed in the casting due to
differential solidification in various sections.
2.23 Metals for Casting
− Most of the commercial castings are made of alloys rather than pure metals. It is
because, the alloys are easier to cast and the properties of resulting product are better.
− Casting alloys can be classified as follows :
1. Ferrous casting alloys
o Cast iron o Steel
− 2. Non-ferrous casting alloys
o Aluminium alloys
o Magnesium alloys
o Copper alloys
o Tin based alloys
o Zinc alloys
o Nickel alloys
o Titanium alloys

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Ferrous casting alloys (Cast iron):
− Cast iron is the most important of all the casting alloys. The tonnage of cast iron
castings is several times than the castings of other metals.
− The different types of cast iron are gray cast iron, white cast iron, malleable cast
iron, nodular cast iron, etc.
− The pouring temperature for cast iron is about 1400 °C.
Ferrous casting alloys (Steel):
− As the mechanical properties of steel are better than the others, it is .an important
engineering material. Also the capability to create complex geometry makes casting
an easier process.
− The melting point of steel is higher than the other casting metals.
− The solidification range for steel begins at just under 1540 °C. It means, the pouring
temperature for steel is very high i.e. about 1650 °C.
− At these high temperatures, steel is chemically very reactive. It readily oxidizes, so
special treatments are used during melting and pouring.
Non-ferrous casting alloys (Aluminium alloys):
− Generally aluminum alloys are considered to be very cast able.
− The melting point of aluminum is 660°c hence pouring temperatures for aluminum
casting alloys are low as compared to steel and cast iron.
− The properties like light weight, wide range of strength, ease of machining, etc.
Makes aluminum more attractive for casting.
Non-ferrous casting alloys (Magnesium alloys):
− These are the lightest of all casting metals.
− The properties like high corrosion resistance, high strength to weight ratio, high
stiffness to weight ratio, light weight, etc. makes it attractive for casting.
Non-ferrous casting alloys (Copper alloys):
− It includes brass, bronze, aluminum bronze, etc.
− It has properties like high corrosion resistance, better appearance, good bearing
qualities, etc. but its high cost restricts its use.
Non-ferrous casting alloys (Tin-based and zinc alloys):
− They have the lowest melting point of the casting metals. Also they are easy to cast.
− They have good corrosion resistance but low mechanical strength which restricts
their applications.
Non-ferrous casting alloys (Nickel and titanium alloys):
− They have good hot strength and corrosion resistance which makes them suitable
for high temperature applications.
− They have high melting point and low fluidity hence they are not easy to cast.
2.24 Salvaging of Casting
− Salvaging of casting refers to the act of saving the defective castings and utilizes
them by repairing.
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 Manufacturing process-II (2141908) 2. Metal Casting Processes

− In the mass production of light casting, the salvaging of casting is not necessary and
hence avoided.
− It is because the defective light castings can be scrapped and replaced due to cost and
inconvenience of salvaging.
− In the production of large and complex cast parts, salvaging is preferred over scrapping
and replacing the defective cast part.
− These large castings are made serviceable by repairing due to the higher cost of
replacement of defective casting.
− Also, salvaging is done to restore properties and service performance of the defective
castings and to improve casting appearance as in case of standard cast component.
Factors affecting salvage of casting
− Following are the various factors related to casting that affects salvaging :
− Composition of material used for casting
− Size and shape of casting component
− Relative cost of repairing of casting and new casting component
− Performance of product after salvaging
− Quality requirements
− Availability of equipments and methods, etc.
2.24.1 Salvaging Techniques
Following are the various salvaging techniques employed for repairing defective
castings:
a. Welding
b. Brazing, Braze welding, Soldering
c. Burning on
d. Patches and plugs
e. Caulking and impregnation
a. Welding:
− It is the most commonly used method for salvaging.
− Welding technique achieves true metallurgical union between casting and filler metal,
therefore it is preferred over other salvaging techniques.
− Most commonly used welding methods are TIG welding, MIG welding, shielded metal
arc welding and gas welding.
− Before carrying out welding repairs, the component must be prepared by chipping,
grinding or by filling cracks.
− The defective casting is then filled with electrode material during welding.
b. Soldering, brazing and braze welding :
− These processes use filler material as non-ferrous metals.
− Filler material fills the defects and casting is repaired. Generally, it is done below the
melting point of casting.

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2. Metal Casting Processes Manufacturing process-II (2141908)

c. Burning on :
− Generally it is a welding process but carried out with the help of moulder.
− A cavity is prepared at the place of defect in the casting. A sand mould is built up to
surround the cavity.
− The molten metal is then poured until the mould is filled. This method is used for
large castings.
d. Patches and plugs
− The defective place on the casting is drilled out and a patch or plug is inserted into
the drilled hole.
− This patch or plug is then finished by various methods.
e. Caulking and impregnation
− Caulking is filling the cracks in order to make watertight or airtight tanks or windows.
− It is done by hand or pneumatic hammering. The leaks are closed by plastic
deformation.
− Caulking is useful for minor leaks whereas impregnation is used to seal widespread
porosity.

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