Subject Code: 20CE0147 R20 - QUESTION BANK 2023

SIDDHARTH INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, PUTTUR

(AUTONOMOUS)
Siddharth Nagar, Narayanavanam Road – 517583
QUESTION BANK (DESCRIPTIVE)

Subject with Code: Fundamentals of Urban Planning (20CE0147)

Course & Branch: B.Tech – EEE, MECH, ECE & CSE
Year & Sem: III B.Tech. & II – Sem Regulation: R20
UNIT –I
INTRODUCTION TO TOWN PLANNING
1. a) What are the objects of town planning? [L1][CO1] [8M]
OBJECTIVES OF TOWN PLANNING:
The main objectives of the town planning may be summarized in three
words viz. Health, Convenience, Beauty and Environment.
1. Health
To make right use of the land for the right purpose by proper division of
land called zoning such as residential, commercial industrial,
institutional and recreational etc. in order to avoid the encroachment of
one zone upon other for smooth and orderly development of the town or
city without causing future conflicts. To create and promote healthy
conditions and environments for all the people – rich and poor, to live,
to work, to play or relax.
2. Convenience
The object of convenience is meant in the form of various needs of the
community such as social, economic, cultural and recreational amenities
etc. Public amenities required for the proper upkeep of the citizens
include water supply, sanitation, electricity, post, telegraph, gas etc.,
proper sites for industrial, commercial, business enterprises to encourage
them in trade with cheap power, transport services, drainage etc.
Recreational amenities include open spaces, parks, gardens and
playgrounds, for children and town halls stadiums, community centers,
cinema houses, and theatres for adults.
3. Beauty
To preserve the individuality of the town by developing it on its most
suited natural conditions. To preserve the aesthetics in the design of all
elements of town or city plan, which includes preservation of trees,
natural greenery, improved types of domestic buildings and buildings of
civic dignity and beauty, architectural control on public as well as semi-
public buildings, ancient architectural buildings, temples, churches,
mosques and buildings of cultural and historical importance.
4. Environment
The environment of the town should be in such a way that people can
lead their normal activities with least difficulty. The complex problems
of modern society such as tiresome travel to work, long hours of work,
limited time spent within the family and community, etc. has led to
serious problems in the lifestyle of the people living in the towns,
therefore, town planning is mainly concerned with brining about a better
relation between man and his environment.

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b) What are the contributing forces of the origin of towns and cities? [L1][CO1] [4M]
ORIGIN OF TOWNS:
If a survey is carried out regarding the origin of some of the important
existing towns and cities of the world, it can be easily established that
any town or city has originated because of certain specific cause. The
origin of towns can be broadly classified into two categories, namely,
topographical and functional.
The topographical features of origin of towns are as follows.
1. Conditions favorable for industrial units
2. Hilly areas to achieve the objects of defense
3. Plain areas useful for business activities
4. River banks
5. Sea or ocean fronts
The functional aspects of origin of towns are as follows.
1. Education
2. Health resorts
3. Political
4. Community
2. a) Describe the guiding principles of town planning? [L1][CO1] [8M]
PRINCIPLES OF TOWN PLANNING:
Town planning cannot be studied in isolation. It involves the study of
various subjects such as engineering, architecture, surveying,
transportation planning etc. The intention of the town planning is to
satisfy the needs of our future generations and prevent the haphazard
growth of the town. Some of the guiding principles of town planning are
as follows.
1. Zoning
The town should be divided into suitable zones such as commercial
zone, industrial zone, residential zone, etc. and suitable rules and
regulations should be formed for the development of each zone.
2. Green Belt
Green belt is non-development zone on the periphery of the town. It
prevents the haphazard sprawl of the town restricting its size. In essence,
a green belt is an invisible line designating a border around a certain
area, preventing development of the area and allowing wildlife to return
and be established. Greenways and green wedges have a linear character
and may run across the town and not around the town.
3. Housing
Housing has to be carefully studied and designed to suit the local
population. Care should be taken to see that there is no development of
slums since it would be responsible for degrading the life of the citizens.
There are various types of housing styles. When a landuse plan is made,
zones for independent housing, midrise buildings, high rise buildings are
allocated.
4. Public Buildings
Public buildings should be well grouped and distributed throughout the
town. Unnecessary concentration of public buildings should be avoided.
Factors such as parking facilities, road widths have to be taken into
consideration while allocating the space for public buildings.
5. Recreation Centres

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Recreation centres have to be given importance while designing a town.

They are necessary for the recreational activities of the general public.
They include parks for walking and cycling, amusement parks etc.
6. Road Systems
Road network hierarchy is very important. The efficiency of any town is
measured by the layout of its roads. A nicely designed road system puts
a great impression in the minds of people, especially the visitors to the
town. The provision of a faulty road system in the initial stages of town
formation proves to be too difficult and costly to repair or to re-arrange
in future.
7. Transport Facilities
The town should be provided with suitable transport facilities so that
there is minimum loss of time from place of work to the place of
residence. Efficiency in transport facilities includes both public and
private networks. Public transportation network includes access to buses,
trains, trams and trolleybuses. Efficiency in using the public transport
will determine the success of that town in terms of design.
b) Elucidate the necessity for town planning in detail. [L1][CO1] [4M]
NECESSITY OF TOWN PLANNING:
It is evident that a small house if well-arranged and planned, looks far
more better than a disordered big palace. In a similar way, a town which
is properly planned provide people with more comfort and convenience.
The necessity of town planning can very well be appreciated by
mentioning the evil situations which a town has to face in the absence of
town planning. They are as follows:
1. Defective road system resulting in the formation of narrow streets and
lanes
2. Development of slums and squatter settlements
3. Haphazard location of industries
4. Heavy traffic congestion during the working hours of the day
5. Inadequate open spaces for parks and playgrounds resulting in
unhealthy living conditions
6. Lack of essential amenities like electricity, water supply and drainage
7. Noisy atmosphere disturbing the peace of city dwellers
8. Uncontrolled development of the town
9. Unhealthy living conditions
3. Discuss the growth of towns according to origin with the help of neat [L2][CO1] [12M]
sketches.
Growth According to Origin
The growth of towns and cities according to the origin can be divided in
two categories.
A) Natural Growth
Most of the towns in the past have grown in a natural way, that is, the
development of the town as such has taken place without any future
planning. The provisions of various essential amenities such as road
system, parks, playgrounds, schools, industrial units, commercial
centres, hospitals, cinemas, etc., are made in an irregular way without
consideration for future expansion of the town. The natural growth of a
town may be in the form of following four types.
 Concentric spread

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 Ribbon development
 Satellite growth
 Scattered growth
a) Concentric Spread
 It is the natural tendency of the people to be as near as possible
to town or city, therefore the town develops in form of concentric
rings with nucleus as town.
 These type of growth create many complicated problems such as
traffic congestion, narrow streets, concentration of population,
improper housing, etc.
 The town growth is represented by a series of concentric circles
or rings.
 The first zone represents central business like commercial and
social life of the town.
 The second zone represents low-income housing, better-class
residences and high-class residences are subsequently formed.
 The idea of concentric spread is based on the fact that similar or
functionally related activities will be located at the same distance
from the centre of an urban area.

Concentric spread
b) Ribbon Development
 It has been observed that because of improvement of road
surface and growth of motor traffic, everyone build or occupy
the places as near as possible to the main road.
 The building activity therefore expands in a natural way along
the sides of main road and long fingers or ribbons of houses,
factories, shops, etc., develop as show in figure below.

Ribbon development
Disadvantages
 As houses extend in a long strip or ribbon, there is increase in
cost of utility services such as water supply and electricity, postal
deliveries, etc.
 It results into wastage of available resources.

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 It lacks social life as ribbon development causes scatter of

community.
 The future improvement becomes costly and difficult, in some
place it becomes impossible.
 The interior place are left undeveloped which results in wastage
of valuable land.
 It causes accidents and traffic delays (jams) due to pedestrians on
the main road.
 The traffic capacity and efficiency of main road are reduced.
 The ribbon development spoils the countryside view as it
becomes non-visible at least for road users.
 The problem of ribbon development is complex involving social-
economic, political, technical and legal measures for its solution.
c) Satellite Growth
When a town reaches a certain size, satellite growth is bound to take
place. The satellite town is mainly due to the metropolis and it indicate a
body under the influence of a more powerful body but possessing its
own identity. Development of satellite towns around the parent city is
shown in the figure below.

Satellite growth
The features of a satellite town are as follows.
 It has its own local government and corporate life.
 It is a town in the full sense but it depends to a certain extent
upon a nearby large town or city.
 It is connected to the parent city by local trains, buses, etc. in
such a way the people can reach to the parent city easily.
 It is free to decide its economic, social and cultural activities.
 It is generally situated beyond the green belt of the parent city.
 It is mainly residential area having only local shops, schools for
children, etc.
d) Scattered Growth
 The growth of the town takes place in very irregular way.
 It results in traffic congestion.
 Encroachment of industries on residential areas.
 Development of slums.
 Lack of parks and various other problems which prove to be too
difficult to be solved in future.
B) Planned Growth
In case of a planned growth, a town develops in a pre-determined line as
conceived by the town planner. The overall growth of the town is

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controlled by the enforcement of suitable rules and regulations. There is

rational distribution of various blocks such as residential, industrial,
commercial, etc.
The provision of various amenities such as widths of streets, drainage
lines, water supply lines, parks, playgrounds, etc. is made to meet with
the future requirements. The modern concepts of town planning can very
well be seen and appreciated in some of the recent new towns in many
parts of the world.
4. Explain the growth of towns according to direction mentioning the [L2][CO1] [12M]
advantages and disadvantages of them.
Growth According to Direction
With respect to direction, the growth of towns and cities can take place
in the following two ways.
1. Horizontal Growth
The town expands and develops horizontally in all directions. It is clear
that such a growth will be possible at places where land is available in
plenty at nominal cost.
Advantages
 In general, there will be saving in cost as the buildings will
usually consist of two or three floors.
 It does not require the service of high technical personnel.
 Maximum possible use of the natural light in the buildings.
 The density of the population can be restricted.
 There is economy of floor space as the provision of columns,
lifts, etc. will not be required.
 The surrounding marginal space can be utilized for developing
gardens.
Disadvantages
 It uses more land and hence, it will prove to be uneconomical
where the land value are very high.
 The foundation cost per unit area will be more.
 There will be absence of group living.
2. Vertical Growth
The buildings of the town are designed and developed as multistoried
flats. It is quite evident that such a growth will be possible at places
where land is costly.
Advantages
 A sense of group living and unity develops as many families live
in same building.
 The foundation cost will be distributed between all the floors,
therefore the foundation cost per unit area will be in the
reasonable limit.
 For floor above certain height, the natural sceneries such as sea
view, river view, etc. can be enjoyed in a better way.
 It will be possible to make maximum use of the modern
technology such as fire-proofing, sound-proofing, heat

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insulation, air-conditioning, high speed elevators, etc.

 There will be considerable saving in land and hence, it will prove
to be economical where land values are very high.
 There will be economy in construction cost as the buildings will
be designed as framed structures with repetition of a typical floor
plan at each floor level.
Disadvantages
 In case of natural calamities such as earthquakes or fire, it will be
difficult for the inhabitants (dwellers) of the upper floors to
escape safely.
 The density of population will be more.
 The design of flats will be stereo-typed and there is no scope for
personal likes or dislikes.
 The evils of group living will have to be tolerated.
 The failure of lift, pumps, etc. will cause great inconvenience.
 The people staying at upper floors will be deprived of natural
living near the ground level.
 There will be some wastage of floor space as lifts, supporting
columns, etc. will have to be provided.
5. a) Explain various stages in town development given by Sir Patrick, [L2][CO1] [8M]
Lewis Mumford & Griffith Taylor.
1) Classification by Sir Patrick Geddes
Stages Properties
Town, which produces human necessities such as
Primary agricultural village
Town, which functions as entry of exchange such as
Secondary marketing town
Town, which provides residential, educational and
Tertiary recreational facilities
2) Classification by Lewis Mumford
Stages Properties
Eopolis The Eopolis indicates the first stage of town as a village
community whose economic base is agriculture.

Polis The Polis indicates and association of population with

some mechanization and specialization.
Metropolis The metropolis is a city or town which serves as a
capital of a state or region.
Megalopolis The megalopolis indicates the first stage of decline in
town or city due to mega problems and issues, or the
reign of town or city shows the signs of decline and
deterioration.
Tyranopolis Tyranopolis is the town or city which shows drastic
deteriorating situation for example the trade depression
or military powers may occur with different war lords.
Necropolis Necropolis is the worst stage of town or city. For
example the citizens are shifting to rural areas or village
due to war, disease or economic break down. In that
case the town may recover from it after a large internal
of time.

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3) Classification by Griffith Taylor

Stages Properties
This is the first stage of town in which a city is not yet
divided in separate zones or the city in which zoning
Infantile regulations is not being prepared yet.
The juvenile stage of town or city indicates that, shops
are being separated from the houses or residential area
and there are some factories or an industry has been
Juvenile established at a minimal level.
The mature stage of town shows the divisions of
residential zone, commercial zone and industrial zone
in the city or the land use and zoning regulations in
Mature town shows the stage of mature city / town.
Finally the senile stage of town indicates the physical
decay in most of the portions of the city or the
physical, social & economic degradation is evident in
Senile the built environment of town or city.
b) Explain in detail the various categories of Indian villages. [L2][CO1] [4M]
Depending upon the size population pattern of land ownership distance
from urban area the settlement patterns of the Indian villages can be
grouped under the following four categories:
1)Basic Village
2)Rural town
3)Service town
4)Town
1)Basic Village:
The population of basic village is of about 400 to 500 souls and primary
occupation is agricultures The stability of this settlement can be
increased by providing a primary school, open well for potable water,
murum roads, mobile dispensary, livestock breeding centre etc.,
2)Rural town:
The population of rural town is of about 2000 to 3000 souls and it
groups the surrounding 10 to 15 basic villages .It serves as a cultural,
commercial and administrative centre and its stability can be increased
by taking various steps such as tube well, open drains, secondary school,
mobile library, community hall, murum roads, agricultural seeds
research and development centre etcs.,
3)Service town:
The population of service town is about 5000 to 7000 souls and it
accommodates adequate level of amenities, services and economic
activities to cater about 25 to 30 basic villages. The service town grants
employment in small scale industries over and above the agricultural
employment. The service town scale industries over and above the
agricultural employment. The service town contains cinema, community
halls, industrial estate, electricity, macadam roads, piped water supply,
health centre etc.,
4)Town:
This is the last level of settlement and depending upon its location its
size will be decided. It may even ultimately convert into a big city
possessing all the modern amenities and services. Thus the town
indicates the smallest urban community and it represents greater impact

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of rural character.
The urban place is commonly understood through cities and the cities
differ extensively on the basis of extent of population, psychological
attitude, civil amenities etc., On the basis of population the cities can be
classified as follows:
Name Population
City 50,000 to 1,00,000
Great city 1,00,000 and over
Super city More than 3,00,000
Metropolis 10,00,000 and above
Megolopolis 50,00,000 and above
6. What are the important features to be considered while selecting a [L1][CO1] [12M]
site for a town?
SELECTION OF SITE FOR AN IDEAL TOWN
The important features to be considered with respect to the site of a
town are as follows.
1. Availability of the natural advantages
2. Availability of electricity
3. Available means of communication
4. Climatic conditions
5. Contours of the area
6. Development of the surrounding area
7. Drainage of the area
8. Facility available for sewage disposal
9. Fertility of soils
10. Frequency of the floods
11. Growth of the trees
12. Nature of soil
13. Position of lakes and streams
14. Water resources, etc.
Requirements of New Towns
The two important facts which are to be carefully examined before
deciding the requirements of new towns are as follows.
1) Function of the town
A new town is generally formed or developed for specific purpose. The
purposes for which the towns may be designed are commerce, industry,
culture, education, defense, health, recreation, government
administration, etc. these purposes will help boost the economy, social
welfare and political condition. Once the function of a new town known,
size of population to be accommodated in the town can be worked out.
2) Welfare of the people
A new town should be designed for the welfare of the people. The
welfare of the people is measured by three factors, namely, amenities,
convenience and health.
General requirements
 Amenities such as sewer lines, water supply, electric
power, etc.

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 Education.
 Effective road networks.
 Planned growth of the town.
 Provision for future expansion.
 Proper location of public building.
 Parks and playgrounds.
 Provision of suitable bye-laws for the town.
 Recreation centres.
 Zoning of town into suitable zone.
7. Explicate the modern town planning of India in detail. [L2][CO1] [12M]
The procedure for preparing an outline plan of a modern town depends
on skill, training and imagination of the town planner. It is absolutely
necessary to correlate the function or functions of town with physical
characteristics of site. A proper combination of function and site would
result in the formation of a successful modern town.
The usual features which are to be embodied in the plan of any modern
town are as follows:
1. Space for residence, commerce and industry,
2. Communication system
3. Parks and playgrounds,
4. Public utility services,
5. Neighbourhood structure, and
6. Public buildings
The spaces to be allotted for various features can be estimated from the
study of existing towns or they can be suitably judged from the
experience of the town planner. In the beginning, the town planner
prepares an outline plan accommodating the above features and if
necessary, one or more alternatives are also prepared and then, by trial
and error, a combination giving maximum benefit of site with the
function or functions of town is adopted.
The important points to be remembered in the planning of a modern
town are as follows:
1. The provisions for various public utilities should be liberal to
meet with the future requirements.
2. The road system should be well designed after careful
consideration and it should be able to develop a good bond
between different zones of the town.
3. Enough provision should be made in the outline plan for parks,
Playgrounds and recreation centres
4. The industrial area should be properly located and provision of
facilities required for the same should be made
5. Extreme care should be taken for the planning of residential area
and amenities such as schools, local shops etc., should be
accommodated in the outline plan
6. The public building should locate in such a way that favourable
impression is developed on the visitors.
7. The study of existing railway line will help in finalising the
location of the main railway station for the town.
8. The natural features of the site should be preserved the maximum
advantage should be taken of such features for public enjoyment.

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8. What are the various socio-economic aspects of town planning? [L1][CO1] [12M]
Explain them in detail.
Socio-economic aspects of Town planning:

The current global trend knows a massive expansion of urban areas, this
growth being actually generated by the numerical population growth and
migration. Urban development determines changes regarding the
organization of places, economic and social changes but these
Effects exceed the territorial barriers and generate a broad impact.
Urban areas have a powerful influence upon places as a result of several
factors such as the degree of use of land or the infrastructure of market
makers; the main social effects of this process are:
1. Contact with the labour market: established in urban areas
population adjusts to match the work market, specializing in the
needs of existing brand and thus framing and adaptation, as well
as winning amounts to cover every day needs
2. Families and the urban society: it has been often seen a decline
in the concept of the family, through the proliferation of less
traditional forms and new types of households. This tendency is
manifested as a consequence of the diversity of the many options
for individuals, in which individuals are organizing into form
collective units.
3. Domestic relations: an increase in the rate of participation of
women in the labor market, they became even decision makers
who have had to balance professional responsibilities with the
family responsibilities
4. Fertility Rates: stepping from rural social space in urban space
generates changes in the natural growth rate of population, the
phenomenon manifested setting up smaller families, with a
reduced number of members
5. State of health and pollution: development of new urban areas
without complying with the necessary measures for the
development of sustainable areas determine a negative impact

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both on the environment, but by the general condition of

reciprocity and on the health of individuals, often affected by
increased pollution levels in these areas, in particular the
pollution of air and water.
6. Access to education and training: access of the population of
rural space set in urban space ensure their access to education,
personal and intellectual development, which provide new
features and modes of the evolution of the individual.
7. Poverty, lack of opportunities and problems of psychological
adaptation: this overlapping of issues is identified to a part of the
population displaced by the urban space, which fails to adapt, to
align to the standards of urban areas, where evolution, social and
economic development are the real engines of existence, thus
generating a chain of negative effects from deviant behaviours to
offenses or violent personalities, as determined by the mirage of
developed urban areas, which offers multiple possibilities, being
real centres of development, progress and social well-being
( Gilbert, O.L.).
9. Draw a neat sketch of Nandyavarta and Prastara type of town [L1][CO1] [12M]
planning by mentioning the location of various places on it.

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10. a) Write short notes on. [L1][CO1] [8M]

a)Moghul Period
a) Cities like Agra, Delhi were redeveloped
b) Fathepur sikri was entirely planned
c) New trend in planning many ornamental gardens of Moghul period
1.Kabulbagh in panipat by Babar
2.Shalimar Bagh ,Nishanth Bagh at Kashmir by Shahjahan
3.Lal bagh at Bangalore by hyderali
b)Buddhist period
1. Koutilya‟s Arthshastra states the regulation of zoning depending on
communities, Rajamarge (Highways) of not less than six dantas (30 fts).
2. Pataliputra, the capital Magadha showed the evidence of advance
knowledge of ton planning
3. Taxila and Nalanda were also of same period exhibits better town
planning principles.
c)British period
When the britishers first settled in India, the found most of the
conditions of the town to be unhealthy. So they started independent
colonies on the outskirts of the existing towns. These extensions were
known as „Contonments‟ and „Barrack‟ for the military occupied area
and „civil lines‟ for residence of civilians and well-to-do people.
d)Medieval Period
There was gradual development of trade and commerce. In this period
we have the famous cities such as.
1. Dhaka
2. Krishnanagar for clay models
3. Agra for marble and perfumery
4. Hurshidabad for silk
5. Jaipur for artistic excellence.
b) Write short notes on cost of town planning. [L1][CO1] [4M]
 The implementation of town planning schemes will require the
use of resources of the community and as such optimum the cost
of town planning can ideally be worked out by relating cost of
planning to the benefits derived from planning
 It is possible in specific cases such as expansions to existing
towns and planning‟s of new town to relate cost of benefits by
measuring land values
 In actual practise the casual position is that the amount to be
spent on planning is decided by the governing bodies and the
town planner is asked to work out the planning schemes within
given limitations.
Factors included in limitations are:
 The amount of money which the community is willing to spend
on roads ,hospitals, parks etc.,
 Law relating to town planning
 Present pattern of land use etc.,
 Thus the ideal cost of planning will be the adoption of town plan
which will maximise the land values with in the given
limitations.

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UNIT –II

SURVEYING & PLANNING, ZONING

1. a) What is a preliminary survey? What are the usual topics covered in
it?
Preliminary survey: The preliminary survey is in the form of restricted
inquiries made for the town planning schemes. The data collected in the
preliminary survey are of fairly general nature and it is the usual practice
to conduct the preliminary survey prior to national, regional or civic
surveys.
The main object of the preliminary survey is to decide approximately
the boundary of area to be planned and to find out the problems
requiring further attention. The preliminary survey ascertains the
features to be emphasized in planning so as to promote economic
stability. The topics which are usually covered in the preliminary survey
are as follows:
(i) Electric power: It includes the study of the sources and
distribution of power and location of power supply units.
(ii) General amenities: It includes the study of civic art, parks,
playgrounds, etc.
[L1][CO2] [8M]
(iii) Highways: The conditions of the existing roads with respect to
their construction and maintenance problems are studied.
(iv) Housing: It includes the study of the existing housing conditions
with respect to lighting, ventilation, sanitation, conveniences and
amenities.
(v) Industries: The industrial development including the
arrangement and classification of various industries, location and
distribution of the manufacturing units, etc. are considered.
(vi) Land use: The density and character of structures, divisions and
uses of land, etc. are studied.
(vii) Railways: The existing routes and volume of goods traffic
together with the future requirements with the growth of town are
considered.
(viii) Water supply and sewerage: The existing facilities as well as
the future requirements are studied.
(ix) Waterways: It includes the study of the highest water level,
yearly and seasonal variations, navigation possibilities, etc.
b) Write short notes on regional survey. [L1][CO2] [4M]
Regional Survey
• It is quite evident that the town to be planned should fit into the
conditions prevailing in the region.
• The regional survey is conducted on a slightly bigger scale as
compared to the civic survey
• The purpose of regional survey and civic survey is the same,
namely, to investigate the economic, physical and social conditions of
the area to be covered up under the town planning schemes.
2. a) What is a National survey? [L1][CO2] [4M]
1 A study of national resources and potentialities gives a broad
vision for the requirements of town planning schemes.

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2 The policies and procedures adopted by nation as a whole affect

considerably the proposals of town planning schemes.
3 For instance, if it is decided on a national level that industries
should be decentralized.
4 It should be seen while re-planning big cities that there are no
additional industries developing in the town.
b) List out the data collected in national survey and explain in detail. [L1][CO2] [8M]
The data collected in the national survey are as follows:
1. Administration
The aspects of land ownership and general administration of the country
are considered
2. Agriculture
It includes the study of type of agricultural soil, the crop patterns and
number of crops per year
3. Communication facilities
The existing modes of transport such as road, railways, waterways and
air routes are studies
4. Economic development
The overall situation of economic conditions of the nation including
availability of raw materials and labour force, types and location of
industries, etc. are considered
5. Geography
The geological conditions, the extent of sea coast, etc. are considered
6. Natural resources
The availability of natural resources in the forms of oil, minerals, gas,
water, etc. are studied
7. Urban settlement
It includes the study of distribution and density of population
3. a) What is a civil survey? What are the usual topics covered in it? [L1][CO2] [8M]
Civic survey: The civic or town survey is conducted with special
reference to the conditions prevailing in and around the town to be
planned. The topics which are usually covered in the civic survey are as
follows:
(i) Communication amenities: The means of communication such
as roads, railways, airways and water ways are studied together with
their inter-relationship. A study of the characteristics of traffic and its
density is also made. The study of amount and time spent in journey to
work is utilized for segregation of traffic, resort to decentralization and
recentralization, provision of other means of communication, etc.
(ii) Contour: The study of contours of the area helps in deciding the
gradients of roads, location of waterworks and sewage plants, etc. The
information regarding contours of the area is also utilized in the location
of public buildings which require commanding sites and of airports
which require commanding sites and of airports which require a levelled
ground.
(iii) Existing land uses and land values: It includes the study of
agricultural lands, residential and commercial areas, parks, open spaces,
location of airports, etc. The study of land values is useful to get an idea
of the compensation required to be paid to private owners for the
acquisition of land for public purposes. It also helps in deciding the

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amount of betterment charges and in getting overall pictures of the

financial implications or liabilities in planning a town.
(iv) Historical background: It includes the study of general
historical development of town, present policy of administration,
physical and social aspects of the area, etc.
(v) Housing: The characteristics of houses, distribution and
relation of people to houses, etc. are studied.
(vi) Industries: The character, distribution, types and special
requirements of the local industries are studied.
(vii) Population: It includes the study of the present and future
population to be served by the town planning scheme, family structure,
density of population, migration tendencies, etc.
(viii) Prevention of natural features: The buildings, open spaces and
spots of natural beauty, which are to be prevented, are considered.
(ix) Public buildings: It includes the study of buildings to be used by
common people.
(x) Public health: A study is made of general health of inhabitants,
death rate, causes of special diseases, etc.
(xi) Public service: A study of public services such as water supply,
sewerage, telephone, gas, electricity, etc. is made.
(xii) Topography: The topography of the area is studied with
reference to climatic condition, locations of rivers and streams, etc.
b) Write short notes on vital survey. [L1][CO2] [4M]
Vital Survey
The population aspects of the town under consideration are studied
under this survey. The items which are to be included consists of actual
population, future population, growth of town, density of population and
occupations of people.
The type of information collected in the vital survey can be enlisted as
follows:
1. History of the past growth of population
2. Characteristics of the present population
3. Factors which may influence the future rate of growth of the
town such as migration, decentralization, development of new
local industries, etc.
4. Density of population
4. a) What is functional survey? Mention the information collected in [L1][CO2] [6M]
functional survey.
Functional survey: The functional aspects of the town life are studied
under this survey. The items which are to be included consist of mans of
communication, conditions of industries and commerce, implementation
of the plan and financial aspects of the scheme. The type of information
collected in the functional survey can be enlisted as follows:
(i) Roads including history of roads, traffic survey, details of width
of roads and tree planting;
(ii) Railways with positions of level-crossing, passenger stations and
goods sheds;
(iii) Airports and seaports;
(iv) Waterways and canals;
(v) Routes of service by bus, tram, ferry and suburban railways;

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(vi) Facilities provided for access to the town;

(vii) local industries, their classifications and locations, availability of
raw materials and type of labour employed;
(viii) Mines and their locations;
(ix) Conditions of commercial activities; and
(x) Probable cost of planning scheme, sources of raising funds,
preparing schedules of taxes and chalking out a line of implementation
of the scheme.
b) What is social survey? Mention the information collected in [L1][CO2] [6M]
functional survey.
The social aspects of a town life are studied under this survey. The items
which are to be included consists of community structure, history,
architectural, health conditions, housing and public services. The type of
information collected in the social survey can be enlisted as shown
below:
1. Ancient ruins
2. Architectural character of the locality including local usages
3. History of growth from preservation of wild life and spots of
natural beauty
4. Birth rates, death rates and charts of diseases
5. Residential areas including historical studies, types of buildings,
slums and suburban development
6. Historical buildings and public buildings, their location and
classification
7. Parks and playgrounds, their size and number in relation to the
residential areas, and
8. Public services comprising of water supply, sewage, drainage,
electricity, telephone, street lighting, cemeteries and fire protection.
5. Explain in detail the various types of planning. [L2][CO2] [12M]
To maintain the continuity in the planning process, the following five
forms of planning are to be considered:
1. Local planning
2. Country planning
3. Regional planning
4. National planning
5. International planning
1. Local Planning
Local plans are prepared keeping in view of local conditions. Local
planning is greatly influenced by economic conditions and finances
available for the development of the town.
• Local planning aims at the following:
• Proper distribution of population densities
• Regulation of traffic
• Location of shopping and recreation centres
• Provision of green belts
• Suitable division of the area in various zones
2. Country Planning
Area surrounding a town cannot be allowed to develop in a haphazard
way. Surrounding villages should be linked up with suitable transport
facilities and should encourage the growth of various village industries

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such as dairy, poultry forming, basket and rope making, weaving,

handlooms etc. Proper balance between the agriculture and industry
should be maintained without disturbing the character of rural area.
Country planning and town planning are complementary to each other
and essentially cannot be treated as two independent entries
3. Regional Planning
A town or a city cannot be isolated from its surrounding region. The
term region is generally used to define areas separated not merely or
exclusively by natural boundaries, but equally by political or
administrative boundaries. Regional planning should include:
• Agricultural regions
• Industrial areas
• Large hydro-electric power stations
• Resorts and recreational areas
• Suburban zones of large cities
Regional planning is necessary for the following reasons:
• It avoids the wasteful duplication of facilities
• It ensures the most profitable utilization of the resources at
minimum expense for the maximum benefit of both the individuals and
the communities in the region
• It gives the information regarding the economic functions which
are to be performed by the surrounding areas
• It grants mutual control over the areas in the region. It gives the
local planners knowledge of relationship between the areas of the region
and they can thus base their plans on this information
• It involves planning in terms of regional dimension because
man‟s mobility and his normal activities are spread over a much larger
area than what he used to cover in the days of bullock carts
• It grants planned and harmonious development of the national
economy especially in case of the developing countries
• It serves as a link of co-operation and co-ordination between the
areas of the region
4. National Planning
The term national planning suggests the setting up of the planning
procedure on a national level and it takes into consideration the
potentialities in various fields of a nation as a whole
By proper and careful national planning, the resources of national
importance like railways, irrigation projects, heavy industries, hydro-
electric works, etc. can be utilized in the best possible manner. Our five-
year plans (NITI AYOG) serve as an illustration of the national
planning. National planning can be visualized in different ways as
follows:
• Development of nation in terms of its administrative or political
system
• Development s at various levels in an hierarchic order either
from top level to bottom level or vice-versa
• Developments in terms of various economic sectors such as
agriculture, fishing, forestry, mining, quarrying etc.
• Developments in terms of various social sectors such as clothing,
housing, food, education, health, employment, recreation etc.

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5. International Planning
With the establishment of United Nations Organization or UNO, the
international planning has come into existence and efforts are made at
international level to promote goodwill and co-operation between
countries of the world. The various agencies appointed by UNO conduct
surveys study of such surveys helps in finding out remedies and
solutions of complicated problems at the international level.
6. Write short notes on urban, rural and regional planning. [L1][CO2] [12M]
URBAN PLANNING:
Urban planning deals with the elements of city plan like residential
buildings, public buildings, parks, factories etc., They are mainly
divided into two categories
Built-up lands – areas used for buildings
Open lands – for roads, parks, playgrounds etc.,
Elements of city plan include –
1) Communication – Railways, highways, Waterways and Airways,
2) Built-up areas – Residential building, commercial building,
public & semi-public buildings 3) Open areas – Parks, playfields,
graveyards, cremation grounds, burial places 4) Public utility services –
Water supply, drainage, electricity, Gas, telephone. 5) Public amenities –
Post offices, Police stations, Petrol bunks, Fire stations..
RURAL PLANNING:
India is a land of villages and will continue to be so for many years to
come. India is overwhelmingly rural as 80 percent of its 750 million
population lives in about 6 lakh villages. On an average there are about
185 villages for each town in the country. Some villages even do not
have more than 500 persons inhabited in about 48 thousand villages.
Villages or rural India once know for open air, breeze, beautiful natural
surroundings have grown haphazardly with housing sprawling along
with narrow lanes, full of dirt and filth. For the last few decades attempts
have been made at various levels to improve the living conditions of the
towns and cities but no attention has been paid for the proper
development of village.
REGIONAL PLANNING :
A town or a city cannot be isolated from its surrounding region. The
term region is generally used to define areas separated not merely or
exclusively by natural boundaries, but equally by political or
administrative boundaries. Regional planning should include:
 Agricultural regions
 Industrial areas
 Large hydro-electric power stations
 Resorts and recreational areas
 Suburban zones of large cities
7. a) What is meant by term zoning? [L1][CO2] [6M]
The term zoning, as understood in town planning sense, is used to
include two aspects of planning, namely,
(i) allocation of land for specific purposes and
(ii) Control of the use, height and construction of the building.
The latter aspect automatically leads to the regulation of density of
population.

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Thus, the zoning is defined as the regulation by law of the use of land
and (or) buildings and of the height and density of buildings in specific
areas for the purpose of securing convenience, health, safety and general
welfare of the community.
According to G. K. Hiraskar the zoning is defined as process of
making sections or division of city areas in different zones, to control
the incompatible land uses and prevent the misuse of land and buildings
heights and densities of population at the initial stages.
According to Mr. Trevor Whitley who describes zoning in the
Encyclopedia of urban planning as the division of community into
zones/districts as per present and potential use of properties for
controlling and directing their land use and development of the city.
According to W. PAUL Farmer and Julie A. Gibb, the Zoning is the
division of land according to building Design and use.
b) What are the various objects of zoning? [L1][CO2] [6M]
OBJECTS OF ZONING
The objects or purposes of zoning are as follows:
(1) The town planner gets ample opportunities for designing the
future growth and development of the town. The zoning serves as a main
tool to the town planner to achieve his goal.
(2) The zoning affords proper co-ordination of various public
amenities such as transport facilities, water supply, drainage, electric
power, etc.
(3) The zoning proves to be an effective instrument in the hands of
the town planner for making any town planning scheme effective and
successful.
Following are four major objectives of zoning:
(i) To conserve the value of its properties.
(ii) To assure orderly community growth.
(iii) To safeguard general public welfare.
(iv) To establish regulations which provide locations for all essential
uses of land and buildings and to ensure that each use is located at most
appropriate place.
8. Mention the main principles of zoning and explain them in detail.
PRINCIPLES OF ZONING:
The main principles of zoning can be briefly summarized as follows:
(1) Arrangement of zones: The usual pattern of zones is in the
form of concentric bands. The central area of the town is followed by
sub-central area, intermediate area and undeveloped area. The other
pattern of zones would be to provide blocks or units for various uses in
different parts of the town.
(2) Boundaries: The design of boundaries for different zones [L1][CO2] [12M]
should be carefully made. A street or a road usually does not provide a
suitable boundary. A railway line or a park or an open green space may
prove to be satisfactory boundary.
(3) Existing towns: when zoning is to be applied to an existing
town, the information regarding the existing use of land is gathered and
as far as possible, the town is dividing into zones by considering the pre-
dominant use in particular areas. However, the existing use of land can
only be altered, if there are substantial grounds to justify such alteration.

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(4) Flexibility: The principles of zoning may be rigidly enforced.

But at the same time, care should be taken to observe flexibility in
working out the details for zoning. For instance, homes should be very
near to places of work to reduce time and cost of travel. But at the same
time, they should not be too near to be disliked by the inhabitants for
residence. Similarly, the small shopping centres for day-to-day
requirements should be allowed in residential zone.
(5) New towns: For designing a new town of known population,
the areas required for residence, industry and business are worked out
with the help of suitable methods. The town is then divided into suitable
zones.
9. Explain in detail the concept of Special Economic Zones in detail. [L2][CO2] [12M]
Introduction
An SEZ is an enclave within a country that is typically duty-free and has
different business and commercial laws chiefly to encourage investment
and create employment. Apart from generating employment
opportunities and promoting investment, SEZs are created also to better
administer these areas, thereby increasing the ease of doing business
Special Economic Zones Act, 2005
It is defined as an Act to provide for the establishment, development and
management of the Special Economic Zones for the promotion of
exports and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.
Objectives of the SEZ Act
Following are the chief objectives of the SEZ Act:
1. To create additional economic activity
2. To boost the export of goods and services
3. To generate employment
4. To boost domestic and foreign investments
5. To develop infrastructure facilities
Important SEZs in India
Following are the important SEZs in our country:
• SEEPZ Special Economic Zone (Mumbai)
• Kandla SEZ
• Cochin SEZ
• Madras SEZ
• Visakhapatnam SEZ
• Falta SEZ
10. a) What are the various advantages of zoning? [L1][CO2] [6M]
Zoning has many advantages as described below:
1. Business or commercial areas are separately located with their
garages and service stations at a distance from the residential
areas.
2. The industrial area is located away from the residential area so it
is not affected by dangerous gases, smoke, etc.
3. The population is distributed throughout the town by zoning, so
there will be no concentration of population in any one particular
zone.
4. Height zoning regulates the height of the buildings. Hence high-
rise buildings will not be allowed to construct near small houses.
5. The zoning permits the economic use of various public utility

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services such as water supply, drainage lines, and telephone

lines, etc.
6. A land in the form of recreational area is provided to use as
playgrounds, stadiums, parks, talkies, etc.
7. Zoning promotes health, safety, prosperity, orderly development
and overall welfare of community.
8. The zoning results into minimum chances of fire occurrence.
9. If zoning is adopted, it results into controlled future development
of the town.
b) What are the maps required for zoning? [L1][CO2] [6M]
Before zoning is undertaken, the town planner should be applied with
necessary comprehensive survey maps should be included:
1. The map showing existing use of land marked in different
colours such as residential, commercial, industrial, etc. should be
prepared. The map should also show the portion of detached
houses, semi-detached houses, flats and apartment houses and
commercial-cum-residential buildings, etc. It should be also
marked on the map the position of all manufacturing plans,
public properties, parks, playgrounds, institutions, etc.
2. The map showing density of population in different areas of the
town and expressed either as houses per unit area or number of
persons per unit area or number of families per unit area should
be prepared.
3. The map showing land values in the different sections of the
town should be prepared.
4. The map showing the details gathered from traffic survey should
be prepared.

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UNIT –III

HOUSING & SLUMS

1. Explain in detail about the classification of residential buildings. [L2][CO3] [12M]
The house may consist of single tenement or a number of tenements. It
should be noted that in housing parlance, a tenement means a family
unit. The residential buildings may broadly be classified in five
categories as follows:
1. Detached houses
2. Semi-detached houses
3. Row of houses
4. Apartments or flats
5. Skyscrapers
1. Detached Houses
Design of a detached house can be made by considering the individual
requirements of the family to be accommodated in that house. In case of
detached house sufficient margins are left on sides, front and rear as
shown in the drawing below. The detached house model may also
include amenities such as private garden, swimming pool etc. This type
of residential houses is possible where land prices are comparatively
low.

Layout of detached house

2. Semi-detached Houses
Semi-detached house has a common boundary wall in the form of
structural barrier that divides an independent plot into two units as
shown in the figure below. Such a construction helps in securing many
advantages of the detached type of houses and in addition, economy may
be achieved by sharing expenses of common amenities such as water
lines, drainage lines, electric cables, etc.

Layout of semi-detached house

3. Row of Houses
For providing reasonable accommodation to the labourers or workers, a
row of houses with minimum requirements such as living room and
kitchen, may be constructed. It may be single-storeyed or two-storeyed.

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The row housing yields more net residential density and it is preferred
for the low-income group of families. A layout of row of houses shown
below.

Layout of row of houses

4. Apartments or Flats
Due to tendency of migration by village population to cities, there is
considerable rise in the price of city land and hence, it has become
practically impossible even for the higher class of the society to have a
detached house in a thickly populated city area. This has led to the
conception of apartments or flats. An apartment consists of three to ten
storeys and each floor or storey many accommodate two to four
tenements. The land and other common amenities appurtenant to flat are
shared by all the occupants. The individual flat owner has no future
scope either of vertical or horizontal expansion.

Layout of a typical apartment

5. Skyscrapers
The growing need of land and consequently sudden shooting rise in
price of land in big cities further led to the conception of multi-storeyed
buildings or as they popularly known as Skyscrapers.
2. a) What do you mean by skyscrapers? [L1][CO3] [4M]
1 The growing need of land and consequently sudden shooting rise
in price of land in big cities further led to the conception of
multi-storeyed buildings or as they popularly known as
Skyscrapers.
2 The term skyscraper originally applied to buildings of 10 to 20
stories, but by the late 20th century the term was used to
describe high-rise buildings of unusual height, generally greater
than 40 or 50 stories.
3 To be considered a true skyscraper, the building must be self-
supporting and contain at least 50% habitable floor space.
4 The precludes dedicated observation towers and other tall
structures from qualifying as skyscrapers.

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b) Explain in detail about the argument for and against the [L2][CO3] [8M]
skyscrapers.
Arguments For Skyscrapers:
Following are the arguments that supports the construction of
skyscrapers:
• It gives sunlight and pure air to the residents and gives them
relief against noise nuisance
• It is remunerative or paying proposition
• It permits more open space aground the building and this open
space can be used for various purposes such as tennis court, swimming
pool, recreation area etc.
• It reduces the distance to be travelled by the occupants, thereby
saving their time and energy
• It results in curtailment of cost of various services such as water
supply, transport, electrification, drainage etc.
• It save precious land which can be utilized for agricultural
purposes or developed for industrial units
• The conveniences such as offices, markets and also other
amenities can be had in the same building
• The staying on upper floors grants the pleasure of scenic views
of near and distant objects such as roads, green farms, hills, mountains,
trees, rivers, lakes etc.
• They could be seen to symbolize the economic growth of town
and their location could enhance the skyline as well as bear an
expressive form of the urban imagery
Arguments Against Skyscrapers
Following are the arguments that are not in favour of construction of
skyscrapers:
• It becomes difficult for old people to undertake vertical travel
when the lift or elevator of the building fails
• The benefit of enjoying the charm of a private garden cannot be
obtained by the residents
• It located improperly and without any planning with respect to
the surrounding features of the area, a skyscraper may spoil the skyline
of a city. They should be therefore be permitted only in specific zones
reserving most waterfronts, hills and such other natural elements for
other types of structures.It deprives the sunlight and air of others
• It is quite likely that a skyscraper may cause an obstruction to air
traffic and micro-wave transmission
• The cost of construction and maintenance are high for
skyscrapers because of the instalment of services such as lifts, fire
fighting devices, etc. and design of structural elements for wind,
earthquake, etc.
• It may crate psychological problems for children as they have no
open space to play
• There is considerable increase in the land value due to the
construction of skyscrapers and it ultimately necessitates into the
construction of more skyscrapers
• There is fear of panic in case of emergency such as fire or
earthquake.

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3. a) Write a detailed account on Low cost Housing. [L1][CO3] [6M]

Use of alternative materials and techniques of construction in rural
housing, technology for using locally available materials assumes a
greater importance in low cost rural housing. Brick and tile house is a
typical example of currently accepted technology but not a feasible
solution when a very large number of houses have to be built from the
point of view of energy conservation. The most important criteria in
deciding alternative technologies are:
• Conservation of fuel energy
• Reduction of transportation costs
Low Cost Housing Techniques
Following are the various techniques for reducing cost of rural houses:
• Direct use of soil in various forms such as puddled soil
construction, unburned bricks and bamboo reinforced mud walls,
random rubble stone masonry walls are inexpensive. But they have
certain disadvantages. Pressed soil blocks can be used for wall
construction as an alternative to mud walls.
• Optimizing foundation dimensions
• Eliminating non-load bearing foundation
• Balancing volume of single stored building
• Ingenuous use of structural components
• Replacing cement concrete with lime concrete and bricks in
plinth and sill of buildings
• Extensive use of lime for masonry work
• Using structurally efficient roofing systems such as Ferro cement
rafters, thin RCC ribbed slabs, steel in structural members
• Using precast RCC frame for doors and windows
• Using of precast roofing systems
• Adopting new methods of masonry construction
• Small width of windows to reduce Intel dimensions
b) Explain in detail about National Housing Policy (NHP). [L2][CO3] [6M]
In the year following the IYSH (International Year of Shelter for
Homeless, 1987 by United Nations), the Indian Government come out
with a National Housing Policy (NHP) announced in the year 1988.
Objectives of NHP
The NHP is comprehensive in nature and has the following four main
objectives:
• To create an environment for achieving the maximum housing
efforts
• To encourage the investment in housing
• To motivate and help houseless and inadequately housed people
to secure for themselves affordable shelter
• To promote vernacular architecture i.e., pertaining to the style of
architecture and decoration peculiar to a specific culture or locality
Important Features of NHP
Following are the important features of NHP:
1. Design Aspects: It focuses on the design aspects of house with
regard to their location. The architecture as well as the building
materials would necessarily have to differ according to the type of
region – whether it be hilly, desert land or coastal.

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2. Fiscal Incentives: The Fiscal incentives under the laws relating

to taxation of income, wealth and gifts will be rationalised to channelise
savings into housing finance institutions. The concept of luxury housing
is to be discouraged through ceiling on institutional finance assistance.
The cooperative and group housing societies are to be treated on a
priority basis.
3. Housing schemes: The housing schemes should take into
consideration the mentally and physically disabled, the aged, widows
and incorporate dwelling units of appropriate design.
4. National Housing Bank: An apex body, to build up a housing
finance superstructure envisaged by the NHP, a national housing bank,
has been set up. It will lead to easy accessibility of institutional finance
at affordable rates of interest to the houseless and disadvantaged group.
5. Rationalised Laws: the entire gamut of legal provisions
contained in different Acts is to be reviewed and wherever necessary,
amendment to the laws relating to land tenure, acquisition and ceiling
are to be made. The municipal regulations relating to the house building,
apartment ownership and other connected laws will also be initiated and
new legislations enacted, wherever necessary.
6. Role of Government: The role of Government will be that of a
promoter and enabler rather than that of a builder. Let the people build
houses for themselves, Government simply act as a facilitator.
Government play a vital role to supply of serviced land, a steady flow of
finance, an easy availability of newer and cheaper building materials,
creating a conductive legal environment, etc. it has also to provide
essential services like potable water, sanitation, drainage, street lighting,
paved pathways, etc.
4. What are the different agencies for housing? Explain each of them [L1][CO3] [12M]
in detail.
Following are the three agencies which may be considered responsible
for the construction of houses:
1. Government
2. Cooperative Housing Societies
3. Individuals
1. Government
• To provide housing on a large scale and even at subsidized rates,
the supreme agency would naturally be government and semi-
government bodies or departments.
• It is thus including State government, Central government, postal
department, income-tax department, railways, local authorities etc.
• It is to be confessed that the principle of State assistance for
housing, through unsound in nature, is unavoidable under the present
condition. It is for this reason that such assistance is given official
recognition in the housing legislation of most of the progressive
countries of the world.
• It is also possible to give protection to tenants at government
level by introducing various effective measures in the form of Rent
Restriction Act, Standard Rent Act, etc.
• The government has introduced The Urban Land (Ceiling and
Regulation) Act, 1976 which mainly aims at securing excess urban

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vacant lands in private hands for the development of houses of

acceptable standards for the weaker sections of the society.
2. Cooperative Housing Societies
The history of the cooperative housing movement in India can be traced
to 1912 when the cooperative act was formed.
Bombay was the first to take initiative in this movement and the first
cooperative Housing Society, know as Saraswat Cooperative Housing
Society, was registered on co-partnership system in Bombay in 1915.
The number of housing societies is the largest in Maharashtra followed
by Gujarat and these two States account for more than half of the total
number of societies in the country.
At present, this agency has become very popular because of
encouragement at government level with respect to two main aspects of
housing, namely,
• Acquisition of land at reasonable price
• Financial help in the form of loans to be paid in instalments at
low rates of interest
Some of the suggestions to improve the working of housing cooperative
can be made as follows:
• The government should give priority for the allotment of lands
and building materials to be housing cooperatives
• The housing societies should construct such houses whose cost is
within the reach of their members
• The poor and the poorest should be brought under the scheme
and the entry of rich people should be discouraged in housing
cooperatives
• The working of the cooperatives should be supervised by a
machinery equipped with adequate power and it should be seen that the
cooperative housing society does not turn up into noncooperative
housing society.
3. Individuals
The acute shortage of housing has also encouraged private enterprise to
enter this field. The houses and flats are constructed by the individual
with his own investment and later on, they are sold or converted into
society form. In a similar way, big employers can provide housing
accommodation to their employees and workers.
5. a) Explain the need for investment in housing and also mention its [L2][CO3] [8M]
advantages.
Reasons Supporting Housing Investments
1. Considering the excess demands for jobs and houses, the housing
activities would certainly prove as proper path leading to social
equilibrium
2. The employment generated by housing sector far exceeds than
any other sector
3. The housing and employment are the elements of social
development and the must for the basis of any socialistic pattern
4. The housing schemes also lead to the investment in roads,
electricity, etc. and the whole area as much may come up as a satellite to
the big urban complex
5. The housing schemes for slum areas give adequate shelter to the

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slum dwellers who are unable to pay the market rents

6. The investment in housing at present is regarded as an effective
anti-inflationary measure. A well-organized system under which small
savings can accumulate and make an investment in housing possible will
be an effective anti-inflationary force
7. The investment in housing generates employment for the large
number of skilled and unskilled labourers in urban and rural areas
Advantage of Housing Investments for Individuals
1. A house can be protected by insurance and if it is burnt or
destroyed otherwise, it can be replaced by the insurance company. Thus,
the investment in housing is safe.
2. It has a steady demand and in case of an emergency, it can be
sold out a good price
3. It is a real and tangible investment in the sense that a house has
some value and inherent stability
4. It can be made a source of income by allowing it to be used by a
tenant
5. It is found to be an inflation-proof investment
6. It is not dependent on patents, trade secrets or manufacturing
methods
7. The housing property rights are protected by our Constitution
b) What are the various housing problems in India? [L1][CO3] [4M]
The provision and estimation of housing requirements in various five-
year plans of our country have proved to be obsolete and inadequate
because of considerable increase in population and construction costs.
The main hurdles of the problem of rural housing can be enumerated as
follows:
1. Lack of sense of social and moral obligation of rural people in
solving the problem
2. Lack of sufficient allocations to the rural housing in our plans
3. Prohibitive cost of building materials as well as rising prices of
land; and
4. Reluctance of financial agencies to finance the rural housing
schemes for the landless villagers
It is, therefore, submitted that a modest but well planned utility house
consisting of a room, a kitchen and a verandah should be designed and
to reduce its cost.
The whole emphasis should be laid on the use of indigenously available
raw materials. As a matter of fact, the house may vary from district to
district, village to village or even from house to house.
The financial agencies such as nationalized banks, etc. should come
forward to help the landless villagers to build their own houses on
reasonable terms.
The legalities governing the provident fund, pension fund etc., should be
made more flexible with a view to enable the housing finance seekers to
put their own money to a good use of their own choice.With a view to
focus the attention on housing problem, the General Assemble of the
United Nations declared the year 1987 as the International Year of
Shelter for Homeless (IYSH). Following year i.e 1988 Government of
India have come up with its “National Housing Policy”.

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6. Explain in detail about various causes and effects of slum formation. [L2][CO4] [12M]
The formation or development of slum area in any two is due to various
reasons. Following are the main causes which are considered to have
contributed to the formation of slums:
1. Decentralization
When decentralization takes place, the rich and middle class people
move out to the extended portions of the town and thus, the poor people
are left unattended in the overcrowded area of the town.
2. Economic conditions
Most important and universal characteristic of slums is poverty. This is
due to the fact that people live in slums because they cannot afford to
pay the rent set up by the market conditions.
3. Education
If the inhabitants are lacking in education, they may be easily dragged
into social evils without any attention to improvement of the living
conditions.
4. Improper use of land
If lands fit for residence are used for industries or vice-versa, the slums
may be formed.
5. Industrialization
The slums may be said to be direct evil result from industrialization
which is the early states never took care of planning houses for labours.
Those that were built near the factories were cheap structures with rent
as the only motive.
6. Lack of zoning
If the town is not divided into suitable zones and development is allowed
to take place at random, the slums may be created.
7. Migrants
The persons migrating from the surrounding areas may occupy, usually
illegally, the vacant or empty places in or outside the city. The term
squatter is used to mean a person who is occupying the land without
title. The colonies of squatters may result into slums. About, one-third of
the urban population live in ramshackle huts with civic amenities.
8. Powers of local authority
If the local authority concerned does not possess adequate powers to
control the development of town, the slums may be formed.
9. Repairs and maintenance
If cheap houses, constructed by the land owner for the purpose of
collecting rents, are not properly maintained, the conditions favouring
formation of slums may develop.
EFFECT OF SLUMS
The effect of slums on the town life is manifold. They can be briefly
mentioned as follows:
1. Absence of amenities
The surrounding area of slums is lacking in essential amenities in
required proportions because of overcrowding.
2. Health
The persons residing in slums are easily attacked by various types of
diseases. The climate of slums is such that it easily leads to unhealthy
conditions of living.

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3. Surrounding locality
The working of institutions like library, school, hospital, etc., located
nearby slums, is seriously affected.
4. Undesirable spots
The slums as such on a city plan forms undesirable spots and in a sense,
disturbs the appearance of good features of a city plan.
5. Working conditions
It is not possible to work peacefully in slums because the whole area is
full of noise, traffic congestion, smoke, dust and darkness.
7. What are the various characteristics of slums? Explain each of them [L1][CO4] [12M]
in detail.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SLUMS:
Following are some of the usual or general characteristics of slums:
1. Appearance
This is rather the universal mark of the slum and its unpleasant
appearance offends the eyes, nose and conscience. The structures appear
to be deteriorated and to be of over age.
2. Fire hazards
The slum are is often exposed to fire accidents and consequent damages.
One stick of matches may prove to be sufficient to reduce the whole
slum to ashes in no time.
3. Health and sanitation
The slum is characterized by low standards of sanitation and is often
neglected most by the public services for sanitation. It also refers an area
of high sickness and death rates.
4. Income criteria
The slum is a poverty area and it is occupied by people of the lowest
income group of the society.
5. Morals
The socially disorganized slum may prove to be an area of delinquency,
crime and vice.
6. Overcrowding
The slum is overcrowded with buildings or the buildings are
overcrowded with people or in the worst condition, both the conditions
prevail in the slum.
7. Population
If the slum population is racial or cultural, it grants a degree of social
organization even though the area looks poverty-stricken slum area. For
a heterogeneous occupancy, the inhabitants are of different categories
which are not welcome in other localities or they cannot afford to live
elsewhere.
8. Social isolation
The slums are is of the lowest social status and it is usually linked up
with the rest of the community through its labour force. In a democratic
society, the slum dwellers can identify themselves with certain political
groups because of their equality of voting and other legal rights with the
rest of the community.
9. Way of life
Depending upon the manner in which the slum has come up, the way of
life of the inhabitants may be such that they are stranger to one another

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or they form a family slum with thick acquaintance with one another.
8. What are the objects and methods of slum clearance programme? [L1][CO4] [12M]
Explain each method in detail.
Objects of Slum Clearance
The process of improving the existing conditions of slums is known as
the slum clearance and the main four objects of taking up slum clearance
programmes can be enumerated as follows:
1. To bring down the disparity in the living standards of the people
of various classes
2. To prevent the occurrence of epidemics in the town or city
3. To provide the absolute basic minimum standards of essential
amenities for a healthy living
4. To remove the ugly spots or slums from the map of town or city
Methods for Slum Clearance
Following are the two methods by which slum clearance programmes
can be effected:
1. Complete removal method
2. Improvement method
1. Complete removal method
In this method, the ill-constructed houses are demolished and only those
which are really good are retained. The open spaces left are used for
widening of roads, providing recreation grounds, or building new houses
of approved standards.
The slum clearance, by this method, proves to be too costly and further,
the people who are dishoused are to be provided with alternative
housing facilities.
For the selection of the slum areas for clearance as against improvement,
the following two important factors should be considered:
a. The degree of public health hazards involved; and
b. The economic potential of the land i.e., the full use to which the
land can be economically exploited after removal of the slum.
2. Improvement Method
It is observed that certain areas where slums are due to poor drainage
arrangement and insanitary environments need not necessarily be
demolished. If the houses are fairly good, certain steps such as
improvement of the street system, filling up of low ground,
modifications of drainage arrangements, removal of obstructing
structures, etc. may be taken up to implement slum clearance scheme.
By proper selection of improvement works, the desired results can be
achieved with minimum expenditure.
Difficulties Encountered in Slum Clearance
The main five difficulties to be encountered while pursuing the slum
clearance programme are as follows:
1. Constraint of resources
2. High cost of alternative sites near place of work
3. Lengthy and time-consuming procedures of the acquisition of
slum area
4. Low rent paying capacity of the slum dwellers with the result
that the subsidized rents may also prove to be too high; and
5. Reluctance or unwillingness of slum dwellers to move from the

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areas selected for clearance

9. a) What are the various measures taken for Slum clearance and re- [L1][CO4] [6M]
housing.
Measures for Slum Clearance & Rehousing:
Following are some of the measures which may be adopted to make the
slum clearance and rehousing schemes successful:
1. In the surrounding area of the metropolitan city, a chain of
growth centres, popularly known as the satellite towns, should be
formed with a view to provide for growing employment opportunities
and better living conditions in such centres.
2. The slum rehabilitation scheme may be combined with some
commercial schemes so as to make it self-supporting in finance.
3. The minimum carpet area including sanitary conveniences may
be decided for a family.
4. The potentialities of the open plot scheme combined with self-
help housing on the part of the slum community should be fully
exploited.
5. The state governments should make enough provision in the
budget every year for the construction of minimum houses for the slum
population.
b) Write short notes on financial assistance for slum clearance. [L1][CO4] [6M]
Finance assistance for slum clearance:
The slum clearance works require considerable fund and the resources
for the successful implementation of the scheme should be properly
analysed and arranged.
The financial management should be made in such a way that maximum
benefit is derived from the available limited resources. Some of the
possible measures to augment the slum clearance schemes are as
follows:
1. Distribution of national housing cess for rural and urban housing
2. Granting interest free loans or loans with nominal rate of interest
for a period of 30 to 40 years
3. Lottery funds
4. Relaxation of the provision for loans by the Life Insurance
Corporation
5. Surcharge on urban properties; etc.
10. Illustrate various process involved in prevention of slum formation. [L1][CO4] [12M]
PREVENTION OF SLUM FORMATION
The formation of slums is a very slow process and extreme care should
be exercised by the authorities concerned to prevent the springing up of
new slums in the town. Some of the important measures which can be
taken effectively prevent the slum formation are as follows:
1. Cheap housing
Sufficient number of subsidized cheap housing should be made available
to the poor people. The investment of public funds for such purpose
certainly gives good results.
2. Compulsion to employers
The employers of a good number of labourers may be compelled or
forced to provide housing accommodation for their staff.
3. Construction of buildings

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Certain rules and regulations may be framed and strictly enforced to

restrict the coming up of buildings of subnormal standards.
4. Maintenance and repairs
The responsibility of maintaining and carrying out repairs should be
fixed and defined in housing Codes or Acts. It then becomes the duty of
either landlord or tenant to keep the existing building in a living
condition. Such an attitude on the part of the local authority helps in
preventing the conversion of existing good buildings into slums.
5. Rent restrictions
If provision is made on restrict the increase of rent, the tenants will be
protected. The Rent Restriction Act is in force in many towns of our
country. It is advisable to revise this Act periodically so that landlord
may be included or tempted to maintain his property in proper form.
6. Social education
It is possible to check the growth of slums by carrying out effective
social education of the slum dwellers. The social education make the
slum dwellers conscious of the evils of slums and if an intensive social
propaganda is carried out with the help of service organizations through
literature, posters, exhibition of films, television shows, etc., there is
great improvement in the living standard of slum dwellers.
7. Unauthorized construction
It is absolutely necessary to arrest immediately the unauthorized
construction in the form of huts and temporary structures on vacant
pieces of lands.

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UNIT –IV

PUBLIC BUILDINGS & INDUSTRIES, BUILDING BYE-LAWS

1. Discuss the factors to be examined at the time of site selection for [L2][CO5] [12M]
public buildings.
The town planner should give careful considerations for the location of
various public buildings such as town hall, auditorium, municipal
buildings, post office, central public library, university campus, schools,
hospitals, etc.
Following factors should be examined at the time of site selection
for the public buildings:
1. Foreground
2. Grouping
3. Monumental building
4.Parking space
5. Purpose.
Each of the above factors will now be briefly described below.
1. Foreground: The site of public buildings should have sufficient
foreground so that a full view may be obtained and it can be seen to its
best advantage. For achieving better results, it is desirable that the
observer should be at a distance equal to twice the height of the building.
The shape of the foreground should rather be oblong.
If there is no foreground available, a site at the terminus of a
thoroughfare or at an intersection of the streets at which the traffic
converges may be desirable. Such a location affords a view from
distance.
2. Grouping: The public buildings whose functions are
interrelated should be located very near to each other. If possible, it is
desirable to form a group of such public buildings on a common site.
3. Monumental buildings: A monumental building should, if possible,
be located at the summit of a grade in hilly countries so that it can be
seen With advantage from avenues approaching it. The sites with a park
view or river front or sea front or axis of a parkway are also excellent for
location of the public buildings.
4. Parking space: The sites for certain public buildings such as town
hall, hospital. etc. should have ample and adequate parking space around
them.
5. Purpose: The site should be of easy access and best suited to the
purpose for which the public building is intended.
Some Of the illustrations are as follows:
i. The central library should be readily accessible to the whole or
part of the City it Serves and should be in a quiet place with ample open
space around it.
ii. The educational institutions like university campus which
provide residential facilities may be on the outskirts of a city in park like
surroundings and on extensive areas sufficient for future development.
There should be enough level space for buildings and playgrounds. The
schools and other small educational institutions should be located in the
residential areas they serve and should be away from arterial roads so as

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to be free from noise, dust and risk of accidents.

iii. The hospitals should be, as far as possible, in the closely
inhabited area so as to be readily accessible to all the people provided
that there is sufficient open space surrounding it so as to give ample
light and air. They should also be free from noise and dust and should
have sufficient area for future extension.
iv. The main post office should. if possible, be near the railway
station and within easy walking distance from business Centre .
v. The municipal and government buildings should be near the
main business area of the town. But they should be on the edge and not
in the center of this area.
vi. The sanatorium, medical hospitals and other special medical
institutions should be located away from the Centre of town.
vii. The town hall should be located near the transit facilities.
2. Mention the categories in which the public buildings are generally [L1][CO5] [12M]
groups.
GROUPING OF PUBLIC BUILDINGS:
The considerations for grouping of the public buildings are generally
convenience as in case of hospital and medical college, existing
conditions of site or buildings aesthetic requirements, etc.
The grouping of the public buildings may be in the from of a
concentrated arrangement or a dispersed arrangement .A concentrated
arrangement results in economy, easy supervision, good architectural
effect and convenient access form one building to the other. A
dispersed arrangement, on the other hand, provides more light in air ,and
the less risk from fire and nuisance.
The aesthetic considerations which favour the grouping of public
buildings are as follows:
i. Common architectural styles of the buildings.
ii. Entrance to be provided at the centre and making it an axial line
for the whole scheme of the buildings.
iii. Proper setting of buildings by planting trees and shrubs .
iv. Provision of the fountains and statues at approaches.
v. sufficient open space for full view etc.
The grouping of similar public buildings makes a beautiful composition
which is in harmony with the surrounding development and it produces
the most charming effect. Following are the five categories in which the
public buildings are generally grouped:
1. Administrative buildings: These are known as the civic centres or
community centres and the buildings such as municipal office,
secretariat, law courts, post office, public library, town hall, etc. are
included in such centres.
2. Educational buildings: The buildings included in this category are
schools, colleges, university campus, research institutions, etc. and they
form the educational centre of the town.
3. Health institutions: The buildings like clinics, nursing homes, child
welfare centres, hospitals, etc. are grouped to form what may be referred
to as the health centre of the town. Such institutions should be located in
calm and quiet atmosphere.
4. Recreation institutions: The recreational centres are formed by

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grouping cinema halls, music halls, opera theatres, etc.

5. Social institutions: The buildings which deal with social and cultural
activities of town include art galleries, museums, musical academies,
etc. and they are grouped to develop art and cultural centres of the town.
3. Explain the principles of design of public buildings. [L2][CO5] [12M]
PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN OF PUBLIC BUILDINGS:
Following are the broad principles which are to be observed while
designing the site and size Of the public buildings:
1.Adequate sites: It is necessary to acquire and to reserve in advance
adequate sites in relation to the prospective needs of the public
buildings. This is true especially in case of civic and educational groups.
The adequate space and appropriate architectural forms are necessary to
emphasis their dignities.
2.Approaches: The approaches to and from the groups Of public
buildings are of vital importance and they should accordingly be
designed.
3.Business buildings: The public buildings should not be mixed up with
business buildings. It is the usual practice to have frontage of business
buildings on main through roads where traffic is congested and land
values are high. The public buildings, on the other hand, should be near
to but not abutting main roads.
4.Comprehensive study: The sites of public buildings should be
determined on the basis of a comprehensive study of city and of its
consequent neighbourhoods so that they may have qualities necessary
for convenience and orderly development.
5.Education: The educational institutions such as primary schools,
secondary schools, colleges of different faculties. etc. should not be
placed directly on through roads and particularly not at their junctions. A
liberal provision with respect to area Of land should be provided to
accommodate future population.
6.Fire stations: The location of a fire station will depend upon the shape
of town. It should abut on the streets and it should be centrally located.
For a population of about 1.50 lakhs of people. one fire station would be
enough.
7.Hospitals: Enough area should be reserved for hospital and other
medical relief centres. In most of the cases. A provision 4 to 3 beds per
1000 population proves to be adequate for hospital in an average town.
The dispensaries for the out-patients should be adequate and well
spread throughout the town . The specialized hospital to treat certain
types of disease only such as cancer, tuberculosis, leprosy, etc . can be
prevented in case of large town only .
8. Markets: The wholesale markets for fruits , vegetables, etc. should
be provided away from the congested areas a lot of traffic as well as a
number of delivery trucks are to be employed for transporting goods to
the markets. The number of such markets will depend upon the size of
town.
9.Refuse disposal: The provision should also be made the collection of
various types of refuse and disposal units should be located at places
where they do not cause any nuisance to the public.
10.Shops: The town should be equipped with a number of small shops

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containing items of day-to-day use. The design of a shopping centre

requires the considerations of community needs, traffic problems,
purchasing capacity of Customers, etc. A provision of 7 to 8 shops per
1000 population. in most cases, proves to be adequate. The large scale
shopping centres in the form of supermarkets are coming up in the major
cities of India.
11.Social and cultural centres: Considering the needs and tastes of the
community, the adequate provision should be made for various social
and cultural centres such as cinemas, theatres, marriage halls, clubs, art
galleries. lecture halls, community halls. churches. temples, etc.
4. What is an industrial waste? Give a brief note on their [L1][CO5] [12M]
characteristics, classification & treatment methods.
TREATMENT OF INDUSTRIAL WASTES:
1. General: The industries in general have one goal in view and that is
the production of their goods. They have as such least bothered for the
proper disposal Of their wastes. The concerned local authorities have
formed codes suitable for wastes of different types of industries. But
these codes are generally not satisfactory and it is suggested that detailed
studies should be made of the particular industrial waste to be treated by
public treatment plant and the owner of that industry should be given the
outline of the treatment which he should give to the industrial waste
before it is discharged into the public sewer.
It is evident that satisfactory control of industrial waste can
be achieved only if there is full co-operation among the management of
industry and the local drainage authority with a genuine desire to
progress towards an acceptable solution. It should always be
remembered that no commercial or industrial products are as important
as the environment. This is due to the fact that the pollution of
environment due to the industrial wastes becomes costly and
uncontrollable subsequently leading to hardships to the community as a
whole. It is therefore to be seen that the environment which is a gift of
nature, is not disturbed by the haphazard and
Disorderly planning of the industries.
2. Characteristics of industrial wastes: Following are the characteristics
of the industrial wastes:
1) The Biochemical Oxygen Demand (B.O.D.) is higher than that of
ordinary domestic sewage.
2) The flow is uncertain and variations during the year or even day
are extremely high.
3) In modern days, the industrial wastes may also contain
substances With radioactivity.
4) The temperatures may be too high or too low.
5) There may be a number of harmful substances present in the
industrial wastes. These substances may be grease, oil, explosive.
Highly odorous substances. etc.
6) They may be acidic or alkaline.
The above mentioned characteristics are only few of many. There is
considerable variation in various types of industries and hence, the
characteristics of particular industrial waste will depend on the nature of
industry by which it is formed or developed.

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For the purpose of treatment. the industrial wastes may broadly be

classified into three categories as shown in table . The classification is
the most general one and it is likely that one industry may give wastes of
more than one category.
CLASSIFICATION OF INDUSTRIAL WASTE
No. Category Industries
1. Wastes of animal Dairies, fertilizer industry. glue industry.
origin leather industry, soap industry. woolen
textile mills, etc.
2. Wastes of Chemical industry. dyeworks, gas plants.
mineral origin mines. oil refineries. metal industry.
water treatment lants, etc.
3. Waste of Beet-sugar industry. cotton textile mills.
vegetable origin canning industry, a er industry , rubber
industry saw mills. etc.

3.Treatment methods: The treatment methods for the industrial

wastes will depend upon their characteristics and various other factors.
In general, the treatment recommended should be such that it recovers
some useful substances from the industrial wastes. This will encourage
the industry owner for the suitable treatment to the industrial wastes and
it will also reduce the cost of such treatment.
Following are the methods adopted for the treatment of industrial
wastes:
(l) aerobic biological oxidation (8) filtration
(2) anaerobic digestion (9) incineration
(3) chemical coagulation (10) lagooning or ponding
(4) chemical oxidation (1 1) screening
(5) chlorination (12) sedimentation
(6) deionization (13) spray irrigation
(7) Dewatering and drying (14) vacuum filtration etc.
The disposal of liquid industries wastes through deep well injection has
been tried at some places with success. The depth of well may be more
than 1000 m or so. The deep well injection is costly. But at the same
time, it proves to be the least costly for the disposal of industrial wastes
which are very difficult to treat. It will be, however, necessary to
establish the fact that there is no contamination Of Underground water
sources at places where deep injection wells are practised for the
disposal of liquid industrial wastes.
5. What are the various classifications of industries? Explain in detail. [L1][CO5] [12M]
CLASSIFICATION OF INDUSTRIES :
According to nature Of dependence on circumstances, the industries
may be as fixed industries, linked industries and foot-loose industries.
In case of fixed industries. the requirements Of the industries will be
such that there will be practically no choice for their alternative
locations. The mining and quarrying may to some extent be treated as
the fixed industries.
In case of linked industries. the presence of large industries is essential
for their existence. They serve and depend on the functioning Of large
industries. The intermediate industries which grow up near big concerns

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may be included in this category.

In case of foot-loose industries. the location is mainly decided on
transport facilities and markets for their products. Some types of light
industries may be considered as the foot-loose industries.
Depending upon the nature of industry, a broad classification may be
formed as follows:
(I) Manufacturing industries
(2) Miscellaneous industries
(3) Special industries.
(I) Manufacturing industries: The manufacturing industries can be
grouped into four sub-divisions as shown below:
(i) Heavy industries: Heavy industries include steel projects, Oil
refineries, fertilizers, ship-building , etc. Such industries consume raw
materials which are heavy and bulky to transport and they produce a
product which is usually substantial. Asa matter of fact, the works of
heavy industries cover a huge area and the whole project grants an
impression of massiveness. The choice of site for a heavy industry is
restricted as its efficiency depends on nearness of raw materials.
transport facilities, etc.
(ii) Intermediate industries: Intermediate industries include
spinning, weaving, brewing, plastics, tanning, manufacture of machinery
and spare parts. etc. These industries either serve the heavy industries or
further process the products of heavy industries or carry out both the
functions. In fact, these industries cover a wide spectrum between heavy
industries and light industries. For intermediate industries such as
spinning, weaving, brewing, plastics, tanning, etc. which do not depend
upon heavy industries, there is considerable scope for finding out
alternatives for their locations.
(iii) Light industries: This include products of domestic use,
furniture, assembling Of small machines, knitted goods, boots, products
of confectioners, etc. These industries use raw materials which are light
in weight and easy to transport. The principal factors affecting their
locations are availability of local labour and nearness to markets through
which the manufactured products are distributed. The light industries are
usually foot-loose industries. But they are sometimes linked up with one
another or occasionally with heavy industries.
(iv) Minor industries: Minor industries include bakeries, laundries,
etc and they do not produce any nuisance to the inhabitants of the
locality. They can be grouped and located very near to the residential
zone for the benefit and convenience of the public.
2.Miscellaneous industries: These industries include professional
services, shipping, education, entertainment, etc. By the nature of their
functions, these industries are concentrated in large cities.
3.special industries: There are certain industries such as mining,
quarrying. etc.. which require special treatment for their locations. The
sites for special industries are adjusted to take the maximum possible
advantage of the existing economic, local and social circumstances.
Another way of classifying industries is to group them in four
categories as follows according to what they produce:
i. primary industries: These industries are involved in the primary

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production and they include quarrying, mining, fishing, forestry,

agriculture, etc.
ii. Secondary industries: These industries are involved in the
transformation of the primary product and they take up the form of
manufacturing industries as mentioned above.
iii. Tertiary industries: These industries provide a service to products
that have already passed through the primary and secondary stages.
They include office staff in primary and secondary industries, workers
of public utility services, lawyers, teachers, etc.
iv. Quaternary industries: This is relatively a small group of
industries for training and research in scientific field. They provide
advanced training and education for technocrats in service occupations.
The importance of this small sector can be judged by the fact that it
forms a decision making organization in the economic system of nation.
6. a) Write a detail note on requirements of an industry. [L1][CO5] [6M]
REQURIEMENT OF AN INDUSTRY :
There are various types of industries and it is not the intention to list the
requirements of each individual industry.
Following are the general requirements of all typical normal
industries:
(1) Amenities in the form of landscape features such as parks, trees,
playgrounds, etc.
(2) Availability of cheap land.
(3) Facilities for industrial waste disposal such as big perennial
rivers, tidal streams, etc.
(4) Nearness to the markets.
(5) Nearness to the related industries.
(6) Nearness to the source of supply of raw materials.
(7) Public services such as electricity, sewerage and water supply.
(8) Supply of skilled and unskilled labour at reasonable rates.
(9) Tax structure of the local authority.
(10) The overall industrial climate of the surrounding locality.
(11) topographical conditions of site such as good drainage, level, firm
soil etc.
(12) transport facilities by rail, road or ship; etc.
b) What are the measures to control the location of industries? [L1][CO5] [6M]
MEASURES TO CONTROL LOCATION OF INDUSTRIES:
The main object of an industrialist for locating his industry at a
particular place is his profit. The town planning authorities are
concerned in location of an industry from the view point of public
interest. The success of measures adopted to control location of
industries will depend on the adjustment of these two motives or
interests. Following are the three important ways which are adopted for
controlling the location of industries:
(1) By developing industrial townships: The favourable sites for
industries are set apart and they are then developed as industrial centres
or townships. Such townships may be equipped with facilities which
attract various industries to settle in them. The requirements of workers
as well as economic, social and political needs of the community are
accommodated in the design of industrial townships.

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(2) By granting concessions: The establishment of industries at

certain places in the country may be encouraged by granting concessions
in various forms such as giving land at nominal lease rent, extending
loans with attractive terms, supplying water and electricity at
concessional rates, reducing railway freight charges, imposing nominal
local taxes, etc.
(3) By imposing restrictions: The development of certain
industries is prohibited in particular areas by law. If similar industries
are already existing in that area, time limit is fixed for vacating or
stopping the use of premises to run such industries.
7. What is the importance of bye-laws? Mention the grounds on which [L1][CO5] [12M]
the consultation by local authority is desired.
IMPORTANCE OF BYE-LAWS :
The importance of enforcing building bye-laws by law is quite evident
from the fact that unless prevented by law, the house owners, with profit
as the only motive, will construct residences lacking in amenities and
health conditions. In the absence of suitable building bye-laws and
machinery to enforce them, the poor people will be left at the mercy of
well-to-do people.
The contents of the building bye-laws should be framed in a
scientific way. It is desirable to take assistance while framing building
bye-laws of experts on various subjects such as town planning, law, civil
engineering, health, traffic, general administration, etc.
The consultation by the local authority is desired on the following
three grounds:
(1) Consultation with superior authority: The local authority should
take into confidence the superior authority, usually higher levels of
government, before attempting to change, modify or alter its bye-laws.
Such a consultation is necessary for keeping smooth harmony between
national or regional policies and the local government.
(2) Consultation with subordinate authority: It is necessary for
the local authority to consult subordinate neighbouring or independent
public authorities who are likely to be affected or influenced by the bye-
laws of the local authority. Such a policy will lead to some degree of
consistency in collective public policy.
(3) Consultation with interested groups: The local authority
should try to secure support of its policy by consulting interested groups
such as chambers Of commerce, professional bodies, etc.
Having realized the importance of building bye-laws and to smoothen
the work of government departments, municipal bodies and other
construction agencies, the National Building Code or NBC has been
published by the Bureau of Indian Standards. It is prepared to unify the
building regulations throughout the country.
In fact, it is a single document in which, like a network, the information
contained in various Indian Standards is woven into a pattern of
continuity and and cogency with the interdependent requirement of
section carefully analyzed and fitted into make the interdependent the
whole document requirements a cogent of continuous sections carefully
volume. The NBC has been drafted with performance orientation so as
to give better freedom to the architect and engineer.

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8. Discuss the function of a local authority with respect to the building [L2][CO5] [12M]
bye-laws.
FUNCTION OF LOCAL AUTHORITY:
A local authority is a body created by law and it has to carry out various
functions and obligations in connection with community life. One of the
important duties of a local authority is to frame suitable building bye-
laws and to provide suitable machinery for its successful
implementation.
For this purpose, it should form a department to receive plans of
proposed buildings. The department checks every detail on the plan and
defects, if any, pertaining to prevailing bye-laws, are pointed out for
rectification. Only those plans are approved which comply with the
requirements of prevailing bye-laws. The approval Of plan means the
acceptance of local authority of the following requirements only:
(1) Arrangements of stairs, lifts, corridors, doors, windows and
parking.
(2) Height of building and its various Storeys.
(3) Minimum requirements of high-rise building or low-rise building
as the case may be.
(4) Minimum requirements of sanitary facility.
(5) Minimum requirements with respect to areas of rooms.
(6) Permissible built-up area.
(7) Permissible F.S.I.
(8) Permissible open spaces and set-back.
(9) permissible use of buildings; and
(10) Provision for light and ventilation.
However, the approval of plan by the concerned local authority does not
mean the following:
(1) Easement rights.
(2) Structural reports and structural drawings.
(3) Title of the land or building.
(4) Variation in area from recorded area of a plot or a building.
(5) Workmanship and soundness of materials in construction of the
building.
The department also supervises the execution Of such buildings from
beginning to end. The permission to occupy the building is granted only
after verification of the fact that it is constructed as per details of the
approved plan.
It should, however, be observed that the procedures laid out by the local
authority should be easy and simple and should not lead to undue delay
in granting the permission for the construction of the building. The
unnecessary delay in sanctioning of plans may lead to the following
undesirable consequences:
(1) It leads to the increase in housing shortage which might result in
shooting of house rents.
(2) It may lead to the formation of more slums and more financial
burden on the local authority for their removal or improvement.
(3) The enthusiasm of the owner who wants to construct the building
quickly may slow down because Of changes in circumstances due to
passage of time.

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(4) The local authority may also suffer loss in revenue from various
such as water tax, sanitation tax, betterment charges, etc.
(5) The open land remains idle for a long time resulting in undue
hardship and loss of revenue to the land owner.
(6) There is considerable depression in the construction industry as a
whole.
It is also the duty of the local authority to keep a constant watch on the
behaviour of building bye-laws. The complaints and suggestions
received from the public , practicing engineering and architects should
be properly recorded. The existing building bye-laws should be then
periodically modified or altered to suit the changed local needs and
conditions.
In general, there should be a rational approach to the building bye-laws
at the time of either framing or implementing them. The important
points to be remembered in connection with the building bye-laws can
be enlisted as shown below:
(1) The authority concerned should provide more field staff for the
effective implementation of the bye-laws.
(2) The bye-laws causing undue hardships to the public at large
should be immediately removed or rectified.
(3) The procedural requirements should be brought down to the
minimum possible extent.
(4) The professional institutions, engineers and staff should be
consulted at the time of framing or changing the bye-laws.
(5) There should not be frequent changes in the basic requirements
of the bye-laws.
(6) They should aim at the socio-economic housing conditions.
(7) They should be given proper publicity through various popular
mediums.
The Delhi administration has gone a step further in the matter and has
introduced two major reforms in the bye-laws relating to the
construction of houses on plots upto 500 m2 in area. These reforms are
as follows:
(l) Building bye-laws: The 17 pages of the building bye-laws are
reduced to few and intelligible controls which are related to ground
coverage, set-backs, floor area ratio and maximum height. All that is
necessary for architects and house owners to do while designing their
houses is to conform to these controls and they are not required to
submit their plans for approval prior to the building. The plans are
finalized by the architects themselves in accordance with the controls.
However, a copy of the plans is to be filed with the concerned civic
authority who has the legal authority to check whether the controls have
been adhered to or not.
(2) Powers to architects: The powers of issuing or certifying the
completion certificates are now delegated to the architects registered
with the council of architecture and who are engaged by the owners for
designing and supervision of their houses.
The new scheme avoids the cumbersome official procedure for getting
completion certificates for those involved in the construction of houses
on small plots having areas not exceeding 500 m2. Such owners are able

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to occupy their newly constructed houses without any delay, resulting in

saving of time and energy.
9. a) Explain various responsibility of a building owner. [L2][CO5] [6M]
RESPONSIBILITY OF OWNER:
It is the duty Of owner to appoint suitable supervising agency as
recognized by the local authority for the implementation Of bye-laws in
an effective manner. In case of big local authorities, the persons
interested to supervise the work during construction have to obtain the
necessary license from the concerned authority. Only such licensed
persons will be recognized by the concerned local authority as the
supervising agencies employed by the owner.
Following are the usual supervising agencies recognized by the local
authority:
(1) Surveyor: A person can be qualified as a licensed surveyor. if he
is holding a degree in Civil Engineering or Architecture or if he is a
Diploma holder in Civil Engineering.
(2) Architect: If the person is registered as an architect as per the
Architect Act, 1972, he can obtain the license to work as an architect.
(3) Engineer: A degree holder in Civil Engineering with two years
of practical experience or a Diploma holder in Civil Engineering with
five years of practical experience Can obtain the license to work as a
licensed engineer.
(4) Structural designer: A degree holder in Civil Engineering with
three years of practical experience in structural design can qualify a
person to obtain the license to work as a structural designer.
(5) Clerk of works: The qualification is the same as that of the
surveyor. The first three categories, namely, licensed surveyor. licensed
architect and licensed engineer are authorized to sign plans and to
submit progress certificates. They are expected to furnish the details on
site correctly on the plan and to observe that the requirements prescribed
by the bye-laws are satisfied on the plans prepared by them.
The structural designer is expected to furnish structural drawings and
other details With respect to the structural stability of the Structure.
The category Of Clerk of works is required only for important
structures. It is the duty Of a clerk of works to see that the work is
carried out as per the specifications. He is a frill-time employee on the
project and he cannot take employment or appointment on any other site.
b) What is the applicability of bye-laws? [L1][CO5] [6M]
APPLICABILITY OF BYE-LAWS:
The bye-laws are made applicable under the following three
circumstances:
(l) Additions and alterations to a building: If the owner desires to make
certain additions, alterations, modifications or extension to a building,
the plans showing the proposed work should be got prepared from the
licensed person for submission to the concerned authority. The owner
can carry out such additions, alterations, etc. only after getting his plan
approved by the concerned authority.
(2) New construction: The plan showing the project proposed to be
constructed on a particular site has to be suitably sanctioned before
commencing the work.

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(3) Requirement of open space: The open space shown on plan and
provided in confirmity with the bye-law cannot be covered and it has to
be kept permanently open. If the bye-law is subsequently amended and
if it becomes legal to cover the open space, the same can be carried out
only after getting the approval of concerned authority.
10. Explain the principles underlying building bye-laws . [L2][CO5] [12M]
PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING BUILDING BYE-LAWS:
The broad principles to be observed while framing the building bye-laws
for any locality can be summarized as follows:
(1) classifying the buildings with unit as a family and mentioning the
requirements accordingly.
(2) classifying the rooms according to use and then mentioning
minimum standards of each room with respect to size, height, floor area,
ventilation and light.
(3) controlling the height of compound wall and location of
compound gates, controlling the height of structures and putting
maximum limit of height in certain zones.
(5) controlling the area of projections in the marginal spaces.
(6) insisting suitable F.S.I.
(7) insisting upon suitable arrangements with respect to drainage and
water supply.
(8) making compulsory the appointment of a licensed architect or
engineer for works of the specified nature and magnitude.
(9) making compulsory to construct the buildings with the materials
and the workmanship as per standard specifications.
(10) Mentioning the light plane, set-backs and marginal spaces.
(11) mentioning the minimum size Of plots, their dimensions and
frontages etc.

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UNIT – V

URBAN ROADS AND TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT

1. a) Mention the requirements of a good city road. [L1][CO6] [6M]
REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD CITY ROAD
Following are the ideals which are to be kept in view while designing a
good city road:
1. It should accommodate amenities such as shady avenues, parking
places, enough lighting, etc.
2. It should afford safety to the vehicles and pedestrians by
provision of measures such as footpaths, traffic signs, etc.
3. It should be cheap and durable
4. It should be resting on the unyielding soil
5. It should have good alignment and visibility
6. It should possess easy gradients and smooth curves
7. It should possess well-designed junctions
8. It should remain in dry condition
9. Its overall performance should be such that congestion of traffic
is brought down to the minimum possible extent
10. Its wearing surface should be impervious and impermeable to the
rain water
11. Its width and camber should be proper
b) Discuss the causes for traffic congestion. [L2][CO6] [6M]
In urban areas, there is heavy rush of vehicles and pedestrians during
peak hours of the day and it results into overcrowding of road. Such a
condition is referred to as the Traffic Congestion.
Causes for traffic congestion:
1. The factors such as faulty intersections, narrowness of roads,
steep curves and gradients, poor conditions of vehicles using the road,
etc. also contribute to the occurrence of traffic congestion
2. The haphazard parking of vehicles and physical encroachments
on the road are not handled severely.
3. The movements of vehicles are allowed in the conflicting
directions.
4. There is absence of civic sense and strict enforcement of the
traffic rules and regulations is not carried out.
5. The streets originally planned for a single use are occupied by
the slow-moving and fast-moving automobiles, cyclists and pedestrians.
2. a) What are the various classifications of urban roads? [L1][CO6] [6M]
The urban roads are classified into the following five categories on the
basis of their importance and use:
1. Arterial roads
2. Sub-arterial roads
3. Local roads
4. Streets
5. Pathways
1. Arterial Roads
• The road which connects the town to a state highway or a
national highway is termed as an arterial road.

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• It passes within city limits and carries great masses of traffic

between different parts of the town.
• The arterial roads include ring roads, by-pass roads, etc. and they
allow free movement of fast traffic at high speeds.
• These roads are also kept clear of all obstructions such as
frontages of buildings, parking places, loading and unloading area etc.
• The junctions on arterial roads should be properly designed and
it is desirable to provide minimum number of junctions on the arterial
roads.
• In many existing cities, the arterial roads are seen mixed up with
the local roads. Such an arrangement results into high frequency of road
accidents, devaluation of shopping area and reduction in speeds of
vehicles.
The arterial roads serve the following three purposes:
1. The movement and safety of through traffic, i.e., traffic moving
beyond its point of origin, are facilitated
2. There is some economy in construction in the sense that only
arterial routes are designed to carry heavy traffic and the other types of
roads are provided to carry light local traffic
3. The through traffic is not allowed to pass through the residential
areas. Hence, the discomfort and danger to the residents of such areas
are minimized.
2. Sub-Arterial Roads
There roads are also known as the major roads or secondary roads. They
are contained within city limits and they connect important town centres.
There roads serve slow moving traffic over short distances. The
intersections on these roads are provided with suitable traffic signals.
3. Local Roads
There roads are also known as the minor roads. They collect traffic from
various parts of the town and lead it to another minor road or major
road. There roads give access to abutting properties and importance is
given to the non-vehicular traffic on these roads. The local roads are not
allowed to touch or to come in contact with the arterial roads and the
two are separated by a bridge and one goes over the other.
4. Streets
A road which serves the needs of an internal portion of a local rea is
known as a street. The portion to be served may either by residential,
commercial or industrial. The design of a street is made after
considering the purpose and use of the portion to be served by the street
and special attention is paid to the social, commercial and other
requirements of the local community.
5. Pathways
These are also known as the pedestrian ways and they are in the form of
accesses leading to individual shops or premises. The vehicular traffic is
not allowed to move on the pathways.

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Figure showing Arterial roads, sub-arterial roads and local roads

b) What are the chief uses of the traffic surveys? [L1][CO6] [6M]
The chief uses of the traffic surveys are as follows:
1. It becomes possible to suggest suitable remedies for proper
functioning of the road
2. It enables a town planner to prepare town planning schemes
capable of meeting traffic requirements
3. The details collected in traffic surveys are used to decide the
location of signals and other controlling devices on the road.
4. The economic costs of construction and maintenance of the road
can be worked out with reasonable accuracy.
5. The selection of proper type of surface can be made from the
study of results of the traffic surveys.
6. The statistics collected during traffic surveys can be exhibited in
the form of maps, charts and tables.
7. The width, thickness, gradient and alignment of road can be
appropriately designed to meet with the expected traffic volume.
3. With neat sketches explain various types of street systems. [L2][CO6] [12M]
On examination of street systems of existing old towns, it is possible to
classify them into various categories or patterns as follows:
1. Rectangular street system
2. Rectangular with superimposed diagonals street system
3. Concentric street system
4. Radial street system
5. Combination of radial and rectangular street systems
6. Irregular mediaeval street system
7. Topographical street system
8. Combination of rectangular and irregular street systems

1. Rectangular Street System

In this pattern, the streets are usually of equal width and they cross at
right angles as shown in figure.
• It is also known as grid-iron or chequer-board pattern.
• This pattern is suitable for flat or level country without any
predominant natural features.
Eg. Philadelphia (USA) and Jaipur (India)

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Following are the advantages of this pattern:

• Increase in traffic capacity due to provision of series of parallel
streets
• Comfort and convenience due to its regularity
• Intersections are simple in nature
• Economic construction as the area between the streets can be
divided into suitable rectangular plots.
• The wastage of land is minimized as there are no irregular
portions to be left out.
Following are the disadvantages of this pattern:
• As there are many intersections, there are more chances of road
accidents.
• If this pattern is applied on uneven topography, it leads to great
inconvenience and discomfort.
• It is too mathematical and monotonous in nature because the
roads are straight and hence, the vistas are open there is no variety.
• There are no short-cuts to reach to the central shopping or other
business centres.
2. Rectangular with Superimposed Diagonals Street System
• This arrangement is an improvement on grid-iron pattern. The
diagonal streets provide direct communication between distant parts of
the town as shown in figure.
• The points where diagonals meet are utilized for parks, garden,
memorial, etc.
Example: Washington

3. Concentric Street System

• This pattern, the ring roads or circumferential roads are
connected by radial roads as shown in left hand side figure. This pattern
results in concentric development.
• This pattern is also known as the Spider‟s Web System.
• The concentric system is developed mainly due to the removal of
encircling walls and fortifications.
• If the radial roads are not fully developed, they will overload the
central part of the town where they intersect.

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Example: Moscow, Vienna, Paris and Frankfurt-Reiderwald have

adopted this street pattern to certain extent.

4. Radial Street System

• In this pattern, the ring roads spring from a central civic centre
like the spoke of a wheel as shown in figure.
• Such an arrangement increases the significance and importance
of civic centre which may be in the form of palace, market, public office
building, historical monument, beauty spots, etc.
Example: Karlsruhe

5. Combination of Radial and Rectangular Street System

In this arrangement, the radial streets are blended or mixed with
rectangular streets as shown above. Such a combination can be used
with great success especially where topographical features are
favourable and it is possible to derive advantages of both the street
system.
Example: London, Canberra and New Delhi

6. Irregular Mediaeval Street System

Some of the old cities of middle ages, developed in an irregular way

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without any definite plan of the street system, possess this type of
pattern.
The growth of town or city in unmethodical and illogical.
The mediaeval street pattern naturally does not efficiently serve the
modern traffic and such towns are referred to as irregular mediaeval
towns.
Example: Nurenberg, Nasik and Varanasi
7. Topographical Street System
• In this arrangement, the advantage is taken of the natural
topographical features of the town such as river, lake, sea view, hillock
etc.
• This system is also known as the organic street pattern as it
resembles the plan of a microscope slide showing the cell structure of
vegetable or animal issues. It is sometimes referred to as the studied
irregularities.
• The streets may not be continuous and they may be of variable
widths. The size and shape of open spaces are irregular and there are
number of curvatures.
Example: Letchworth, Bourne-mouth, Montreal, Amber and
Vijayanagaram.
8. Combination of Rectangular and Irregular Street Systems
• In this arrangement, a combination of rectangular pattern and
irregular streets is made.
• The rectangular layout indicates the recent development and the
irregular pattern indicates earlier growth of town.
• When it is difficult or too costly to improve the existing irregular
street system, a combination is formed.

Example: Edinburgh
4. a) Explain through road and by-pass road with a neat sketch. [L2][CO6] [6M]
Through road and by-pass road:
• When a through road or a main road passes through the
congested portion of the town, there is sharp reduction in the speeds of
vehicles and the smooth flow of traffic on through roads is seriously
obstructed.
• To maintain easy flow of traffic on through roads and to give
convenience and comfort to the users of such roads, the by-pass roads
are constructed as shown in the figure above.
• These by-pass roads are also known as the loop-roads and they
enable the traffic on through roads to avoid the congested area of the
town.
• A suitable point along the main roads, the vehicles are diverted
by the by-pass roads from one side and the main roads, the vehicles are

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diverted by the by-pass roads from one side and they once again come
on the through roads on the other side after surpassing the congested or
habited area of the town.
• The provision of a by-pass road results in the reduction in traffic
through the congested area of town and thus the chances of accidents are
minimized.
• The land along the by-pass route appreciates in value and unless
proper precautionary measures are taken, there are chances for ribbon
development to take place along the by-pass. It is also necessary to plan
ahead the development of likely area to be developed surrounding the
by-pass.
b) Mention various methods adopted to grant parking facilities. [L1][CO6] [6M]
The various methods adopted to grant the parking facilities, on-street or
off-street, are as follows:
1. Basement floors and open spaces or margins around new
buildings by the implementation of suitable building bye-laws
2. Constructing central parking stations in areas of high land value
in the form of multi-storey buildings with open walls and cheap
construction
3. Constructing underground parking stations below parks and
playgrounds
4. Developing plots for off-street parking and charging a reasonable
parking fee as per type of vehicle and duration of parking
5. Installing parking metres for short-duration parking on roads
6. Kerbside parking with effective road marking techniques
7. Providing parking stations at ground level where land values are
low etc.
5. a) Draw the construction of outer and inner ring roads. What are the [L1][CO6] [6M]
objects of outer and inner Ring road?

The object of an outer ring road is to divert from the town all the
through traffic which has no business in the town.
• It is a type of by-pass road for traffic approaching the town from
all the directions.
• All classes of wheeled traffic will be admitted on the outer ring
road and the pedestrians should be excluded.
• The outer ring road should be maintained clear of all existing

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development and it should be so designed as to compensate for a longer

route by un broken passage and high speed.
• The object of an inner ring road is to divert from the town centre
all local traffic and other traffic which have no business in the town
centre. Such an arrangement will relive congestion of traffic in the town
centre.
• The inner ring road should have minimum junctions and it
should afford a faster passage than that on a direct road through the town
centre.
b) Write a critical note on traffic capacity of roads. [L1][CO6] [6M]
The traffic carrying capacity of any road primarily depends on the
following factors:
(1) Characteristics of road such as gradients, number of lanes,
visibility, cross-traffic, pedestrians movements, etc.; and
(2) Characteristics of traffic such as speed of vehicles, type of
vehicles, driving habits of road-users, etc.
To arrive at the theoretical maximum capacity of road per lane width,
the following three assumptions are made:
(1) All vehicles on road are of uniform length
(2) All vehicles on road are running at uniform speeds
(3) The distance between successive vehicles is uniform
The average capacity of a normal lane varies from 700 to 2000 vehicles
per hour. In practice, it is found that when capacity of lane increase to
1000 vehicles per hour; it lead to discomfort, congestion, more chances
of road accidents and inconvenience in driving.
The width of traffic lane is determined by the following equation:
Width of traffic lane = width of the largest vehicle + clearance
The clearance will depend upon the speeds of vehicles. The faster the
traffic the greater the clearance and vice-versa.
The number of lanes will be decided from the volume of traffic. The
suggested number of lanes for different traffic capacities are as follows:
• 4 lanes 2 in 1 direction 600 vehicles per hour per lane
• 6 lanes 3 in 1 direction 800 vehicles per hour per lane
• 8 lanes 4 in 1 direction 1200 vehicles per hour per lane
At curvature and for providing parking facilities, extra lanes may be
provided is required.
6. Define a freeway and mention its essential features. [L1][CO6] [12M]
The mere widening of an arterial road will not often relieve crowding
due to traffic. This creates the need for constructing special routes that
will serve only fast moving traffic and will not be subject to interference
from vehicles going to and from the buildings fronting the arterial roads.
A freeway is thus defined as a high class arterial road having controlled
access or in other words, it is an expressway with full control of access.
The essential features of a freeway can be summarized as follows:
1. Access from adjacent properties
In case of freeways, the access from adjacent properties is totally denied
and it results into no need for parking, no U-turns and no interference by
pedestrians to the vehicular movement.
2. Design and construction
It is designed in a such a way that it can carry maximum volume of

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traffic with the highest degree of safety. The design aspects of freeways
are as follows:
• Smooth curve
• High standard alignment
• Better visibility of gradients and width of freeways
• Construction with concrete or high grade bitumen
• Better lighting and direction signs
3. Entrances and exists
To give connections to the street systems of the town, the entrances and
exists on freeways should be provided at infrequent intervals. For inner
areas and suburban areas, the desirable spacing are respectively 1 km
and 2 km.
4. Intersections of grade
The design of freeway is made in such a way that intersections at grade
or at the same level are avoided. Thus, a freeway has no cross-traffic.
5. Location
In general, the freeways would pass around rather than through a city.
But it case of very large cities, they are required to function as main
entrances and exists and in such a case, they form part of the major
street pattern of the city.
6. Traffic control
The delays which might occur on the freeways can be divided into two
groups:
7. Recurrent delay: Recurrent delays caused at rush hours by motorists
trying to use certain stretches or lanes for freeway than can be handled.
The preventive measures which can be adopted for recurrent delays are
as follows:
• To add a lane at the freeway bottle-necks
• To install the traffic signals at suitable points along freeway so
that vehicle density can be maintained below congestion limit.
Non-recurrent delay: Non-recurrent delays caused by accidents,
vehicle breakdowns, confused motorists stopping or slowing, etc.
The preventive measures which can be adopted for non-recurrent delays
are as follows:
• To detect and remove as early as possible the vehicles in
accidents
• To give proper instructions to the confused motorists
• To warn the motorists on the upstream of affected areas so that
they can either slow down or leave the freeway
7. a) List the causes for road accidents. [L1][CO6] [6M]
There are chances of road accidents due to complex flow patterns of
vehicular traffic, presence of mixed traffic and pedestrians.
The contributory causes of road accidents are as follows:
1. Defects in road surface
2. Defects in vehicles
3. Faults of driver, cyclist or pedestrian
4. Insufficient provision of weaving length at roundabouts
5. Interference by animals on roads
6. Lack of facilities for crossing of pedestrians
7. Lack of segregation of traffic

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8. Lack of visibility at corners and junctions

9. Uncontrolled intersections
10. Unfavourable weather conditions etc.
b) State the measures to be taken for the safety of pedestrians on [L1][CO6] [6M]
roads.
For the safety of pedestrians on road, the following measures may be
taken:
1. The fencing or railing is provided at kerb line with openings at
pedestrians crossings
2. The pedestrians are completely segregated at road junctions and
they are not allowed to enter the road intersections. The subways or
bridges are provided for their movements on road junctions
3. The shopping entrances on roads are provided with telescopic
railings so that such railing can be removed during certain hours of the
day for the movements of goods
4. The traffic islands coupled with proper markings for pedestrian
crossing are provided at the road junctions
5. The vehicles are allowed to move in the urban areas at certain
restricted speeds
8. Discuss in detail about the advantages & disadvantages of traffic [L2][CO6] [12M]
signals.
To control traffic at important road junctions, automatic traffic signals
are installed in big towns.
There are usually three colours namely, red, yellow and green included
in the traffic signals.
The read and green colours indicate stoppage and movement
respectively.
The yellow colour signifies impending charge or clearance time.
Sometimes, the arrows indicating the directions are included in the light
signals at complicated road junctions.
The traffic signals of various patterns are designs are available. The
most commonly adopted traffic signal is the automatic fixed time traffic
signal.
The intervals at which the changes occur in signals are predetermined
from the study of volume of traffic of the junction streets and such
changes in lights are made automatic.
Following are the advantages of traffic signals:
1. There is increase in the traffic handling capacity at the road
junction.
2. There is overall improvement in the quality of traffic flow at the
road junction.
3. They allow safe crossing of the heavy traffic.
4. They help in reducing certain types of accidents especially those
at right angled collisions.
5. They permit the pedestrians to cross the road safely and with
confidence.
6. They prove to be economical and compared to the manual
control.
7. They provide for the orderly movement of traffic.
The major drawback of an automatic fixed time traffic signal is that it

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does not adjust itself to unusual circumstances such as long processions,

big crowds, etc. Hence, the presence of traffic police near such signals
becomes essential.
The other disadvantages are as follows:
1. If the design and location of signals are improper, it may lead to
the violations of the control system.
2. If the signals stop working due to electric power failure or any
other reason, there is confusion among the road users.
3. There are chances of rear-end collisions.
With the advancement of technology in electronics, communications,
computer sciences and remote sensing more effective traffic signal
systems are devised and in practice, which will overcome majority of
problems faced by automatic fixed time signal system.
9. Discuss various types of road signs as per the provisions of the [L2][CO6] [12M]
Indian Motor Vehicle Act and I.R.C. Code.
Types of Road Signs
As per the provisions of the Indian Motor Vehicles Act and I.R.C. code,
the road sign can be classified in the following three categories:
1. Guide or informatory sings
2. Regulatory on mandatory signs
3. Warning or cautionary signs
1. Guide or Informatory Signs
The guide signs show route designations, destinations, directions,
distances, services, points of interest and other geographical or cultural
information.
The common guide signs are:
• End of speed limit
• Flood marks
• Locations of petrol pump hospital, hotel, rest houses, etc.
• Names of streets and highways
• Parking places
• Public telephone
2. Regulatory or mandatory signs
The regulatory sings provide notice of statutory traffic laws and
regulations which usually are unenforceable in the absence of such
signs.
• Some of the common regulatory signs are:
• Bullock cart or cycle or truck prohibited
• Certain speed limit
• Load, length, height and width limits of vehicle
• No entry
• No parking
• Prohibition of use of horns
• Right turn or left turn prohibited
• „U‟ turn prohibited etc.
3. Warning or Cautionary Signs
The warning signs are provided to call attention to conditions which are
potentially hazardous on traffic operations and which otherwise may not
be immediately apparent.
These signs require caution and may warrant a reduction in speed or

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some such action in the interest of safety.

As per the I.R.C standardization, a warning sign is in the form of an
equilateral triangle with side of 450 mm supported on post at a heigh of
2750 mm above the ground level upto the base of the triangle.
A rectangular explanatory device plate of size 450 mm x 400 mm is
placed at a distance of 150 mm below the base of the triangle. Some of
the typical waring signs are:
• Cross roads
• Dead end or side road
• Ferry
• Hair pin bend
• Narrow bridge
• School
• Steep hill
• Zig zag turn; etc.
10. a) Draw the neat sketches of traffic islands for the road junctions with [L1][CO6] [6M]
four streets.
The space at a road junction over which traffic is not allowed to move is
known as a traffic island.
The arrangement at the road junctions in the form of traffic islands
serves the following five objects:
1. The efficiency of traffic handling in increased
2. There is segregation of traffic into proper channels as they serve
as guide to the drivers in negotiating the junctions
3. The traffic islands serve as shelters for pedestrians crossing the
roads. Hence, they are referred to as refuge islands. They prove to be a
special boon for the aged and infants.
4. The vehicles are compelled to move in one direction only and
separate strips across the roads are provided for the crossing of
pedestrians. Thus, the chances of accidents are reduced.
5. They provide proper place for the installation of traffic signs and
other controlling devices.
The traffic islands are constructed about 200 mm higher than the road
level. They are sometimes provided with lawn, statue or fountain to
make them distinct and attractive. The traffic islands should be painted
with colour which contrasts with the colour or road pavement.

Traffic Island – Four Streets Junction

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b) Explain with the help of neat sketches various arrangements of the [L2][CO6] [6M]
street lights.
Arrangements of Street Lights
Opposite Arrangement: Figure below shows the arrangement of street
lights in which they are placed just opposite to each other on either side
of the road. In this arrangement, the road is well defined. But is can be
adopted for wide roads only.

Staggered Arrangement: The figure below shows the arrangement of

street lights in a staggered manner on either side of the road. Such an
arrangement may mislead the drivers on curves.

One Side Arrangement: The figure below shows the provision of street
lights only on any one side of the road. This arrangement is good on
curves, but it grants light on one side of street only. It is adopted for
narrow streets.

Central Arrangement: Figure shows the provision of street lights on

the centre-line of the road. In this case, a narrow central strip or median
divides the roadways longitudinally in two portions. This arrangement
provides a very effective lighting system at less cost because of the
saving in laminar supports and electrical conductors. It gives the
impression of continuous well-lighted road without any obstruction.
However, the defect with this arrangement is that the footpaths and cycle
tracks remain comparatively dark.

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Lighting at Intersections: The arrangement of lights is more important

at the intersections. There are more conflicting points of vehicular traffic
and pedestrians and hence, more illumination is necessary at the
intersections.

Lighting on Curves: The lights should be located on the outer side of

the curve for achieving better visibility as shown in the figure below.
For reverse curves, it is necessary to change the location of lights from
side to side, as shown in figure.

Prepared by
Dr.P.Ramesh/ Professor/CE
Mrs.K.Asha Latha/Assistant Professor/CE
Mrs.G.Yamini/Assistant Professor/CE
Mrs.A.Brahmini/Assistant Professor/CE

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