S. Y. B. Tech.

Pattern 2023 Semester: III (Mechanical Engineering)

2305201: Manufacturing Processes
Unit 1: Casting Processes
Introduction:
Casting is one of the earliest metal shaping methods known to human being. It generally means
pouring molten metal into a refractory mould with a cavity of the shape to be made and allowing
it to solidify. When solidified, the desired metal object is taken out from the refractory mould
either by breaking the mould or taking the mould apart. The solidified object is called casting.
This process is also called founding.

Fig 1: Cross section of a sand mould ready for pouring

Advantages
1. Casting process is extensively used in manufacturing because of its many advantages.
2. Molten material flows into any small section in the mould cavity and as such any intricate
shapes, internal or external, can be made with the casting process.
3. It is possible to cast practically any material, be it ferrous or non–ferrous.
4. The necessary tools required for casting moulds are very simple and inexpensive. As a
result, for trial production or production of a small lot, it is an ideal method.
 5. It is possible in casting process to place the amount of material where exactly required.
As a result, weight reduction in design can be achieved.
6. Castings are generally cooled uniformly from all sides and therefore they are expected to
have no directional properties.
7. There are certain metals and alloys which can only be processed by the casting and not by
any other process like forging because of the metallurgical considerations.
8. Casting of any size and weight, even up to 200 tons, can be made.

Limitations
1. However, the dimensional accuracy and surface finish achieved by normal sand casting
process would not be adequate for final application in many cases. To take these cases
into consideration, some special casting processes such as die casting have been
developed,
2. Sand casting process is labour intensive to some extent
3. With some materials it is often difficult to remove defects arising out of the moisture
present in sand castings.

Applications

Typical applications of sand casting process are cylinder blocks, liners, machine tool beds,
pistons, piston rings, mill rolls, wheels, housings, water supply pipes and specials, and bells.

Casting Terminology

Fig 1.2 Casting process

1. Pattern: Pattern is a replica of a casted product which can be used for forming an impression
or cavity in moulding sand. Generally, pattern is made by woods, metals, wax, plaster of Paris,
plastic, etc.

2. Flask: Flask is used for holding the sand and it has two parts. Depending upon the position of
the flask in the mould structure, it is referred to by various names such as drag, cope and cheek.
The first part is known as upper moulding flask (cope) and the second is known as lower
moulding flask (drag).

Drag: Lower moulding flask.

Cope: Upper moulding flask.

Cheek: Intermediate moulding flask used in three piece moulding

3. Core: It is used for making hollow cavities in castings.

4. Core print: Core prints are used to support or locate the cores within the mould.

5. Parting line: This is the dividing line between the two moulding flasks that makes up the sand
mould. In split pattern it is also the dividing line between the two halves of the pat tern

6. Pouring basin: A Pouring Basin or pouring cup is an enlarged cup-shaped cavity made at the
top end of the vertical sprue to facilitate easy feeding of molten metal into the mould. The top of
the funnel is the pouring cup.

7. Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal from the pouring basin reaches the mould
cavity. In many cases it controls the flow of metal into the mould.

8. Riser: Risers are designed to store some additional metal during pouring which compensate
any shrinkage during solidification. By providing the molten metal during solidification and
shrinkage it helps in preventing void formation in the casting.

9. Gate/Ingates: Gate is a passage which delivers molten material from the runner to the mould
cavity. It is a connector between the mould cavity and the runner.
10. Runner: Runners are channels or passages to carry molten metal from the sprue to the mould
cavity.

11. Draft: Draft is the taper on the pattern, which allows easy removal of the pattern from the
mould.

The Sequence of Steps Involved In Casting

1. Pattern making

2. Mould and core making

3. Melting and pouring

4. Fettling

5. Inspection and testing

Pattern
Pattern is a replica of casted product which can be used for forming an impression or cavity in
the moulding sand. Generally, pattern is made by woods, metals, wax, plaster of Paris, plastics,
etc. The process of making patterns is called pattern making, the person who makes the patterns
is known as a pattern maker, and the shop where patterns are made is called pattern making shop.

Difference between Pattern and Casting

a. Pattern is slightly larger in size than casting because pattern is given shrinkage allowance
and machining allowance.
b. Pattern is slightly tapered because it is given draft allowance of 1° for external and 3° for
internal surfaces.
c. Pattern is provided with core prints to support the core to make holes in the casting.
d. Pattern may be made in two or three pieces whereas casting is a single piece.
e. Pattern may not have all slots and holes of casting because they are machined afterwards.
Functions of a Pattern
A pattern serves the following functions.
1. A properly manufactured pattern having a good surface finish reduces casting defects.
2. Properly constructed patterns reduce the overall cost of a casting.
3. A pattern makes a mould cavity to be used as a casting.
4. Risers, runners and gates may form a part of the pattern.
5. A pattern may contain core prints for placing the cores in proper position.
6. A pattern helps in establishing a parting line between the cope and drug part of the mould.
7. A pattern helps in positioning the core at its proper position.

A pattern maker must keep the following points in mind while making a pattern:

(i) Number of parts to be produced

(ii) The surface finish and appearance of the casting
(iii) Type of moulding
(iv) Position of the core print
(v) Method of withdrawal of the pattern from the mould.

Pattern Materials
The following materials are generally used for making patterns:
(a) wood (b) metals (c) plasters (d) plastics (e) wax

(a) Wood patterns

Wood is the most common material used for making patterns. As pattern material, it offers the
following advantages:

(i) It is readily available and cheap.

(ii) It can be easily shaped and machined.
(iii) Its handling is easy as it is light in weight.
(iv) It can be joined easily by gluing, currying and nails and intricate shapes can be made
easily.
(v) Good surface finish can be obtained on it.
(vi) It can be preserved for a long time, by applying protective coatings on its surface.
However, it has the following disadvantages:
(i) It is affected by moisture, thereby it swells or shrinks.
(ii) It deforms on drying.
(iii) It wears out quickly as a result of sand abrasion.
(iv) If not stored properly, it may warp.
(v) Its strength is low and tends to break on rough usage.
The following kinds of wood are most commonly used for patterns.
(i) Pine wood (ii) Teak wood (iii) Mahogany (iv) Deodar (v) Shisham
(b) Metal patterns

Metal patterns are used for mass production of castings. Compare to wood patterns, metal
patterns offer the following advantages:

(i) Strong and durable

(ii) They do not deform in storage
(iii) Wear resistance and maintains dimensional stability
On other hand metal patterns have the following disadvantages:
(i) Metal patterns are heavy
(ii) More difficult to repair and modify
(iii) They are liable to rust

The metals mainly used for making patterns are:

(a) Steel: It possess excellent wear resistance and strength, but it has poor resistance to
corrosion. These can be easily repaired and are used for mass production.
(b) Cast Iron: Cast Iron is cheap and strong. It possesses good cast ability and
machinability and gives good smooth mould surface.
(c) Brass: Brass pattern is strong, easy working, corrosion resistant and possess high
machinability and wear resistance. But brass patterns are very heavy and expensive.
These are extensively used for making small patterns.
(d) Aluminium: Aluminium and its alloys are the most commonly used for pattern. It is
 probably the best metal because of low melting point, soft, and easy to shape, and
corrosion resistant. However, due to low strength, it is subjected to damage by rough
usage.
(c) Plaster Patterns: Gypsum cement knows as plaster of paris is used for making patterns. It
has a high compressive strength (upto 300 kg/cm2) and controlled expansion. When the plaster is
mixed with water, it forms a plastic mass capable of being cast into a mould made by a sweep
pattern or a master pattern in order to obtain a plaster pattern. Plaster is used for making small
and intricate patterns and core boxes.
(c) Plastic patterns
Plastics have replaced other materials and finding their place as a modern pattern materials.
Thermo-setting resigns (phenolic resign, Epoxy resin) have the desired properties of a pattern
material.
Advantages
(i) Durable
(ii) Provides a smooth surface
(iii) Moisture resistant
(iv) Light weight
(v) Wear and corrosion resistant
(vi) Plastic patterns are easy to make
(vii) They posses good compressive strength
(viii) Good resistance to chemicals
(ix) Better adhesive qualities.
Limitations
(i) Plastic patterns are fragile and thus light sections may need metal reinforcements.
(ii) Plastic patterns may not work well when subject to shocks as in machine molding
(jolt machines).
(d) Wax patterns
Wax patterns provide high degree of surface finish and dimensional accuracy to castings. After
being molded, the wax pattern is not taken out of the mould like other patterns, rather the mould
is inverted and heated, the molten wax comes out of the mould. Thus, there is no chance of the
mould cavity getting damaged while removing the pattern. Wax patterns are made in water
cooled moulds or dies.
The most commonly used waxes are paraffin wax, carnauba wax, shellac wax, bees wax,
ceresin wax.
Wax patterns are excellent for the investment casting process.
Factors Affecting the Selection of Pattern Materials
The selection of pattern materials depends on the following factors:
(a) The number of castings required
(b) Dimensional accuracy required (e.g. minimum thickness desired, intricacy of parts,
finish required in the casting).
(c) Moulding process used (e.g. Hand moulding or Machine moulding).
(d) Size and shape of the casting.

TYPES OF PATTERNS
The type of pattern to be used for a particular casting depends upon many factors like (a)
quantity of castings to be produced, (b) the size of casting and complexity of its shape and
method of moulding.
The following types of patterns are generally used in a foundry shop.
(a) Solid (single piece) pattern
(b) Split pattern
(c) Loose piece pattern
(d) Cope and drag pattern
(e) Match-plate pattern
(f) Gated pattern
(g) Sweep pattern
(h) Shell pattern
(i) Skeleton pattern
(j) Built up pattern
(k) Follow board pattern
a) Single Piece Pattern
These are inexpensive and the simplest type of patterns. As the name indicates, they are made of
a single piece as shown in Fig. This type of pattern is used only in cases where the job is very
simple and does not create any withdrawal problems. It is also used for applications in very
small–scale production or in prototype development. This pattern is expected to be entirely in the
drag. One of the surfaces is expected to be flat which is used as the parting plane. If no such flat
surface exists, the moulding may become complicated with the necessity of a follow board.

Fig. 1.3 Single piece pattern

b) Split Pattern or Two Piece Pattern
This is the most widely used type of pattern for intricate castings. When the contour of the
casting makes its withdrawal from the mould difficult or when the depth of the casting is too
high, then the pattern is split into two parts so that one part is in the drag and the other in the
cope. The split surface of the pattern is same as the parting plane of the mould. The two halves of
the pattern should be aligned properly by making use of the dowel pins which are fitted to the
cope half. These dowel pins match with the precisely made holes in the drag half of the pattern
and thus align the two halves properly as seen in Fig.

Fig. 1.4 Split Pattern

c) Loose piece pattern
This type of pattern is required when it is not possible to withdraw the pattern as such from the
moulding sand. In this case main pattern is removed first and then the loose pieces. In these
patterns, the projections or over hanging parts have to be fastened to the main pattern by means
of wooden dowel pins. When the mould is made, such loose pieces remain in the mould until
main pattern is withdrawn. Then the loose pieces are taken out separately through the cavity
formed by the main pattern

Fig. 1.5 Loose piece pattern

d) Cope and drag pattern
A cope and drag pattern is another form of split pattern. This pattern is made up of two halves,
which are mounted on different plates. In this case, cope and drag parts of the mould are made
separately and then assembled. These are used for very large castings.

Fig. 1.6 Cope and drag pattern

e) Match-plate pattern
Match-plate patterns are mostly used in machine moulding as well as for producing large number
of small casting by hand moulding. Cope and drag parts of pattern are mounted along with the
gating system on opposite sides of wooden or metal plate.

Fig. 1.7 Match-plate pattern

f) Gated pattern
In gated pattern, gates and riser for producing casting is included in the pattern itself. The use of
gated pattern eliminates the time required to cut the gating system by hand. These are suitable for
small quantity production

Fig. 1.8 Gated pattern

g) Sweep pattern
It is not a true pattern, but a template made of wood or metal revolving around a fixed axis in the
mould, shapes the sand to the desired contour. It is suitable for producing large or medium size
symmetrical castings.
 Fig. 1.9 Sweep pattern
h) Shell Pattern
The shell pattern is used to make molds of curved or straight hollow-shaped parts, such as
pipes. In this, the pattern is made of metal. The pattern is divided along the center line and the
two halves are joined. In this type of pattern, the outer shapes are used to make the mold and the
inner shapes are used to make the core.

Fig. 1.10 Shell pattern

(i) Skeleton pattern

For very large castings, the patterns would require a large amount of timber for full solid pattern.
If the number of castings required is small, it may not be economical to prepare solid pattern. In
such cases, the pattern is made of wood frame and rib construction so that it will form a partially
outline of the castings. This framework is called ‗Skeleton‘.
 Fig. 1.11 Skeleton pattern
j) Built up pattern Built up patterns are composed of two or more pieces. Patterns for special
pulleys are built up of segments of wooden strips. These segments are made by cutting strips of
wood to the curvature required.

k) Follow board pattern

A follow board pattern is a wooden board and is used for supporting a pattern which is very thin
and fragile. With the follow board support under the pattern, the drag is rammed and the follow
board is removed.
Pattern colour code
Patterns are painted with different colours to indicate different surfaces such that the mould
maker would be able to understand the functions clearly. There is no universal accepted standard
for representation of different types of surfaces. The colour code adopted by most of the
foundries are given below
1. Red or orange on surfaces, not to be finished and left as cast
2. Yellow on surfaces to be machined
3. Black on core prints for unmachined openings
4. Yellow stripes on black on core prints for machined openings
5. Green on seats of and for loose pieces and loose core prints
6. Diagonal black stripes with clear varnish on to strengthen the weak patterns or to
shorten a casting

Pattern Allowances
A pattern differs from the casting in certain dimensions. When the pattern is prepared, certain
allowances are given on the sizes of casting. These are known as pattern allowances. Pattern
allowances are as follows:
(a) Shrinkage or Contraction allowance
(b) Draft or taper allowance
(c) Finishing or machining allowance
(d) Shaking or rapping allowance
(e) Distortion or camber allowance.
(a) Shrinkage or Contraction allowance
Almost all metals used for casting shrink or contract volumetrically after solidification and
cooling in the mould. Hence to compensate this shrinkage, the pattern must be made larger than
the finished casting by an amount known as ‗Shrinkage Allowance‘. Although contraction is
volumetrically, the correction for it usually expressed linearly as a ratio, a percentage or in mm
per meter.
Pattern makers use special measuring rules (Shrinkage Rules) that take account of different
contraction that occur when casting various metals. The rule have slightly larger divisions so
thatthey measure over size. Shrinkage allowances for different cast metals are given in Table
 Metals/Alloys Shrinkage Allowance (mm/m)
Gray Cast Iron 10.5
White Cast Iron 20.0
Plain Carbon Steel 21.0
Chromium Steel 20.0
Manganese Steel 25.0–38.0
Aluminium 17.0
Aluminium Alloys 12.5–15.0
Brass 15.5
Bronze 15.5–20.8
Copper 16.0
Magnesium 17.0
Zinc 24.0

(b) Draft or Taper allowance

When a pattern is removed from the mould, there is always some possibility of damaging
(tearing of edges) the edges of the mould around the pattern. This is greatly reduced if the
vertical surfaces of the pattern are tapered slightly inward. This is known as ‗draft‘. The draft is
expressed in mm per meter on a side or in degrees (sees Fig.). The amount of taper depends on
(i)Method of moulding, (ii) Shape and size of the pattern (iii) Moulding material.

Fig. 1.14 Draft Allowance

Draft values of various pattern materials are shown in the Table

(c) Finishing or Machining allowance

The finish of the casting obtained in sand casting is generally poor. To bring the casting to the
desired level of quality, it has to be machined. For this some extra material has to be provided on
the pattern. This is known as ‗machining allowance‘. Therefore the size of the pattern increases
due to machining allowance. This allowance depends on casting metal, size and shape of the
casting, method of machining and the degree of finish required. Table gives approximate
machining allowances on pattern for various metals. Standard finishing allowance for ferrous
metals is 3 mm and for non-ferrous metal it is 1.5 mm.

(d) Shaking or Rapping allowance

Before withdrawing the pattern, the pattern is shaked or rapped for easy withdrawal. By doing
so, the cavity in the mould is slightly increased in size. This causes the size of casting also to
increase. In order to compensate for this increase the pattern should be made initially smaller
than the required size.
In small and medium sized castings, this allowance can be ignored, but for large sized
castings or where high precision is desired, rapping or shaking allowance is provided by making
the pattern slightly smaller.
(e) Distortion or Camber allowance
Some castings have a tendency to distort or warp during cooling. This is the result of uneven
shrinkage due to uneven metal thickness or due to one surface being more exposed than the other
causing it to cool more rapidly. To allow for this the shape of the pattern is modified in such a
way that it bends in opposite direction of the distortion. A ‗U‘ shaped casting is an example of
this feature. On cooling, the legs diverging instead of parallel. To compensate for this in the
pattern, the legs are kept convergent so that on cooling the legs become parallel. The distortion
allowance varies from 2 mm to 20 mm depending upon the size of the casting.

Moulding sand
Moulding sand is one of the most important material in production of sand casting. Sand is
formed by breaking up of rocks due to natural forces such as frost, wind, rain and action of
water.
Classification of Moulding Sands
Classification according to the nature of its origin
(a) Natural sand (b) Synthetic sand
(a) Natural Sand: Natural sand is collected from the river beds or it is dug from pits. It is also
called green sand. The constitution of green sand is
Silica — 80 per cent to 90 per cent
Silicon Oxide (SiO2) — 4 per cent to 6 per cent
Clay as a binder 10 per cent to 15 per cent
Water — 5 per cent to 8 per cent
Natural sand contains sufficient amount of binding material (clay) in it so that it can be used
directly. It has the following advantages:
 Advantages
(i) Natural sand maintains moisture content for a pretty long time
(ii) They are cheap
(iii) The time for mixing the binder is saved
(iv) No extra equipment for mixing sand and binder.
Disadvantages
These are less refractory than synthetic sands because of impurities present. Natural
sands are used for casting cast iron and nonferrous metals.
(b) Synthetic Sand: Synthetic sands are basically clay free high silica sands. They are
mixed with desired amount of clay (3–5% bentonite) and water to, develop required
moulding properties. It is used for steel castings. The constituents of synthetic sand are:
Natural Sand (from rivers) — 50 per cent to 60 per cent
Clay 12 per cent to 15 per cent
Bentonite 2 per cent to 15 per cent
Coal Dust 5 per cent to 15 per cent
Water 4 per cent to 6 per cent
The advantages of synthetic sands over natural sands are:
(i) High permeability and refractoriness
(ii) Modulability with less moisture
(iii) Easier control of properties
However synthetic sands have the following disadvantages:
(i) It is more costly.
(ii) It needs extra time, equipment and men to prepare the sand.
Classification according to their initial conditions and use
(a) Green Sand, (b) Dry Sand, (c) Loam Sand, (d) Facing Sand, (e) Parting Sand, (f)
Backing Sand.
(a) Green Sand: Foundry sand containing moisture is known as green sand. Green refers to the
moisture content, it is a mixture of silica sand with 20 to 30% clay and water from 6 to 8%. This
is suitable for moulding purposes without any further conditioning. Green sand is generally used
for casting small or medium sized moulds.
(b) Dry Sand: Sand free from moisture is called dry sand. It passes greater strength than green
sand and can be used for making larger castings.
(c) Loam Sand: Loam sand is a mixture of sand and clay (50%). It is used for making large
castings such as large cylinders, paper rolls.
(d) Facing Sand: It forms the face of the mould and is in contact with the molten metal 25% of
coal dust or graphite is used to prevent the metal from burning into the sand. It may have the
thickness of 20 to 30 mm. It should have sufficient strength and refractoriness.
(e) Parting Sand: Parting sand is sprinkled over the rammed drag to avoid the sticking of drag
with cape. Similarly it is sprinkled over the pattern to avoid its sticking to the green sand; powder
free from clay is used for this purpose. Very fine brick powder can be used as parting sand.
( f ) Backing Sand: It is the sand which backs up the facing sand and to fill the rest of the flask it
is the floor sand which is already used.
Properties of Moulding Sand
A moulding sand should possess the following properties:
(a) Permeability or Porosity: Molten metal always contains a certain amount of dissolved gases
which are evolved when the metal solidifies, also when the molten metal comes in contact with
the moisture sand, generates steam and water vapour. If these gases and water vapour do not find
passage to escape completely through the mould they will form gas holes and pores in the
casting. The ability of the sand to allow the gas to pass through it is called ‗permeability‘. It
depends on size and shape of grains, moisture content and degree of ramming.
(b) Plasticity or Flow ability: This refers to the ability of the moulding sand to acquire a
predetermined shape under pressure and retain the same when the pressure is removed. This will
increase with increase in clay moisture content.
(c) Adhesiveness: The property to adhere with other materials is adhesiveness. Moulding sand
particles should stick to the surface of the moulding boxes. This enables the mould to retain in a
box during handling.
(d) Cohesiveness: Cohesiveness is the ability of sand particles to stick to each other. Lack of this
property would result in breaking of the mould when molten metal is poured. This depends on
grain size (decreases with grain size) and clay content (increases with clay) of sand.
(e) Green Strength: It is the strength of the sand in green or moist state. A mould having
adequate green strength will not disturb or collapse even after removing the pattern from the
mould box in the absence of green strength, dimensional stability and accuracy cannot be
obtained.
(f) Dry Strength: It is the strength of the moulding sand in dry condition. A mould should possess
adequate dry strength to withstand erosive force and pressure of molten metal.
(g) Hot Strength: It is the strength of sand of mould cavity above 100°C. If hot strength is
inadequate, the mould is likely to enlarge, break or get cracked.
(h) Refractoriness: The capability of the moulding sand to withstand the high temperatures
of the molten metal without fusing is known as refractoriness.
(i) Chemical Resistivity: The moulding sand should not react chemically with the molten
metal, otherwise the shape of casting will be distorted and smooth surface will not be obtained.
( j) Collapsibility: It is the property of the moulding sand that permits it to collapse (break) easily
during its knockout from the casting.
(k) Fineness: Finer mould sand resists metal penetration and produces smooth casting surface
fineness and permeability are opposite to each other. Hence these should be balanced for
optimum results.
(l) Coefficient of Expansion: Moulding sands should possess low coefficient of expansion.
(m) Bench Lift: It is the ability of mould sand to retain its properties during storing, handling
or while standing (i.e. in case of any delay).
Principal Ingredients of Moulding Sand
(a) Silica Sand Grains (b) Clay (c) Water (d) Additives

(a) Silica Sand Grains: They impart refractoriness, chemical resistivity and permeability to the
sand. The sand grains may vary in size from a few micrometers to a few millimeters. The shape
of the grains may be round, sub-angular, angular and compound. The size and shape of the sand
grains effect the properties of moulding sand.
(b) Clay: Clay can be defined as natural earthy material that becomes plastic when water
is mixed with. It‘s purpose is to impart necessary bonding strength to the moulding sand so that
the mould does not loose its shape after ramming. Clay consists of flaked shaped particles about
20 microns in diameter. The most popular clays are kaolite and bentonite. Kaolite has a melting
point of 175 to 1787°C and Bentonite has melting point of 1250 to l300°C of the two, bentonite
can absorb more water which increases its bonding power.
(c) Water: Clay acquires its bonding action only in the presence of the required amount of water
(1.5 to 8%). When water is added to clay it penetrates into the mixture and forms a micro film
which coats the surface of each flake. Too little water will not develop proper strength and
plasticity. Too much water will result in excessive plasticity. (d) Additives: Materials other than
basic ingredients (sand binder and water) are also added to mould sand for improving existing
properties. Additives include (i) Facing materials, (ii) Cushion materials.
(i) Facing Materials: Facing materials are used to get smoother and cleaner surfaces of castings
and help easy peeling of sand from the casting surface during shake out, e.g. coal dust, graphite,
silica flour.
(ii) Cushion Materials: Cushion materials burn when the molten metal is poured and thus give
rise to space for accommodating the expansion of silica sand at the surfaces of mould cavity, e.g.
wood flour cellulose, perlite.
Sand Conditioning
In general the natural and long used sands are not suitable for moulding directly. There is a need
for conditioning the sand mixture for better results.
The basic steps in sand conditioning are as follows:
(i) The first step is remove all foreign and undesirable matters such as nails, fins, hard sand
lumps from the moulding sand.
(ii) The second step is mixing of its ingredients, proper amounts of pure sand, clay and other
additives are mixed and water is spread over the entire volume. Muller is used for mixing all the
ingredients of sand.
(iii) In the third step, the sand is passed through a mechanical aerator to separate sand grains into
individual particles. It is performed to increase the flow ability of sand.

Cores
Core is a mass of sand that is put into the mould to form holes and cavities in the casting.
Characteristics of cores and core sands:
1. The core should have sufficient strength to withstand the force of the molten metal.
2. It should be highly permeable to allow gas to escape.
3. The core should withstand high temperatures of the molten metal
4. It should have good collapsibility so that the core should be disintegrated easily after
solidification.
Types of Cores
The various types of cores are as follows:
(a) Horizontal Core: This is the most common type. Horizontal cores are laid down
horizontally at the parting line of the mould (see Fig.). The ends of the core rest in the
seats provided by the core print of the pattern.

Fig. 1.16 Horizontal Core Fig. 1.17 Vertical Core

(b) Vertical Core: Vertical core is similar to the horizontal core except that it is standing
vertically in the mould (see Fig.). It is a usual practice to have greater part of the core in
the drag position of the mould.
(c) Balanced Core: A balanced core is one which is supported and balanced from its one
end only. In such cases the core print should be large to support the weight of the core.
This is used when a casting does not want a through cavity. For supporting the core in the
mould, chaplets are used.

Fig. 1.18 Balanced Core

 (d) Hanging Core: If the core hangs from the cope and does not have any support at the
bottom in the drag (see Fig.), it is called as hanging core. In such cases, it is necessary to
fasten the core with wire or rod extending through the cope.

Fig. 1.19 Hanging Core Fig. 1.20 Wing Core

(e) Wing Core: Wing core is used when a hole is desired in the casting either above or
below the parting line (see Fig,).
Core Prints
Core Prints are extra projections provided on the pattern to position the core at a proper place
in the mould cavity and also holds core in the position. Sometimes, core chaplets are used to
support large and odd shaped core which cannot be adequately supported by their own core
prints. Chaplets are metal shapes, same as that of casting, which melt and become a part of
casting. A core print for a split pattern, and core chaplet inside a casting mould are shown in
Figure

Fig.1.21 Core print and core chaplets in a casting mould

Difference between the Core and Core Print
Core Core Print
Core is used to form a cavity in the casting Core prints are used to support the core.
It is made by sand and produces only one It is made by many materials and supports
casting. many cores
Core is a part of the mould. It is a part of the pattern
Core is made by core-box. It is made on pattern-by-pattern material.

Melting and Pouring

After moulding, the molten metal is poured into the mould to get the casting. Various types of
melting furnaces are available for the melting purpose. The choice of the furnace depends on
the amount and the type of alloy being melted.
Furnaces most commonly used are:
(a) Cupola furnace (for melting cast iron)
(b) Crucible furnace (for melting nonferrous metals)
(c) Electric furnace (for melting steel and special alloy steels).
(a) Cupola Furnace
Description: The cupola is a shaft type furnace for producing molten cast-iron. It is a vertical
cylindrical shell made of 6 to 12 mm thick boiler plate rivetted and lined inside with acid
refractory bricks. Diameter varies from 1 to 2 metres. Height 3 to 5 meters diameter. The
whole shell is mounted on brickwork foundation or on steel columns. The bottom of the
cupola is provided with drop bottom door, through which debris consists of slag, coke etc. can
be removed at the end of melt. Towards the top of the furnace, there is an opening (charging
door) through which the charge is fed. Air for combustion is blown through the tuyeres
located at a height of 0.6 to 1.2 metres above the bottom of the furnace.
 Fig.1.22 Cupola Furnace
Cupola can be divided into the following zones
1. Crucible Zone: It is between the top of the sand and the bottom of the tuyeres. The molten
metal comes here.
2. Tuyeres Zone: It is between the bottom of tuyeres to the top of tuyeres.
3. Combustion Zone: This zone is located above the tuyeres where the combustion of the fuel
ccur by oxygen of the air blast and produces lot of heat in the cupola.
4. Reduction Zone: This zone extends from the top of the combustion zone to the top of the
coke bed. CO2 produced in combustion zone comes in contact with hot coke and is reduced to
CO. In this zone iron and other elements are protected from oxidizing influence.
5. Melting Zone: It is the first layer of iron above the coke bed. The temperature in this zone
is as high as 1700°C. Iron is melted in this zone.
6. Preheating Zone: It is located above melting zone to the charging door. Iron and coke are
preheated to this in zone.
7. Stack: Carries gases from preheating zone to atmosphere.
Cupola Operation
Preparation of Cupola: After each heat, the slag and refuse are cleaned as soon as the patching
of the lining is completed, the bottom doors are raised and held in position by metal props.
The sand bottom is made such that it slopes towards the tap hole. Firing the Cupola: Small
pieces of wood are ignited on the sand bottom when the wood burns well, coke is added. Air
necessary for coke combustion from tuyeres. Coke is added until the desired height is
reached. Instead of placing wooden pieces, the initial coke may be ignited by gas burners or
electric spark igniters.
Charging: After coke bed is properly ignited, coke and pig iron are charged in alternative
layers until the cupola is full from charging door. In addition of iron and coke, a certain
amount of limestone is added to the first metal charge. Besides limestone fluorspar (CaF2)
and soda ash (Na2CO3) also used as fluxing material. A flux removes the impurities in the
iron and protects the iron from oxidation. Limestone reduces the melting point of the slag and
increases fluidity. Soaking Iron: After it is charged, it is kept about 45 minutes. The charge
gets preheated. This causes the iron to get soaked. Opening the Air Blast: At the end of the
soaking period, the blast is opened. As the melting proceeds, the molten metal appears at the
tap hole.
Pouring the Molten Metal: When sufficient metal is collected, the slag hole is opened and the
slag is run off. Then the tap hole is opened. Molten metal is collected in ladles and carried to
moulds for pouring.
(b) Crucible Furnace
Crucible furnaces are used to melt nonferrous metals like bronze, brass, aluminium and zinc
alloys. Crucibles are made of either refractory material or alloy steels. Refractory crucibles
can be of clay graphite, either ceramic bonded or silicon carbide bonded types:
The crucible furnaces are the following types:
(a) Pit crucible furnace
(b) Tilting furnace
(a) Pit Crucible Furnace
As the name implies, it is constructed in a pit dug in the ground. It may be coke, oil or gas
fired furnace, but usually it is fired with coke. The coke bed is formed, ignited and allowed to
bum. Now coke from the centre of the coke bed is removed and crucible with lid containing
the metal charge is placed. Coke is again added surrounding the crucible on all sides. When
the metal reaches the desired temperature, the crucible is lifted out with tongs and the metal is
transferred to the mould.

Fig. 1.23 Pit Crucible Furnace

(b) Tilting Furnace

As compared to stationary furnaces, tilting type furnaces are preferred where large amounts of
metal are melted. In tilting furnace, crucible is permanently cemented in place. The furnace
made of sheet metal is lined with refractory (fire brick). It is mounted on two pedestals and is
tilted with a geared hand wheel or power. Oil or gas is used as fuel in the furnace.
Combustion air is supplied by a blower.
 Fig. 1.24 Tilting Furnace

(c) Electric Furnace

These are used for the production of high quality castings:
1. Direct arc furnace
2. Indirect arc furnace
1. Direct arc furnace
Three-phase direct arc furnace is the most popular one for melting steel in the foundry. In
operation, scrap steel is placed on the hearth of the furnace. An arc is drawn between the
electrodes and the surface of the metal charge by lowering the electrodes down till the current
jumps. Slag is maintained on the molten metal to reduce oxidation. Before pouring the liquid
metal into the ladle, the furnace is tilted back and the slag is removed from the charging
doors. Now the furnace is tilted forward to pour the molten metal into ladle.

Fig. 1.25 Direct arc furnace

2. Indirect arc furnace
This is a single-phase electric furnace. This differs from the direct arc furnace that the
electrodes do not come in contact with the molten metal, but form an arc above the molten
metal. The furnace is mounted on rollers which are driven by rocking unit to rock the furnace
back and forth during melting. While the furnace rocks, liquid metal washes over the heated
refractory linings and absorb heat from them. Thus the charge is heated by radiation from the
arc and conduction from the lining.

Fig. 1.26 Indirect arc furnace

Pouring Molten Metal
The molten metal is poured into the mould through the gating system.
Gating System

Fig. 1.27 Gating System

The passage provided in the mould through which the molten metal flows into the mould
cavity is known as the Gating System. It is provided in the drag box to maintain the flow of
molten metal into the mould. Gate should be located where it can be easily removed without
any loss to the casting.
Gating system has two primary functions:
1. To supply molten metal to mould cavity which is free of entrapped gas, slag and eroded
sand.
2. To maintain sufficient pressure head to facilitate smooth flow of metal through the rest of
the gating system and casting.
The various elements that are connected with a gating system are:
● Pouring basin
● Sprue
● Sprue-base well
● Runner
● In-gate
● Riser
(a) Pouring basin
It is a funnel shaped opening made at the top of the sprue in the cope. It is used to (i) make it
easier for ladle operator to maintain the required flow rate, (ii) minimize turbulence, thereby
the molten flow is smooth, (iii) aids in separating dross and slag from the molten metal before
it enter the runner system.
(b) Sprue
It is a vertical passage through the cope and connects the pouring basin to the runner or gate.
The sprue cross-section may be circular or square or rectangular. If the sprue is straight and
has sharp corners, there is severe aspiration, thereby causing turbulence in the metal. If the
tapered corners are round, dam type of pouring basin is used, aspiration is negligible and there
is no turbulence.
(c) Sprue well
This is a reservoir for metal at the bottom of the sprue, to reduce the momentum of the molten
metal. This molten metal then changes direction and flows into the runners in a more uniform
way. It is designed to limit free fall metals, as it directs the metals in a proper arc towards the
runner.
(d) Runner
Runner is a common passage for molten metal to flow into the mould cavity from sprue. The
branches from runner to the mould cavity are called ingates.
(e) In-gate
This is the component that directs the liquid into the cavity of the die. Die casters recommend
designs of ingates that minimize metal velocity; the design has to facilitate easy fettling, must
not create hot spots, and must ensure that molten metal flow is proportional to the cast
volume.
(f) Riser
Riser is a hole cut in the cope to permit the molten metal to rise above the highest point in the
casting.
Functions of Riser
(i) It enables the pourer to see the metal in the mould cavity. If the metal is not seen in the
riser, it indicates that either the metal is not sufficient to fill the mould cavity or there is some
obstruction to the metal flow between the sprue and riser.
(ii) The riser gives passage to the steam, gas and air from the mould cavity while filling the
mould with the molten metal.
(iii) It serves as feeder to feed the molten metal into mould cavity to compensate for it‘s
shrinkage.

Based on their position in a mould, gates can be classified as follows:

1. Parting line gate: In this gate the molten metal enters at the parting line. Parting line gates
are the simplest gates.
2. Top gate: In this system, the molten metal flows from the top and directly into the cavity.
3. Bottom gate: In this gating system, the molten metal from a pouring cup first flows down
and then enters the cavity from the bottom.
 Fig. 1.28 types of Gate

Gating Ratio
It describes the relative cross-sectional area of sprue: total runner area: total gate area. For
example a gating system having 4 sq cm total gate area, 8 sq cm runner area, and 8 sq cm total
gate area, the gating ratio is 1:2:2.
The gating ratios are classified as pressurized system and unpressurised system.
(a) Pressurised Gating System: If the total gate area is smaller than the area of sprue, back
pressure is maintained on the gating system due to restriction of metal flow at the gates and
the system is called pressurised gating system. Gating ratio 2: 1.5: 1, 1: 2: 1 indicates a
pressurised gating system
(b) Unpressurised Gating System: The unpressurised gating system on the other hand has
metal flow restriction at the sprue. A system having gating ratio of 1:2:3, 1: 4: 4 indicates an
unpressurised gating system.

Gating System Design

The liquid metal that runs through the various channels in the mould obeys Bernoulli‘s
theorem, which states that the total energy head remains constant at any section. The same
stated in the equation form ignoring frictional losses is,

where h = potential head, m

P = pressure, Pa
V = liquid velocity, m/s
w = specific weight of liquid, N/m3
g = gravitational constant on Earth, 9.8 m/s2
Though quantitatively Bernoulli‘s theorem may not be applied, it helps to understand the
metal flow in the sand mould qualitatively. As the metal enters the pouring basin, it has the
highest potential energy with no kinetic or pressure energies. But as the metal moves through
the gating system, a loss of energy occurs because of the friction between the molten metal
and the mould walls. Also, heat is continuously lost through the mould material though it is
not represented in the Bernoulli‘s equation. This lets the casting solidify.
Another law of fluid mechanics, which is useful in understanding the gating-system
behaviour, is the law of continuity, which says that the volume of metal flowing at any section
in the mould is constant. The same in equation form can be
Q = A1V1 = A2V2
where Q = rate of flow, m3/s
A = area of cross section, m2
V = velocity of metal flow, m/s
It was suggested earlier that sprues are tapered to reduce the aspiration of air due to the
increased velocity as the metal flows down the sprue. This conclusion was drawn by applying
the above equation of continuity along with Bernoulli‘s equation.
Riser Design
The function of a riser is to feed the casting during solidification so that no shrinkage cavities
are formed. The requirement of risers depends to a great extent upon the type of metal poured
and the complexity of the casting.
Risers are of two types:
A riser is categorized based on three criteria: where it is located, whether it is open to the
atmosphere, and how it is filled.
Top riser: If the riser is located on the casting then it is known as a top riser
Side riser: but if it is located next to the casting it is known as a side riser.
Top risers are advantageous because they take up less space in the flask than a side riser, plus
they have a shorter feeding distance.
Blind riser: It is a cavity formed either on the top or side of a casting. It is not opened to
atmosphere and is surrounded from all sides by moulding sand.
Open riser: The top surface of this type of riser is opened to the atmosphere and it is usually
provided at the topmost part of the casting

Fig. 1.29 a) Blind type riser b) Open type riser

To determine the size of risers following rules are used
Chvorinov’s rule
Since solidification of the casting occurs by losing heat from the surfaces and the amount of
the heat is given by the volume of the casting, the cooling characteristics of a casting can be
represented by the surface area to volume ratio. Since the riser is also similar to the casting in
its solidification behaviour, the riser characteristic can also be specified by the ratio of its
surface area to volume. If this ratio of the casting is higher then it is expected to cool faster.
Chvorinov has shown that the solidification time of a casting is proportional to the square of
the ratio of volume-to-surface area of the casting. The constant of proportionality called
mould constant depends on the pouring temperature, casting and mould thermal
characteristics.

where ts = solidification time, s

V = volume of the casting
SA = surface area
k = mould casting
Caine’s Method
The ‗freezing ratio‘, X of a mould is defined as the ratio of cooling characteristics of casting
to the riser.
In order to be able to feed the casting, the riser should solidify last and hence its freezing ratio
should be greater than unity. It may be argued that the sphere has the lowest surface-area-to-
volume ratio and hence, it should be used as a riser. But in a sphere, the hottest metal being at
the centre, it is difficult to use for feeding the casting. The next best is the cylindrical type
which is most commonly used for their ease in moulding.
Based on the Chvorinov‘s rule, Caine developed a relationship empirically for the freezing
ratio as follows:

where Y = riser volume/casting volume, and a, b and c are constants whose values for
different materials are given in Table

Modulus method

Modulus is defined as the ratio of the volume to surface area. If the riser has to feed the
casting, modulus of the riser must be greater than the modulus of the casting. It is observed
that if modulus of the riser is greater than the casting by 1.2 times then feeding would be
proper. Based on this relation and appropriate D/H ratio riser would be designed.

NRL (Naval Research Laboratory Method) /Shape Factor Method

Shape factor method is used for rough measurement of riser.This method is a simplification of
Caine‘s method. It uses shape factor which replaces the freezing ratio.
Shape factor = (Length + Width )/ Thickness
SOLIDIFICATION OF CASTINGS
Sound Casting is one which is free from defects like porosity, shrinkage and cracks etc. In
order to produce a casting free from such defects, it is essential to know cast structure
developed during solidification of metals and alloys.
Solidification of Pure Metals
Solidification process differs from pure metal to the alloys as it is the transformation of the
molten metal back to the solid state. As the pure metal have sharply defined freezing
temperature which is the same melting point composed of the small group of atoms oriented
into common crystal pattern. The process occurs in the overtime called a cooling curve

Fig.1.30 a) Cooling Curve b) Grain Structure

The actual freezing takes time called ―Local solidification time‖ in casting during which the
metals‘ latent heat of fusion is released into the surrounding mould. The total solidification
time is the time taken between pouring and complete solidification. After the casting is
completely solidified, cooling gradually increases by decreasing the slope of the cooling curve
as shown in Fig. Because of the chilling action of the mould wall, a thin skin (a thin layer) is
formed at the interface immediately after pouring. Thickness of the skin increases to form a
shell around molten metal as solidification progress inward toward the centre of the cavity.
The rate of freezing depends on the heat transfer in the mould.
As the conductivity of the mould is high, fine, equiaxed, random orientation atoms of small
crystal grows near the mould face. As the cooling progress, the grain formation in the
direction away from the heat transfer gradually long columnar crystals, with the axis
perpendicular to the mould face are formed.
The beginning of solidification and end of solidification takes place at constant temperature in
pure metals. These two points are called congruent melting points. Perfect crystals of proper
external shape can be obtained only if crystallization develops under the degree of super
cooling is very low and the metal is having high purity. In most of the cases it leads to the
formation of branches form at right angles to the first branch (Tree-like crystals) called
dendrites as shown in Fig.
Solidification in Alloys
Most alloys freeze over a temperature range rather than at a single temperature. The exact
range depends on the alloy stem and the particular composition. This can be explained with
reference to the phase diagram as shown in Fig.

Fig. 1.31 a) Cooling Curve b) Grain Structure

Just below the solidification starts the solid phase start separating out from the liquid. As the
temperature decreases, the freezing begins from the liquidus line and is completed when the
solidus is reached. As similar to the pure metal the freezing starts by forming a thin skin at the
mould wall due to large temperature gradient at the surfaces and dendrites grow away from
the surface of the mould wall where both liquid and solid metal together. This solid region has
a sort of consistency leading to its name as ―Mushy Zone‖. As the freezing progress the
mushy zone is relatively narrow, and exists throughout casting. As the temperature difference
increases the dendrite matrix solidify as casting drops to the solidus line for the given alloy
composition. Metals having the higher melting points favor the formation of the dendrites
composition in the solidification of alloys. Composition imbalance can be seen in dendrites
growth depending upon the segregation of the elements see Fig.
Types of solidification
Directional solidification (DS) and progressive solidification are types of solidification
within castings. Directional solidification is solidification that occurs from farthest end of the
casting and works its way towards the sprue. Progressive solidification, also known as parallel
solidification, is solidification that starts at the walls of the casting and progresses
perpendicularly from that surface

Fig.1.32 a) Directional solidification b) progressive solidification

Chill
In a casting, metallic chills are used in order to provide rapid solidification of heavy sections
and to achieve directional solidification or to avoid the shrinkage cavities chills are commonly
used. Chills are essentially large heat sinks. Whenever it is not possible to provide a riser for a
part of the casting which is heavy, a chill is placed close to it as shown in
Fig. so that more heat is quickly absorbed by the chill from the larger mass, making the
cooling rate equal to that of the thin sections.

Fig.1.33 Chill
 Numerical:
1. A cylindrical riser must be designed for a sand-casting mold. The casting itself is a steel
rectangular plate with dimensions 7.5 cm 12.5 cm 2.0 cm. Previous observations have
indicated that the total solidification time (TTS) for this casting = 1.6 min. The cylinder for
the riser will have a diameter-to-height ratio=1.0. Determine the dimensions of the riser so
that its TTS=2.0 min.
2. A casting of 200 × 100 × 70 mm3 size solidifies in 10 minutes. Estimate the solidification
time for 200 × 100 × 10 mm3 casting under similar conditions (Gate Problem).
Solution:
Solidification time t = K(V/A)2
Where K = mould constant; V = volume of casting; A = surface are casting
V = lbh; A = 2(lb + bh + lh)
Initial Casting: New Casting
V1 = 200 × 100 × 70 = 14 × 105 mm3 V2 = 200 × 100 × 10 = 2 × 105 mm3
Al = 2(200 × 100 + 100 × 70 + 200 × 70) A2 = 2(200 × 100 + 100 × 10 + 200 × 10)
2
= 82000 mm = 46000 mm2
For the new casting:
tl / t2 = (V1/Al)2/(V2/A2)2
= (14 × 105/82 × 103) / (2 × 105/46 × 103)
= (17.07/4.35)2
≈ 0.065
Finally, solving for 𝑡2
𝑡2 ≈ 𝑡1×0.065
𝑡2 ≈ 10×0.065
𝑡2 ≈ 0.65 minutes
3. A cube of side ‗a‘ solidifies in t1 sec. if side of cube is doubled (‗2a‘) then using chvorinors
rule calculate solidification time t2 of resized cube in terms of t1
Solution:
Original Cube (side length 𝑎) New Cube (side length 2𝑎)
Volume (𝑉1): Volume (𝑉2):
𝑉1=𝑎3 𝑉2= (2𝑎) 3 = 8𝑎3
Surface Area (𝐴1): Surface Area (𝐴2):
𝐴1=6𝑎2 𝐴2=6(2𝑎) 2 = 24 𝑎
Applying Chvorinov's Rule Applying Chvorinov's Rule
For the original cube: For the new cube:
𝑡1 ∝ (𝑉1/𝐴1)2 𝑡2 ∝ (𝑉2/𝐴2)2
= (𝑎3/6𝑎2)2 =𝑎2/36 = (8𝑎3 //24𝑎)2 = 𝑎2 /9
 Ratio of 𝑡2 to 𝑡1
𝑡2 /𝑡1 = (𝑎2 /9) / (𝑎2 /36)
= 36/ 9 = 4
Thus,
𝑡2 = 4𝑡1
So, if the side length of the cube is doubled, the solidification time (𝑡2 ) will be four times the
original solidification time (𝑡1).
4. A cube of side ‗a‘ solidifies in t1 sec. if side of cube is increased by 30% then using
chvorinors rule calculate solidification time t2 of resized cube in terms of t1

Solution:
Original Cube (side length 𝑎) Resized Cube (side length 1.3𝑎)
Volume (𝑉1): Volume (𝑉2): 𝑉2 = 1.3V1
Surface Area (𝐴1): Surface Area (A2): 𝐴2=1.3A1
Applying Chvorinov's Rule Applying Chvorinov's Rule
𝑡1 ∝ (𝑉1/𝐴1)2 𝑡2 ∝ (𝑉2/𝐴2)2
𝑡1 = c (𝑉1/𝐴1)2 𝑡2= c (𝑉2/𝐴2)2

But (𝑉2/𝐴2)2 = (1.3(𝑉1/𝐴1)) 2

𝑡2 = c (𝑉2/𝐴2)2
= c (1.3(𝑉1/𝐴1)) 2
= 1.69 c (𝑉1/𝐴1) 2
= 1.69 t1
So, if the side length of the cube is increased by 30%, the solidification time (𝑡2) will be 1.69
times the original solidification time (𝑡1).

Casting Defects and remedies

Casting Defects are those characteristics which generate imperfections in a casting exceeding
the quality limits imposed by the design or service conditions of the casting. Casting defects
may be attributed to the following reasons:
1. Defects due to faulty mould: These include blow holes, scab, buckle, swells, shifts,
shrinkage, hot tears, etc.
2. Defects due to improper mode of pouring: These include misruns, cold shuts, gas porosity,
inclusions, etc.
3. Defects due to faulty design of pattern: These include cracks, shrinkage, porosity, hot spots,
hot tears, etc.

Fig. 1.34 Casting Defects

Defects Causes Remedies

Blow holes Cavities may be internal or external surfaces due to Use vents for proper
entrapped gases and excessive moisture in sand. escape of gases.
Pin holes They are small holes below the surface and are Proper escape of
made by gases like hydrogen and oxygen. gases when casting
happens.
Hot tears or These are due to contractions of the casting and Increase the strength
hot cracks form cracks due to low strength of the metal after of the material.
solidification.
Cold shots Cold shots are lines or cracks that appear on the Hotter metal should
surface of the casting caused by streams of metal be used.
 that are too cold to fuse properly.
Misruns If the casting lacks metal during casting, it remains Use proper design of
or incomplete in its desired shape and size. This casting.
Short runs occurs due to lack of fluidity and the faulty design
of casting.
Inclusions These are impurities present in the casting and Use proper, neat and
occur due to the presence of oxides, sand, nitrides clean patterns with
or nonmetallic particles in casting. the mould.
Runout It occurs due to leakage of molten metal from the Use leakage proof
mould cavity. mould and pattern.
It also occurs due to faulty design of the mould box
or leakage of molten metal.
Mismatch It is the displacement of cope and drag due to loose Use appropriate
connecting pins of the flask or moulding box.
Scabs or They are due to erosion or breaking washes down Use sand with better
of some sand from the mould or core surface. properties.
washes
Metal Metal shrinkage is volumetric shrinkage during Provide allowances in
shrinkage solidification of metal. mould before casting.

Moulding Processes
The moulding processes are classified as follows:
According to the method used
(a) Bench moulding
(b) Floor moulding
(c) Machine moulding
(a) Bench moulding: It is carried on a bench of convenient height. It is used for preparing
small moulds. Green sand and dry sand moulds may be made by bench moulding.
(b) Floor moulding: It is used for preparing medium and large size castings. The mould is
made in the foundry floor.
(c) Machine moulding: Moulding by hand is slow and laborious process and also does not
yield good results as it does not impart uniform hardness to the mould. In machine moulding
production becomes faster, labour is minimised. It is used in batch and mass production.
Moulding machines are classified according to:
1. The method of compacting the moulding sand.
2. The method of removing the pattern.

Special Moulding Processes

(a) Shell Moulding: It is a modification of the sand mould process. In this process, the mould
is made up of mixture of dried silica sand and phenolic resin, formed into a thin half-mould
shells which are clamped together for pouring metal.
Procedure
The sand is first mixed with either urea or phenol formaldehyde resin in a muller. Metal
pattern is heated to 205 to 230°C in an oven and sprayed with silicon grease and kept on the
top of the dump box. The dump box contains sand mixed with thermo plastic resin. The box is
inverted, causing the sand mix to fall on the hot pattern. The resin melts and flow in between
the grains of sand, acting as a bond. After 30 seconds, a hard layer of sand is formed over the
pattern. Then the dump box is inverted back to its original position. The pattern with a thin
shell is cured for two minutes at 315°C. The shell is finally removed from the pattern by
ejector pins. The two shells are clamped together to form the mould and placed in the flask
with backing sand.
Advantages
1. High dimensional accuracy and good surface finish.
2. The chances of blow holes or pockets are reduced since the shells are highly permeable.
3. Thin wall sections can be produced.
4. Shells can be stored for long time.
Disadvantages
1. The metal patterns are costly than wood pattern.
2. Resin is an expensive binder.
3. Specialized equipments are to be used.
Applications
Cylinders of IC engines, automobile transmission parts, chain seat brackets, small crank
shafts.
 Fig. 1.35 Shell Moulding Process
(b) Investment Casting Process (Lost Wax Process):
In this process the wax pattern is melted from the mould, leaving the cavity.
Procedure: A master pattern is prepared from steel or brass. Using this pattern, bismuth alloy
or lead alloy split mould is made. This mould is used for making wax pattern. Heated wax is
injected into the mould (water cooled). Upon solidification, wax pattern is removed. Several
patterns are assembled with necessary gates and risers. This assembly (tree) is dipped in
refractory slurry and then refractory fine sand is sprinkled over it to ensure smooth surface of
the casting. The assembly is placed in a container and filled with coarser plaster mixture.
After the investment material is set, the mould is placed upside down and heated in a oven to
melt out the wax. The casting can be produced by pouring the molten metal. When the casting
solidifies, the mould is broken and the casting is taken out.
 Fig. 1.36 Steps in the precision investment casting process
Advantages
1. High dimensional accuracy.
2. Intricate forms having undercut can be cast easily.
3. A very smooth surface of casting can be obtained.
Disadvantages
1. The process is expensive
2. It is limited to small castings from few grams to 5 kg.
3. Skilled operators are required
4. Production rate is low.
Applications
Blades for gas turbines, parts of sewing machines, type writers, calculating machines etc.
(c) Centrifugal Casting Process: In the centrifugal casting process, the mould is rotated and
the molten metal is distributed to the mould cavity with centrifugal force. The centrifugal
casting process is classified as follows:
1. True centrifugal casting process
2. Semi-centrifugal casting process
3. Centrifuging process
1. True Centrifugal Casting Process: In this process, the axis of rotation of the mould
coincides with the axis of the casting and the molten metal is pushed outwards because of the
centrifugal force, no core is required for making the concentric hole. The axis of rotation may
be horizontal, vertical or inclined. The most commonly cast parts are cast iron pipes, liners
and cylindrical barrels. The mould may be permanent type or sand lined mould. A normal
centrifugal casting machine used for making cast iron pipes in sand moulds is shown in Fig.
The mould flask is rammed with sand to confirm to the outer contour of the pipe to be made.
The mould is arranged between rollers (two at the bottom and two at the top) to revolve
freely. At the end of the mould is fitted with a gear which meshes with a gear on a motor
driven shaft. The ends of the hollow mould are partially covered by covers which can be
detached when the casting is to be pushed out of the mould. At both end covers, a central hole
is provided. From one side, the molten metal is poured, from a ladle and from other, the hot
gases escape out.

Fig. 1.37 True Centrifugal Casting Process

Advantages
1. The inclusions get segregated towards the centre and can be easily removed by machining.
2. The castings have better mechanical properties.
3. No central core is required.
4. No gates and risers are required.
30 Manufacturing Science and Technology
Limitations
1. This method is limited to certain shapes with axis symmetric.
2. Equipment is costly.
Applications
Cast iron pipes, alloy steel pipes, liners of L.I.C. engine.
2. Semi-centrifugal Casting Process: In this process, the mould is rotated about the vertical
axis and the metal is poured into a central sprue from where it first enters the hub and then is
forced outwards to the rim by centrifugal force. If a central hole is required, core is used.
The rotating speed is not as high as in the case of true centrifugal casting. The method is used
for making large sized castings which are symmetrical about their own axis such as pulleys,
spoked wheels, gears and propellers. For high production rates, the moulds can be stacked one
over the other and fed simultaneously through a common central sprue.
3. Centrifuging Process: In this process, also the mould is rotated while the metal is poured.
The difference between true centrifugal or semi-centrifugal and centrifuging is that in case of
true centrifugal or semi-centrifugal casting process the axis of mould coincides with the axis
of rotation where as in case of centrifuging the axis of rotation and the axis of the mould are
not same. A number of mould cavities are arranged on the circumference of a circle and are
connected to a central down sprue through radial gates. The process is similar to semi-
centrifugal casting. This is suitable only for small jobs of any shape.
(d) Die Casting Process: The term ‗die‘ is used for permanent mould. In this process the
molten metal is forced into the permanent mould under high pressure.
Types of die casting machines:
1. Hot chamber die casting machine
2. Cold chamber die casting machine
1. Hot Chamber Die Casting Machine:
 Fig. 1.38 Plunger Type Hot Chamber Die Casting Machine
Fig. illustrates the working of a hot chamber die-casting machine. The melting unit of metal
forms an integral part of the machine. When the plunger is raised, it uncovers an opening in
the cylinder wall, through which the molten metal enters, filling the cylinder. The molten
metal is forced into the die either by hydraulic pressure or by air pressure applied to plunger.
As soon as the metal solidifies, the pressure on the metal is relieved and the plunger travels
upwards to its original position. The casting is ejected from the die by means of ejector pins.
In another type (see Fig.) direct air is applied to force the molten metal into the die.
The bottle is tilted to immerse the nozzle in the pot of hot metal and is filled by gravity. Then
the bottle is raised so that the air nozzle comes in contact with top opening of the bottle.
Compressed air is then applied directly on metal so that metal is forced into the die cavity.
When solidification is complete, the air pressure is stopped. The die is opened and casting is
ejected.

Fig. 1.39 Air Blown Hot Chamber Die Casting Machine

2. Cold Chamber Die Casting Machine: Fig. 1.28 shows the cold chamber machine. The metal
is melted in a furnace and transferred to the cylinder from where it is forced into the mould by
means of plunger.

Fig. 1.40 Cold Chamber Die Casting Machine

Advantages
1. Very high production rates are possible.
2. Thin sections can be cast.
3. Close dimensional control can be maintained.
Disadvantages
1. Equipment is costly.
2. Due to high temperature of molten metal, dies life will decrease.
3. Die casting is limited to low melting nonferrous alloys.
(e) Slush Casting: Hollow castings are produced without the use of core in this method.
The mould is filled with molten metal and held stationary until a thin skin of solid metal
freezes against the mould walls. The mould is then inverted and the unfrozen metal runs out
from the casting. Thus a thin walled casting is obtained.

(e) Continuous Casting

Generally the starting point of any structural steel product is the ingot which is subsequently
rolled through number of mills before a final product such as slab or bloom is obtained.
However, the wide adoption of continuous casting has changed that scenario by directly
casting slabs, billets and blooms without going through the rolling process. This process is
fast and is very economical. In this process, the liquid steel is poured into a double walled,
bottom less water cooled mould where a solid skin is quickly formed and a semi finished skin
emerges from the open mould bottom. The skin formed in the mould is about 10 to 25 mm in
thickness and is further solidified by intensive cooling with water sprays as casting moves
downwards. A typical arrangement of continuous casting plant is shown schematically in Fig.
The molten steel is collected in a ladle and kept over a refractory lined intermediate pouring
vessel named ‗tundish‘. The steel is then poured into water cooled vertical copper moulds
which are 450 to 750 mm long. Before starting the casting, a dummy starter bar is kept in the
mould bottom as shown in Fig. After starting the casting process, as the metal level rises in
the mould to a desirable height, the starter bar is withdrawn at a rate equal to the steel pouring
rate. The initial metal freezes onto the starter bar as well as the periphery of the mould. This
solidified shell supports the liquid steel as it moves downwards. This steel shell is
mechanically supported (rollers) as it moves down through the secondary cooling zone where
water is sprayed onto the shell surface to complete the solidification process. After the casting
is completely solid ified, it is cut to the desired lengths by a suitable cut off apparatus.

Fig. 1.41 Typical arrangement of continuous casting plant

Inspection and Testing

The aim of inspection is to reject those castings which do not meet with the specifications and
also determines the location and magnitude of various defects in the casting.
The inspection and testing of castings are broadly classified as:
(a) Destructive Testing and (b) Non Destructive Testing
The destructive testing include tensile, compressive and shear testing. In addition microscopic
examination to determine physical and metallurgical qualities of castings. The disadvantage is
that the component under test becomes unserviceable.
Non-Destructive testing consists of the following tests:
(a) Visual Inspection (b) Penetrant Test (c) Sound Test (d) Magnetic Particle Test
(e) Ultrasonic Testing (f) Radiography Testing
(a) Visual Inspection: Visual inspection is the simplest, fastest and most commonly used
method. This is used to detect defects on the surfaces of the casting like cracks, blow holes,
swells, swifts etc. This is carried out with naked eye or using a magnifying glass.
(b) Penetrant Test: The casting is sprayed with a liquid penetrating agent having low
viscosity. The penetrant enters the cracks. The casting is then wiped and cleaned. A dry
developer is sprayed on the casting. This draws some of the suspension from the cracks to the
surface where it flourescences and is readily visible under ultraviolet light. This is used only
for surface defects.
(c) Sound Test: In this method, the casting is given blows with hammer and listen the sound
waves produced. The defect free casting emits a clear ringing sound where as the defective
casting gives a dull sound.
(d) Magnetic Particle Test: This test consists of magnetising the casting and then sprinkling
the fine powder of magnetic material. This powder tends to be held and bridge over defects,
thus forming a visible indication and location and magnitude of the defect.
(e) Ultrasonic Testing: In Ultrasonic testing, high frequency sounds (frequency of sound
beyond audible range are passed through one end of the surface of the casting, the waves
travel through the casting to the opposite surface and are reflected back to the original point.
Any defect in the part of the waves scatters the waves and are reflected back from the defect
and return in a shorter period of time. The advantage of this method is not only detecting but
also locating accurately.
(f) Radiography Testing: This method is used to detect internal defects of the casting.
Radiant energy from the X-Ray tube is passed through the casting or section of the casting
and recorded on a film held against the opposite surface. Defects in the form of cracks or
voids are recorded as blackened areas on the film, since the radiant energy moves more easily
through the less dense regions. Defects like cracks, internal and external, hot tears, shrinkage,
gas or pin hole porosity are detected by this method.