UNIT IV INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Definite and Indefinite integrals - Substi tution rule - Techniques of Integration : Integration by parts,
Trigonometric integrals, Trigonometric substitutions, Integration of rational functions by partial fraction,
Integration of irrational functions - Improper integrals – Applications: Hydrostatic force and pressure,
moments and centres of mass.

Introduction to Definite Integral

Consider the area R bounded by the x  axis, the

line x  2 and the curve f ( x)  x 2 and the area of R0 .
Since R and R0 together comprise a triangle, whose
1 1
area is bh  2.4  4 .
2 2

Hence finding the area of R is equivalent to finding

the area of R0 .

Suppose we inscribe rectangles in the region R as shown in ( A) and ( B ) . Obviously the sum
of areas of the rectangles is less than the area of R . If the width of the rectangles becomes
smaller and smaller the sum of area of rectangles approaches the area of R . Thus the area of
R is defined as a limit of the sum of areas of inscribed rectangles.

( A) ( B)

Consider a region bounded by a graph of non negative continuous function f on [ a , b] , x 

axis, the line x x  a and x  b. For any positive integer n divide [ a , b] into subintervals by
introducing points of sub division a  x0 , x1 , x2 ,.... xk , xk 1 , ...xn1 , b  xn . For each k between

1 and n the rectangle Rk has base  xk 1, xk  with length xk  xk  xk 1 and has a height mk .

Hence the area of Rk is mk xk . Hence sum of all rectangles is

m1x1  m2x2  ....  mk xk  ......  mnxn .
Note: x1  x2  ....  xk  ......  xn  b  a

Definition: Let f be continuous on [ a , b] . The definite integral of f from a to b is

b
I m1x1  m2x2  ....  mk xk  ......  mn xn and it is denoted by 
a
f ( x) dx .

Example: Let f ( x )  c for a  x  b . Show that

b


a
c dx  c(b  a)

Since f assumes only the value c , for any partition

a  x0 , x1 , x2 ,.... xk , xk 1 , ...xn1 , b  xn of [ a , b] and
for any k between 1 and n , we have
m1  m2 ...  mk  ....  mn  c .

 m1x1  m2 x2  .....  mn xn  c  x1  x2  .....  xn 

b


a
c dx  c(b  a )
DEFINITION OF A DEFINITE INTEGRAL
Riemann Integral (Integral as limit of sum)

If 𝑓 is a function defined for 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏, we divide the interval ,𝑎, 𝑏- into 𝑛 subintervals of

equal width 𝛥𝑥 = (𝑏 − 𝑎)/𝑛.

We let 𝑥0 (= 𝑎) , 𝑥1 , 𝑥2, . . . , 𝑥𝑛 (= 𝑏) be the endpoints of these subintervals and we let 𝑥∗1 , 𝑥∗2, . . . ,
𝑥∗𝑛 be any sample points in these subintervals, so 𝑥∗𝑖 lies in the 𝑖 th subinterval ,𝑥 𝑖;1, 𝑥 𝑖 -. Then
the definite integral of 𝑓 from 𝑎 to 𝑏 is
𝑏 𝑛

∫ 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = lim ∑ 𝑓 (𝑥 ∗𝑖 )𝛥𝑥

𝑎 𝑛→∞
𝑖<1

provided that this limit exists. This sum is called Riemann sum of f ( x ) corresponding to the
partition. The integral is called Riemann integral of f ( x ) on [ a, b]. Also for the same partition

there are many ways to choose xi* in the sub interval  xi 1 , xi  .

Note
b
Lt n
1.  f ( x) dx   f  xi 1  xi  xi 1  is known as left end rule for evaluating Riemann
n   i 1
a

integral.

b
Lt n
2.  f ( x) dx   f  xi  xi  xi 1  is known as right end rule for evaluating Riemann
n   i 1
a

integral.

x x 
b
Lt n
3.  f ( x) dx   f  i i 1   xi  xi 1  is known as mid point rule for evaluating
n   i 1  2 
a

Riemann integral.

1: The symbol 𝑑𝑥 simply indicates that the independent variable is 𝑥. The procedure of
calculating an integral is called integration.
𝑏
Note 2: The definite integral ∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 is a number; it does not depend on 𝑥. In fact, we could

use any letter in place of 𝑥 without changing the value of the integral:
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
∫ 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑟)𝑑𝑟
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
Note 3: If 𝑓 is continuous on ,𝑎, 𝑏-, or if 𝑓 has only a finite number of discontinuities, then 𝑓 is
𝑏
integrable on ,𝑎, 𝑏-; that is, the definite integral ∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 exists.

Theorem: If 𝑓 is integrable on ,𝑎, 𝑏-, then

𝑏 𝑏;𝑎
∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = lim𝑛→∞ ∑𝑛𝑖<1 𝑓 (𝑥 𝑖 )𝛥𝑥 where 𝛥𝑥 = and 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝛥𝑥
𝑛

Example: Express 𝐥𝐢𝐦𝒏→∞ ∑𝒏𝒊=𝟏( 𝒙𝟑𝒊 + 𝒙𝒊 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙𝒊 )𝜟𝒙 as an integral on the interval ,𝟎, 𝝅-.
Comparing the given limit with the limit in above Theorem , we see that
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 sin 𝑥 and 𝑎 = 0, 𝑏 = 𝜋.
𝜋
Therefore, lim𝑛→∞ ∑𝑛𝑖=1( 𝑥3𝑖 + 𝑥𝑖 sin 𝑥𝑖 )𝛥𝑥 = ∫0 ( 𝑥3 + 𝑥 sin 𝑥)𝑑𝑥

3
Example : Evaluate x  6 x dx using the Riemann sum corresponding to 6 sub
3

intervals of equal length and applying (a) left end rule (b) right end rule.

𝑏;𝑎 3;0 1
(a) Here a  0, b  3, n  6, f ( x)  6 x  x 3 and interval width is 𝛥𝑥 = = =
𝑛 6 2

The left end points are 𝑥1 = 0, 𝑥2 = 0.5, 𝑥3 = 1, 𝑥4 = 1.5, 𝑥5 = 2, and 𝑥6 = 2.5 . So the
Riemann sum is
6
𝑅 6 = ∑ 𝑓 (𝑥𝑖 )𝛥𝑥
𝑖=1

= 𝑓 (0)𝛥𝑥 + 𝑓(0.5)𝛥𝑥 + 𝑓(1.0)𝛥𝑥 + 𝑓(1.5)𝛥𝑥 + 𝑓(2.0)𝛥𝑥 + 𝑓(2.5)𝛥𝑥

1
= (0 − 2.875 − 5 − 5.625 − 4 + 0.625)
2
= −8.43375

(b) The right end points are 𝑥1 = 0.5, 𝑥2 = 1.0, 𝑥3 = 1.5, 𝑥4 = 2.0, 𝑥5 = 2.5, and 𝑥6 = 3.0. So the
Riemann sum is
6
𝑅 6 = ∑ 𝑓 (𝑥𝑖 )𝛥𝑥
𝑖=1

= 𝑓(0.5)𝛥𝑥 + 𝑓(1.0)𝛥𝑥 + 𝑓(1.5)𝛥𝑥 + 𝑓(2.0)𝛥𝑥 + 𝑓(2.5)𝛥𝑥 + 𝑓(3.0)𝛥𝑥

1
= (−2.875 − 5 − 5.625 − 4 + 0.625 + 9)
2
= −3.9375
Notice that 𝑓 is not a positive function and so the Riemann sum does not represent a sum of
areas of rectangles. But it does represent the sum of the areas of the rectangles (above the 𝑥‐
axis) minus the sum of the areas of the rectangles (below the 𝑥‐axis) .
 21
Example : Use the Midpoint Rule with 𝑛 = 5 to approximate ∫1 𝑑𝑥.
𝑥

The endpoints of the five subintervals are 1, 1.2, 1.4, 1.6, 1.8, and 2.0, so the midpoints are 1.1,
1.3, 1.5, 1.7, and 1.9. The width of the subintervals is
2− 1 1
𝛥𝑥 = =
5 5
so the Midpoint Rule gives
2
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝛥𝑥,𝑓(1.1) + 𝑓(1.3) + 𝑓(1.5) + 𝑓(1.7) + 𝑓(1.9)-
1 𝑥

1 1 1 1 1 1
= ( + + + + )
5 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9

= 0.691908
Since 𝑓(𝑥) = 1/𝑥 > 0 for 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2, the integral represents an area, and the approximation
given by the Midpoint Rule is the sum of the areas of the rectangles.

EVALUATING INTEGRALS (As a limit of the sum):

When we use a limit to evaluate a definite integral we need to know how to work with sums.
The following equations give formulas for sums of powers of positive integers.

n(n  1) n(n  1)(2n  1)  n(n  1) 

n n n 2


i 1
i
2
; 
i 1
i  2

6
; 
i 1
i 3

 2 
n n n n n n

 K  nK ;
i 1
 Ka
i 1
i  K  ai ;
i 1
  a  b    a    b 
i 1
i i
i 1
i
i 1
i

𝟑
Evaluate ∫𝟎 ( 𝒙𝟑 − 𝟔𝒙)𝒅𝒙 as the limit of the sum.

With 𝑛 subintervals we have

𝑏 −𝑎 3
= 𝛥𝑥 =
𝑛 𝑛
Thus 𝑥0 = 0, 𝑥1 = 3/𝑛, 𝑥2 = 6/𝑛, 𝑥3 = 9/𝑛, and, in general, 𝑥𝑗 = 3𝑖/𝑛. Since we are
using right endpoints,
 3 𝑛 𝑛
3𝑖 3
∫ ( 𝑥3 − 6𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = lim ∑ 𝑓 (𝑥 𝑖 )𝛥𝑥 = lim ∑ 𝑓 ( ) ( )
0 𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛
𝑖<1 𝑖<1

𝑛
3 3𝑖 3 3𝑖
= lim ∑ [( ) − 6 ( )]
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
𝑖<1

Lt 3 n  27 3 18 
  (i)  n (i) 
n   n i1  n3
Lt 3 27 n 3 Lt 3 18 n
 
n   n n3 i1
(i )  i
n   n n i1

Lt 81  n(n  1)  2 Lt 54 n(n  1)
 4   
n   n  2  n   n2 2

Lt 81  1  2 Lt 54  1
  1   1  
n 4  n n 2  n
81 54
   6.75
4 2

This integral can’t be interpreted as an area because 𝑓 takes on both positive and negative
values. But it can be interpreted as the difference of areas 𝐴 1 − 𝐴 2, where 𝐴 1 and 𝐴 2
3
∫ ( 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐴1 − 𝐴 2 = −6.75
0

Note: An area whose boundary is described in

the anti-clockwise direction is considered
positive area and an area whose boundary is
described in the clockwise direction is taken
as negative.

𝟑
Example : Set up an expression for ∫𝟏 𝒆𝒙 𝒅𝒙 as a limit of sums.

𝑏;𝑎 2
Here we have 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑋 , 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 3, and 𝛥𝑥 = =
𝑛 𝑛
 2𝑖
So 𝑥0 = 1, 𝑥1 = 1 + 2/𝑛, 𝑥2 = 1 + 4/𝑛, 𝑥3 = 1 + 6/𝑛, and 𝑥𝑖 = 1 + 𝑛

We get,
3 𝑛

∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = lim ∑ 𝑓 (𝑥𝑖 )𝛥𝑥

1 𝑛→∞
𝑖<1

𝑛
2𝑖 2
= lim ∑ 𝑓 (1 + )
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛
𝑖<1

𝑛
2 .1:2𝑖/
= lim ∑𝑒 𝑛
𝑛→∞ n
𝑖<1

PROPERTIES OF THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL

𝑎 𝑏
1. ∫𝑏 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = − ∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥

𝑎
2. ∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 0

𝑏
3.∫𝑎 𝑐 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐 (𝑏 − 𝑎) , where 𝑐 is any constant

𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
4. ∫𝑎 , 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)-𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝑎 𝑔 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥

𝑏 𝑏
5.∫𝑎 𝑐 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐 ∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥, where 𝑐 is any constant

𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
6. ∫𝑎 , 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)-𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 − ∫𝑎 𝑔 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥

𝑏 𝑐 𝑐
7. ∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝑏 𝑓 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 < 𝑏 < 𝑐
 a a
8.  f ( x) dx   f (a  x) dx
0 0

Proof: Put x  a  z. Then dx  dz

When x  0, z  a and when x  a, z  0 .

Therefore
a 0


0
f ( x) dx    f (a  z ) dz
a
a
  f (a  z ) dz
0
a
  f (a  x) dx
0

2a a
9. 
0
f ( x) dx  2 f ( x) dx if f (2a  x)  f ( x)
0

Proof:

We know that

2a a 2a
In the second integral of RHS
 f ( x) dx   f ( x) dx   f ( x) dx Put x  2a  z. Then
dx  dz
0 0 a
a 0
  f ( x) dx   f (2a  z) dz
0 a When x  a, z  a and when
a a
x  2a, z  0 .
  f ( x) dx   f (2a  z) dz
0 0
a a
  f ( x) dx   f (2a  x) dx
0 0
a a
  f ( x) dx   f ( x) dx Since f (2a  x)  f ( x)
0 0
a
 2 f ( x) dx
0

COMPARISON PROPERTIES OF THE INTEGRAL

𝑏
10. If 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0 for 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏, then ∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ≥ 0.

𝑏 𝑏
11. If 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 𝑔(𝑥) for 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏, then ∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ≥ ∫𝑎 𝑔 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥.
12. If 𝑚 ≤ 𝑓 (𝑥) ≤ 𝑀 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏, then
𝑏
𝑚(𝑏 − 𝑎) ≤ ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ≤ 𝑀(𝑏 − 𝑎)
𝑎

Example :
1
Use the properties of integrals to evaluate ∫0 ( 4 + 3𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥.

Using Properties 4 and 5 of integrals, we have

1 1 1 1 1
∫ ( 4 + 3𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 4 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 3 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 4 𝑑𝑥 + 3 ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
0 0 0 0 0

1
= 4 + 3⋅ = 5
3

10 8 10
Example: If ∫0 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 17 and ∫0 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 12, find ∫8 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥.

We have
8 10 10
∫ 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥
0 8 0

10 10 8
so ∫8 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 − ∫0 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 17 − 12 = 5

THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF CALCULUS- I

If 𝑓 is continuous on ,𝑎, 𝑏-, then the function 𝑔 defined by
𝑥
𝑔 (𝑥) = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏
𝑎

is continuous on ,𝑎, 𝑏- and differentiable on (𝑎, 𝑏) , and 𝑔′ (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) .

𝑥
Example:Find the derivative of the function 𝑔(𝑥) = ∫0 √1 + 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡.

Sol: Since 𝑓(𝑡) = √1 + 𝑡 2 is continuous, Part 1 of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus gives
𝑔′ (𝑥) = √1 + 𝑥2

𝑑 𝑥4
Example: Find ∫1 sec 𝑡𝑑𝑡.
𝑑𝑥

Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 4 . Then
4
𝑑 𝑥 𝑑 𝑢
∫ sec 𝑡𝑑𝑡 = ∫ sec 𝑡𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑥 1
𝑢
𝑑 𝑑𝑢
= [∫ sec 𝑡𝑑𝑡]
𝑑𝑢 1 𝑑𝑥
 𝑑𝑢
= sec 𝑢
𝑑𝑥
= sec (𝑥 4 ) ⋅ 4𝑥 3

THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF CALCULUS-2

If 𝑓 is continuous on ,𝑎, 𝑏-, then
𝑏
∫ 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎)
𝑎

where 𝐹 is any antiderivative of 𝑓, that is, a function such that 𝐹′ = 𝑓.

3
Example: Evaluate the integral ∫1 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.

The function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 is continuous everywhere and we know that an anti‐ derivative is
𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 , so Part 2 of the Fundamental Theorem gives
3
∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(3) − 𝐹(1) = 𝑒 3 − 𝑒
1

Example: Find the area under the parabola 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 from 0 to 1.

1
An antiderivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 is 𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑥 3. The required area 𝐴 is found using Part 2 of the
3

Fundamental Theorem:
1 1
𝑥3 13 03 1
𝐴=∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 =[ ] = − =
0 3 0 3 3 3

Evaluate  x  1 dx by interpreting in terms of the

0

area.
3
3
 x2 
0 x  1 dx    x
2 0
9
 3
2
3

2
This is the area bounded by the line y  x  1, x  axis
and the line x  3.
Example: Find the area under the cosine curve from 0 to 𝑏, where 0 ≤ 𝑏 ≤ 𝜋/2.

Sol: Since an antiderivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = cos 𝑥 is 𝐹(𝑥) = sin 𝑥, we have

𝑏
𝐴 = ∫ cos 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ,sin 𝑥-𝑏0
0
= sin 𝑏— sin0
= sin 𝑏
In particular, taking 𝑏 = 𝜋/2, we have proved that the area under the cosine curve
from 0 to 𝜋/2 is sin (𝜋/2) = 1.

Example : What is wrong with the following calculation?

3 3
1 𝑥 ;1 1 4
∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = [ ] = − −1 = −
;1 𝑥 −1 ;1 3 3

we notice that this calculation must be wrong because the answer is negative but 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑏
1/𝑥 2 ≥ 0 and Property 6 of integrals says that ∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ≥ 0 when 𝑓 ≥ 0. The Fundamental

Theorem of Calculus applies to continuous functions. It can’t be applied here because

𝑓(𝑥) = 1/𝑥 2 is not continuous on [−1, 3]. In fact, 𝑓 has an infinite discontinuity at 𝑥 = 0,
3 1
so∫;1 𝑑𝑥 does not exist
𝑥2

Solved Problems for Indefinite Integrals

Example: Find the general indefinite integral ∫( 10𝑥 4 − 2sec 2 𝑥)𝑑𝑥

∫( 10𝑥 4 − 2sec 2 𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 10 ∫ 𝑥 4 𝑑𝑥 − 2 ∫ sec 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥

𝑥5
= 10 − 2 tan 𝑥 + 𝐶
5
= 2𝑥 5 − 2 tan 𝑥 + 𝐶
 cos 𝜃
Example: Evaluate∫ 𝑑𝜃.
sin2𝜃

cos 𝜃 1 cos 𝜃
∫ 𝑑𝜃 = ∫ 𝑑𝜃
sin2 𝜃 sin 𝜃 sin 𝜃

= ∫ cosec 𝜃 cot 𝜃𝑑𝜃 = − cosec 𝜃 + 𝐶

x  sin x
Example: Evaluate  1  cos x dx
x x
x  2sin cos
x  sin x
 1  cos x dx   2
2 x
2 dx
2 cos
2
1 x x
  x sec 2 dx   tan dx
2 2 2
1 x
Let u  x, dv  sec 2 dx
2 2
x
du  dx, v  tan
2
u sin g int egration by parts,
x  sin x x x x
 1  cos x dx  x.tan 2   tan 2 dx   tan 2 dx
x
 x.tan
2

THE SUBSTITUTION RULE

If 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥) is a differentiable function whose range is an interval 𝐼 and 𝑓 is continuous on 𝐼,
then

∫(𝑔(𝑥))𝑔′ (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑢) 𝑑𝑢

Example: Find ∫ 𝑥 3 cos (𝑥 4 + 2)𝑑𝑥.

We make the substitution 𝑢 = 𝑥 4 + 2 because its differential is 𝑑𝑢 = 4𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥, which, apart from
the constant factor 4, occurs in the integral. Thus, using 𝑥3 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢/4 and the Substitution
Rule, we have
1 1
∫ 𝑥 3 cos (𝑥 4 + 2)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ cos 𝑢 ⋅ 𝑑𝑢 = ∫ cos 𝑢𝑑𝑢
4 4
=14 sin 𝑢 + 𝐶
=14 sin (𝑥4 + 2) + 𝐶
Example: Evaluate ∫ √2𝑥 + 1 𝑑𝑥.

Let 𝑢 = 2𝑥 + 1. Then 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑑𝑥, so 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢/2. Thus the Substitution Rule gives

𝑑𝑢
∫ √2𝑥 + 1 𝑑𝑥. = ∫ √𝑢 𝑑𝑥.
2
3
1 𝑢2
= . 3 +𝐶
2
2

1
= 𝑢3/2 + 𝐶
3

1
= (2𝑥 + 1) 3/2 + 𝐶
3
𝑥
Example:Find ∫ 𝑑𝑥.
√1;4𝑥 2

Let 𝑢 = 1 − 4𝑥 2 . Then 𝑑𝑢 = −8𝑥𝑑𝑥, so 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = −8𝑑𝑢 and

𝑥 1 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ 𝑑𝑢
√1 − 4𝑥 2 8 √𝑢

1
= − ∫ 𝑢;1/2 𝑑𝑢
8

1
= − (2 √𝑢) + 𝐶
8

1
= − √1 − 4𝑥 2 + 𝐶
4

Example Find ∫ √1 + 𝑥 2 𝑥 5 𝑑𝑥.

An appropriate substitution becomes more obvious if we factor 𝑥5 as 𝑥4 ⋅ 𝑥.

Let 𝑢 = 1 + 𝑥 2. Then 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑥𝑑𝑥, so 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢/2.
2
Also 𝑥2 = 𝑢 − 1, so 𝑥4 = (𝑢 − 1) :

∫ √1 + 𝑥 2 𝑥 5 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ √1 + 𝑥 2 𝑥 4 ⋅ 𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢
= ∫ √𝑢 (𝑢 − 1) 2
2
1
= ∫( 𝑢5/2 − 2𝑢3/2 + 𝑢1/2 )𝑑𝑢
2
1 2 2 2
= ( 𝑢7/2 − 2 . 𝑢5/2 + 𝑢3/2 ) + 𝐶
2 7 5 3
1 2 1
= (1 + 𝑥 2 ) 7/2 − (1 + 𝑥 2 ) 5/2 + (1 + 𝑥 2 ) 3/2 + 𝐶
7 5 3
 x 1
Evaluate I   dx Evaluate I   dx
x 2
 1 x  1
2
1  x 
2
x2  1

Let 1 1
Put x  , then dx   2 dy
x 1  z
2
y y
x2  1  z 2 I  
1
dy
x2  z 2 1 2 1  1
y 1  2  1  2
2 x dx  2 z dz  y  y
y
I 
x  
 x 2  1 x 2  1
dx
y 2
 1 y 2  1

z
 dz By the previous example, we have
 z  2  .z
2

1 y2 1  2
1  log
 dz 2 2 y2 1  2
 2
2
z 
2

1 z 2 1
1  2
 log 1 x2
2 2 z 2  log
2 2 1
1 x 1  2
2
1  2
 log x2
2 2 x2  1  2
1 x2  1  x 2
 log
2 2 x2  1  x 2

THE SUBSTITUTION RULE FOR DEFINITE INTEGRALS

If 𝑔′ is continuous on,𝑎, 𝑏- and 𝑓 is continuous on the range of 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑏 𝑔(𝑏)
∫ 𝑓 (𝑔(𝑥))𝑔′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑢)𝑑𝑢
𝑎 𝑔(𝑎)

4
Example: Evaluate ∫0 √2𝑥 + 1 𝑑𝑥 .

We have 𝑢 = 2𝑥 + 1 and 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢/2. To find the new limits of integration.

when 𝑥 = 0, 𝑢 = 2(0) + 1 = 1 and when 𝑥 = 4, 𝑢 = 2(4) + 1 = 9
4 91
Therefore ∫0 √2𝑥 + 1 𝑑𝑥 = ∫1 √𝑢𝑑𝑢
2

1 2 9
= ⋅ [𝑢3/2 ]1
2 3

1 3 3
= .9 2 — 12 /
3

26
=
3
 2 𝑑𝑥
Example: Evaluate ∫1 .
(3;5𝑥) 2

Let 𝑢 = 3 − 5𝑥. Then 𝑑𝑢 = −5𝑑𝑥, so 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑑𝑢/5.

When 𝑥 = 1, 𝑢 = −2 and when = 2, 𝑢 = −7. Thus

2
𝑑𝑥 1 ;7 𝑑𝑢
∫ 2 = −5
∫ 2
1 (3 − 5𝑥) ;2 𝑢

1 1 ;2
= − [− ]
5 𝑢 ;7
1 1 1 1
= (− + ) =
5 7 2 14
𝑒 ln 𝑥
Example: Calculate ∫1 𝑑𝑥.
𝑥

let 𝑢 = ln 𝑥 . Then 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥/𝑥 .

When 𝑥 = 1, 𝑢 = ln 1 = 0; when 𝑥 = 𝑒, 𝑢 = ln 𝑒 = 1.
Thus

𝑒 1
ln 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
1 𝑥 0

1
𝑢2
=0 1
2 0

1
=
2

RATIONALIZING SUBSTITUTIONS
Some non rational functions can be changed into rational functions by means of appropriate
substitutions. In particular, when an integrand contains an expression of the form 𝑛√𝑔(𝑥), then
the substitution 𝑢 = 𝑛√𝑔(𝑥) may be effective. Other instances appear in the exercises.
√𝑥:4
Example: Evaluate∫ 𝑑𝑥.
𝑥

Let 𝑢 = √𝑥 + 4. Then 𝑢2 = 𝑥 + 4, so 𝑥 = 𝑢2 − 4 and 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑢𝑑𝑢.

Therefore
√𝑥 + 4 𝑢
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2 2𝑢𝑑𝑢
𝑥 𝑢 −4
𝑢2
= 2∫ 𝑑𝑢
𝑢2 − 4
4
= 2 ∫ (1 + 2 ) 𝑑𝑢
𝑢 −4
 𝑑𝑢
= 2 ∫ 𝑑𝑢 + 8 ∫
𝑢2 −4
1 𝑢−2
= 2𝑢 + 8 ⋅ ln | | +𝐶
2⋅2 𝑢+2
√𝑥:4;2
= 2√𝑥 + 4 + 2 In | | +𝐶
√𝑥:4:2

INTEGRALS OF SYMMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Suppose 𝑓 is continuous on ,−𝑎, 𝑎-.
𝑎 𝑎
(a) If 𝑓 is even ,𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)-, then ∫;𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫0 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥.

𝑎
(b) If 𝑓 is odd ,𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥)-, then ∫;𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 0.

INTEGRATION BY PARTS: When integration by substitution is not possible, this method will
be useful.

Formula for indefinite integrals Formula for definite integrals

b b

 u dv  uv a   v du
b
∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑢
a a

.
Evaluate by using integration by parts Evaluate by using integration by parts
 xe dx
4x 1


1
xe4 x dx

Let
ux and dv  e 4 x dx Let
ux and dv  e 4 x dx
e4 x
du  dx and v
4 e4 x
du  dx and v
4
e4 x e4 x
 xe 4 x dx  x
4

4
dx 1
 e4 x  1
e4 x
1

 xe dx   x  
4x
e4 x 1  dx
x   e4 x dx 1  4  1 1 4
4 4 1
 e4 e4  1  e4 x 
e4 x 1 e4 x     
x  4 4  4  4  1
4 4 4
 e4 e4  1  e 4 e 4 
     
4 4  4 4 4 
.
Evaluate  x x  1 dx using integration by Evaluate  x x  1 dx using substitution
parts. method.

Let Let u  x  1, x  u  1 and dx  du

 ux and dv  x  1 dx

3
 x x  1 dx   (u  1) u du
2 1
du  dx and v  ( x  1) 2
  (u  1)u du 2
3
3 1

3 3   u  u du
2 2
2 2
 x x  1 dx  x. ( x  1) 2  
3 3
( x  1) 2 dx 5 3
u2 u2
5  
2 3
2 ( x  1) 2 5 3
 x. ( x  1) 2  5 2 2
3 3 2 5 3
2 2
2 3
4 5  ( x  1) 2  ( x  1) 2  c
 x( x  1) 2  ( x  1) 2  c 5 3
3 15

.
Example: Find ∫ 𝑥 sin 𝑥𝑑𝑥. Let
ux and dv  sin x dx
By Integration by parts, we have
du  dx and v   cos x
 x.sin x dx  uv   vdu
 x   cos x     cos x dx

  x cos x  sin x  c
.

Example: Find ∫ 𝑙𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥. Let

By Integration by parts, we have u  ln x and dv  dx

 ln x dx  uv   vdu du 
1
dx and vx
x
1
 x.ln x   x. dx
x
 x ln x  x  c
.

x x Let
Evaluate:  x sin 2 cos 2 cos xdx ux and dv  sin 2 x dx
1
du  dx and v   cos 2 x
2

sin 2x  2sin x cos x

 1  x x
I 
2 
x  2sin cos  cos xdx
2 2
1
2
 x sin x cos x dx

1
x  2sin x cos x  dx
2 2 


1
4
 x.sin 2 x dx

1 1 1 
   x.cos 2 x    cos 2 x dx 
4 2 2 
1 1 1 
   x.cos 2 x  sin 2 x 
4 2 2 2 
1 1
  x cos 2 x  sin 2 x
8 16
.
Evaluate  x5 x3  1 dx using integration by parts. Evaluate  e x cos x dx using
integration by parts.
Let
Let
u  x3 and dv  x 2 x3  1 dx
u  cos x and dv  e x dx

x  1 d  x3 
1 3
du  3x 2 dx and dv  du   sin xdx and v  ex
3

2
v x 3
 1
3
2  e x cos x dx  e x cos x   e x sin x dx
3 3
3 3
Let
x3  1 dx  x3 .  x3  1 2    
2 2 3
 x5
9 9
x  1 2 .3 x 2 dx
u  sin x and dv  e x dx
3 3

2 3 3
9
x x 1 2  6
93 
  x3  1  d x 
2 3 du  cos xdx and v  ex

 e x cos x dx  e x cos x 
3 5

2 3 3
9

x x 1 2  
6 2 3
. x 1
93 5
  2

e x sin x   e x cos x dx
3 5

2 3 3
9

x x 1 2 
4 3
45

x 1 2  c   2 e x cos x dx  e x cos x  e x sin x
1 x
 e x cos x dx 
2
e (cos x  sin x)  c

.
Evaluate:  x sin
3
x dx
Let
ux and dv  sin x dx

du  dx and v   cos x
 I   x sin 3 x dx

1  Let
  x   3sin x  sin 3 x   dx ux & dv  sin 3 x dx
4 
1
3 1 du  dx & v   cos3 x

4  x sin x dx   x sin 3x dx
4
3

3 1  1  1 
  x   cos x     cos x dx    x   cos3x     cos3x dx 
4 4  3  3 

  x cos x  sin x    cos3x  sin 3x 

3 1 x 1

4 4 3 9 
1 1 1 
  3 x cos x  3sin x  x cos3x  sin 3 x 
4 3 9 

Evaluate:  xta n
2
x dx
Let
ux and dv  sec 2 x dx
I   x  sec x  1 dx
2

du  dx and v  tan x
  x sec 2 x dx   x dx
1  tan 2 x  sec 2 x
  x2
  x tan x   tan x dx  
2
x2
  x tan x  ( log cos x)  
2
x2
 x tan x  log cos x 
2

Evaluate:  x cot x dx
2

Let
I   x  co sec x  1 dx
2
ux and dv  cos ec 2 x dx

  xco sec 2 x dx   x dx du  dx and v   cot x

2
x
   x cot x    cot x dx   1  cot 2 x  co sec 2 x
2
x2
   x cot x  (log sin x)  
2
x2
  x cot x  log sin x 
2

.
 Let
Evaluate:  x cot x cos ec x dx
2

ux and du  dx

I   x  cot x cos ec 2 x  dx
dv  cot x cos ec 2 x dx
By integration by parts,
v   cot x cos ec 2 x dx
1 1
I   x cot 2 x    cot 2 x dx
If y  cot x, dy   cos ec x dx
2
2 2
1 1
  x cot 2 x   cos ec 2 x  1 dx v   cot x cos ec 2 x dx    ydy
2 2
y2
1 1
  x cot 2 x    cot x  x  
2 2 2
1
  cot 2 x
2
1  cot 2 x  cos ec 2 x
D(cot x)  c os ec 2 x
.

Evaluate:  log 1  x  dx
2

Let
u  log 1  x 2  and dv  dx
I   log 1  x 2  dx

1
 log 1  x 2  .x   x
1 du  .2 x dx and vx
1  x2
2 x dx
1  x2 
x2
 x.log 1  x 2   2  dx
1  x2

 x.log 1  x 2   2  1 
1
dx
1  x2
 x.log 1  x 2   2  x  tan 1 x 

.
  log x 
2
Evaluate: dx
Let
u   log x  and dv  dx
2

I    log x  dx
2

1
  log x  .x   x.2log x.
2 1
dx ( IBP ) du  2.log x. dx and v  x
x x
-------------------------------------------------
 x.log  log x   2  log x dx u   log x  and dv  dx
2

 1 
 x.log  log x   2 log x.x   .x dx  ( IBP) 1
2
du  dx and vx
 x  x
 x.log  log x   2  x.log x  x 
2

.
Evaluate:  x .log x dx
n

Let
u  log x and dv  x n dx
I   x  log x  dx
n

1 x n 1
x n 1 1 x n 1 du  dx and v
  log x  .  . dx x n 1
n 1 x n 1
x n 1 1
  log x  .   x n dx
n 1 n 1
x n 1 1 x n 1
  log x  .  .
n 1 n 1 n 1

.
Let
 sin
1
Evaluate: x dx
u  sin 1 x and dv  dx
I   sin 1 x dx
1
du  dx and v  x
1 1  x2
 sin 1 x.x   x. dx
1  x2 -------------------------------------------------
 1 1 Let
 x.sin 1 x      du t  1  x2
 2 t
1 dt  2 x dx
1 t2
 x.sin 1 x  1
1

2 1 1  t2
2  t
dt   t 2 dt   2 t
1
 x.sin 1 x  1  x 2 2
.
Evaluate:  x tan 1 x dx
Let
u  ta n 1 x and dv  xdx
I   x tan 1 x dx
1 x2
x2 x2 1
 tan .   .
1 du  dx and v
2 2 1  x2
dx 1  x2 2

x2 1 1
 .tan 1 x   1  dx
2 2 1  x2
x2 1
 .tan 1 x   x  tan 1 x 
2 2

.
 x
Evaluate:  x 2 tan 1
2
dx
Let
x
u  ta n 1 and dv  x 2dx
x 2
I   x 2 tan 1 dx
2
1 1 x3
x x x 2 3 3 du  dx and v
 tan 1 .   . dx 1
x2 2 3
2 3 3 4  x2 4
x x3 2 x3
 tan 1 .   dx 2
2 3 3 4  x2 du  dx
4  x2
x3 x 2 4x
 .tan 1   x  dx
3 2 3 4  x2
x3 x 2 4 2x
 .tan 1   xdx   dx
3 2 3 3 4  x2
x3 x 2 x2 4
 .tan 1   log  4  x 2 
3 2 3 2 3

.
Evaluate  cos n x dx by using integration by parts.
Let u  cos n 1 x and dv  cos x dx

 cos x dx   cos
n n 1
x cos x dx
du  (n  1) cos n  2 x( sin x) dx
 cosn1 x.sin x   sin x.(n  1) cos n2 x.sin x dx  (n  1) cos n  2 x.sin x dx
 cosn1 x.sin x  (n  1)  cos n2 x.sin 2 x dx
v  sin x

 cos n1 x.sin x  (n  1)  cos n2 x. 1  cos 2 x dx 
 cosn1 x.sin x  (n  1)  cos n2 x dx  (n  1)  cos n x dx
 cosn1 x.sin x  (n 1) I n2  (n 1) I n where I n   cosn x dx
I n  (n 1) I n  cosn1 x.sin x  (n 1) I n2
nI n  cosn1 x.sin x  (n 1) I n2
(n  1)
I n   cos n 1 x.sin x  
1
I n2
n n
.
Evaluate  sin n x dx by using integration by parts.
Let u  sin n 1 x and dv  sin x dx

 sin x dx   sin n1 x sin x dx

n
du  (n  1) sin n  2 x(cos x)dx
 (n  1) sin n  2 x.cos x dx
  sin n 1
x.cos x    cos x.(n  1)sin n2
x.cos x dx
  sin n1 x.cos x  (n  1)  sin n2 x.cos 2 x dx v   cos x


  sin n1 x.cos x  (n  1)  sin n2 x. 1  sin 2 x dx 
  sin n1 x.cos x  (n  1)  sin n2 x dx  (n  1)  sin n x dx
 I n   sin n1 x.cos x  (n 1) I n2  (n 1) I n where I n   sin n x dx
I n  (n 1) I n   sin n1 x.cos x  (n 1) I n2
I n (1  n  1)   sin n 1 x.cos x  (n  1) I n 2
nI n   sin n 1 x.cos x  (n  1) I n 2
1 (n  1)
I n   sin n 1 x.cos x  I n2
n n

.
Evaluate  x sin x dx by using integration by parts.
n

Let u  x sin n 1 x and dv  sin x dx

du  sin n1 x  (n  1) x sin n 2 x(cos x)dx and v   cos x

 x sin x dx   x sin n1 x sin x dx

n

  x sin n1 x.cos x    cos x. sin n1 x  (n  1) x.sin n2 x.cos x  dx

  x sin n1 x.cos x   cos x.sin n1 x dx  (n  1)  x sin n2 x.cos2 x dx


  x sin n1 x.cos x   sin n1 x d (sin x)  (n 1)  x sin n2 x. 1  sin 2 x dx 
sin n x
n 1
  x sin x.cos x   (n  1)  x sin n  2 x dx  (n  1)  x sin n x dx
n
sin n x
I n   x sin n 1 x.cos x   (n  1) I n  2  (n  1) I n
n
sin n x
I n 1  n  1   x sin n 1 x.cos x   (n  1) I n  2
n
1 n 1 sin n x (n  1)
I n   x sin x.cos x  2  I n2
n n n

TRIGONOMETRIC INTEGRALS

Example: Evaluate ∫ cos 3 𝑥𝑑𝑥.

∫ cos 3 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ∫ cos 2 𝑥 ⋅ cos 𝑥𝑑𝑥

= ∫( 1 − sin2 𝑥) cos 𝑥𝑑𝑥

= ∫( 1 − 𝑢2 )𝑑𝑢
1
= 𝑢 − 𝑢3 + 𝐶
3

1
= sin 𝑥 − sin3 𝑥 + 𝐶
3
 𝜋
Example: Evaluate ∫0 sin2 𝑥𝑑𝑥.
𝜋
1 𝜋
∫ sin2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( 1 − cos 2𝑥)𝑑𝑥
0 2 0
𝜋
1 1
= [𝑥 − sin 2𝑥]
2 2 0

1 1 1 1
= (𝜋 − sin 2𝜋) − (0 − sin 0)
2 2 2 2
1
= 𝜋
2
 
2 2
Evaluate 
0
sin 6 x dx Evaluate 
0
sin 5 x dx

By reduction formula, By reduction formula,

 
2
5.3.1  5 2
5.3.1 5

0
sin 6 x dx  
6.4.2 2 32 
0
sin 6 x dx  
6.4.2 16

1
Evaluate 
0
 tan 1 x  tan 1 (1  x)  dx

1 1
Let I   tan x dx   tan 1 (1  x) dx
1

0 0

1 1
  tan 1 x dx   tan 1 1  1  x   dx
0 0

1
 2 tan 1 x dx
0

Let
u  tan 1 x, dv  dx
1
du  , vx
1  x2
 1
x
I  2  x.tan 1 x   2 
1
dx
0
0
1  x2

 log 1  x 2  
1
 2.
4 0


   log 2  log1
2

  log 2
2

STRATEGY FOR EVALUATING ∫ sin𝑚 𝑥cos 𝑛 𝑥𝑑𝑥

(a) If the power of cosine is odd (𝑛 = 2𝑘 + 1) , save one cosine factor and use
cos2 𝑥 = 1 − sin2 𝑥 to express the remaining factors in terms of sine:

∫ sin𝑚 𝑥cos 2𝑘:1 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ∫ sin𝑚 𝑥(cos 2 𝑥) 𝑘 cos 𝑥𝑑𝑥

= ∫ sin𝑚 𝑥(1 − sin2 𝑥) 𝑘 cos 𝑥𝑑𝑥

Then substitute 𝑢 = sin 𝑥.

(b) If the power of sine is odd (𝑚 = 2𝑘 + 1) , save one sine factor and use
sin2 𝑥 = 1 − cos2 𝑥 to express the remaining factors in terms of cosine:

∫ sin2𝑘:1 𝑥cos 𝑛 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ∫( sin2 𝑥) 𝑘cos 𝑛𝑥 sin 𝑥𝑑𝑥

= ∫( 1 − cos 2 𝑥) 𝑘 cos 𝑛 𝑥 sin 𝑥𝑑𝑥

Then substitute 𝑢 = cos 𝑥.
[Note that if the powers of both sine and cosine are odd, either (a) or (b) can be used.]

(c) If the powers of both sine and cosine are even, use the half‐angle identities
1 1
sin2 𝑥 = (1 − cos 2𝑥) , cos2 𝑥 = (1 + cos 2𝑥)
2 2
1
It is sometimes helpful to use the identity sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 = sin 2𝑥
2

We can use a similar strategy to evaluate integrals of the form ∫ tan𝑚 𝑥sec 𝑛 𝑥𝑑𝑥.
(a) Since (𝑑/𝑑𝑥) tan 𝑥 = sec 2 𝑥, we can separate a sec2 𝑥 factor and convert the remaining
(even) power of secant to an expression involving tangent using the identity
sec2 𝑥 = 1 + tan2 𝑥.
(b) Or, since (𝑑/𝑑𝑥) sec 𝑥 = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥, we can separate a sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 factor and convert
the remaining (even) power of tangent to secant.
Example: Evaluate  sin 5 x dx
Example: Evaluate 
sin 7 x
dx
cos 4 x
  
sin 5 x dx   sin 2 x sin x dx
2

  1  cos x  sin x 
2 3
2 2
sin x dx sin 7 x
 dx   sin x dx
  1  cos x  cos 4 x cos 4 x
2
2
sin x dx
[ Put u  cos x, du   sin x dx ]
1  cos x 
3
2


sin 5 x dx    1  u 2  
2
 du
cos 4 x
sin x dx
  1  u 4  2u 2 du [ Put u  cos x, du   sin x dx ]

 u 5 2u 3 
  u   1  u 
3
 sin 7 x
2

 5 3 
 dx    du
cos 4 x u4
 cos5 x 2 cos3 x 
   cos x    c
 5 3 
 
u
1
4  
1  u 6  3u 4  3u 2 du

  u 4  u 2  3  3u 2 du
 u 3 u 3 u 1 
    3u  3 
 3 3 1 
 1 u3 1
  3   3u  3 
 3u 3 u

 1 cos3 x 1 
 3
  3cos x  3 
 3cos x 3 cos x 

Example: Evaluate ∫ tan6 𝑥sec 4 𝑥𝑑𝑥.

We can then evaluate the integral by substituting 𝑢 = tan 𝑥 so that 𝑑𝑢 = sec 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥:

∫ tan6 𝑥sec 4 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ∫ tan6 𝑥sec 2 𝑥sec 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥

= ∫ tan6 𝑥(1 + tan2 𝑥)sec 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥

= ∫ 𝑢6 (1 + 𝑢2 )𝑑𝑢
= ∫( 𝑢6 + 𝑢8 )𝑑𝑢
𝑢7 𝑢9
= + +𝐶
7 9

1 1
= tan7 𝑥 + tan9 𝑥 + 𝐶
7 9
Example: Find ∫ tan5 𝜃sec 7 𝜃𝑑𝜃.
∫ tan5 𝜃sec 7 𝜃𝑑𝜃 If we separate a sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃 factor, we can
convert the remaining power of tangent to
= ∫ tan4 𝜃sec 6 𝜃 sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃𝑑𝜃 an expression involving only secant using
the identity tan2 𝜃 = sec2 𝜃 − 1.
= ∫( sec 2 𝜃 − 1) 2 sec 6𝜃 sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃𝑑𝜃
We can then evaluate the integral by
= ∫( 𝑢2 − 1) 2 𝑢6 𝑑𝑢 substituting 𝑢 = sec 𝜃, so
= ∫ ( 𝑢10 − 2𝑢8 + 𝑢6 )𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃𝑑𝜃:

𝑢11 𝑢9 𝑢7
= −2 + +𝐶
11 9 7
1 2 1
= sec 11 𝜃 − sec 9 𝜃 + sec 7 𝜃 + 𝐶
11 9 7

Example: Find ∫ tan3 𝑥𝑑𝑥.

Here only tan 𝑥 occurs, so we use tan2 𝑥 = sec2 𝑥 − 1 to rewrite a tan2 𝑥 factor in terms of
sec2 𝑥:

∫ tan3 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ∫ tan 𝑥tan2 𝑥𝑑𝑥

= ∫ tan 𝑥(sec 2 𝑥 − 1)𝑑𝑥

= ∫ tan 𝑥sec 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 − ∫ tan 𝑥𝑑𝑥

= ∫ tan 𝑥𝑑(𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥) − ∫ tan 𝑥𝑑𝑥

tan2 𝑥
= − ln | sec 𝑥| + 𝐶
2

To evaluate the integrals

(𝒂) ∫ 𝒔𝒊𝒏mx 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒏𝒙𝒅𝒙,
(𝒃) ∫ 𝒔𝒊𝒏mx 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒏𝒙𝒅𝒙, or
(c) ∫ 𝐜𝐨𝐬mx 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒏𝒙𝒅𝒙, use the corresponding identity:
1
(a) sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 = , sin (𝐴 − 𝐵) + sin (𝐴 + 𝐵)-
2

1
(b) sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 = , cos (𝐴 − 𝐵) − cos (𝐴 + 𝐵)-
2

1
(c) cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 = , cos (𝐴 − 𝐵) + cos (𝐴 + 𝐵)-
2
Example: Evaluate ∫ sin 4𝑥 cos 5𝑥𝑑𝑥.

This integral could be evaluated using integration by parts, but it’s easier to use the identity
as follows:
1
∫ sin 4𝑥 cos 5𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ∫ , sin (−𝑥) + sin 9𝑥-𝑑𝑥
2
1
= ∫( − sin 𝑥 + sin 9𝑥)𝑑𝑥
2

1 1
= ( cos 𝑥 − cos 9𝑥) + 𝐶
2 9

INTEGRATION BY TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTIONS

Example: Evaluate ∫
√9;𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥. Let 𝑥 = 3 sin 𝜃, Then 𝑑𝑥 = 3 cos 𝜃𝑑𝜃
𝑥2

√9 − 𝑥 2 3 cos 𝜃 √9 − 𝑥2 = √9 − 9sin2 𝜃 = 3 cos 𝜃

∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 3 cos 𝜃𝑑𝜃
𝑥 9sin2 𝜃
𝑥
cos 2 𝜃 Since sin 𝜃 = , cos  = √1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜃
= ∫ 2 𝑑𝜃 3
sin 𝜃
𝑥2
= ∫ cot 2 𝜃𝑑𝜃 = √1 −
9
= ∫( cosec 2 𝜃 − 1)𝑑𝜃 9;𝑥 2
=√
9
= − cot 𝜃 − 𝜃 + 𝐶
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 √9 − 𝑥2 3 √9 − 𝑥 2
cot 𝜃 = = =
√9;𝑥 2 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 3 𝑥 𝑥
=− − sin ;1 + 𝐶
𝑥 3
Since sin 𝜃 = 𝑥/3, we have 𝜃 = sin ;1 (𝑥/3)

.
 1
Evaluate x 4
9  x2
dx
Let 𝑥 = 3 sin 𝜃, Then 𝑑𝑥 = 3 cos𝜃 𝑑𝜃

1 3cos  √9 − 𝑥2 = √9 − 9sin2 𝜃 = 3 cos 𝜃

x 4
9  x2
dx  
3 sin 4  .3cos 
4
d

WKT 1  cot 2   cos ec 2

1
 d
3 sin 4 
4 Put cot   u;  du   cos ec 2 d
1
  cos ec 4 d --------------------------------------
81
x
From the assumption sin  
1 3

81  cos ec 2 .cos ec 2 d
x 9  x2
 tan   and cot  
1

  1  cot 2  .cos ec 2 d
81
 9  x2 x

1
   1  u 2 du
81
 
1  u3 
  u  
81  3
1  cot 3  
  cot   
81  3 
 3

1  9  x2 1 9  x
  
2
  2

81 x 3 x3 c
 
 

.
1
Example: Find ∫ 𝑑𝑥.
𝑥 2 √𝑥 2:4
Let 𝑥 = 2 tan 𝜃, Then 𝑑𝑥 = 2sec 2 𝜃𝑑𝜃

𝑑𝑥 2sec 2 𝜃𝑑𝜃 √𝑥2 + 4 = √4(tan2 𝜃 + 1)

∫ =∫
𝑥 2 √𝑥 2 + 4 4tan2 𝜃 ⋅ 2 sec 𝜃 = √4sec 2 𝜃
= 2 sec 𝜃
1 sec 𝜃 ----------------------------------------
= ∫ 𝑑𝜃
4 tan2 𝜃
sec 𝜃 1 cos 2 𝜃 cos 𝜃
1 cos 𝜃 = ⋅ =
= ∫ 2 𝑑𝜃 tan2 𝜃 cos 𝜃 sin2 𝜃 sin2 𝜃
4 sin 𝜃
1 𝑑𝑢
Let 𝑢 = sin 𝜃, 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑑𝜃
= ∫
4 𝑢2
---------------------------------------------------
1 1
= .− / + 𝐶
4 𝑢
 𝑥 x
1 Since tan= , sin  
=− +𝐶 2
x2  4
4 sin 𝜃

cosec 𝜃 √𝑥 2 :4
=− +𝐶 ∴ cosec 𝜃 =
4 𝑥

√𝑥 2 + 4
=− +𝐶
4𝑥

25 x 2  4
Evaluate  x
dx 2
Put x  sec   dx 
2
sec  tan  d
5 5
4
x2  4 4 4
25 x  4
2
x2   sec 2  

25 dx
x
dx  5  x
25 25 25
  sec2   1
4
2 25
tan  4
2  tan 2 
5  5
2 5
sec  tan  d 25
sec 
5 4 4 2
x2   tan 2   tan 
2 25 25 5
 5.
5  tan 2  d
WKT 1  tan   sec 
2 2

2
 5.
5  tan 2  d From our assumption
5x
 sec 
2
2  sec2   1 d 2
 cos 
 2  tan     5x
------------------------
 25 x 2  4 5x 
 2  sec1 
 2 2 

5x 25 x 2  4
  sec 1 and tan  
2 2

.
 2

5
25 x 2  4

Evaluate 4 4 2
dx when x   ,   sec 
4 x 5 5 5

5 45 1
 
5 2 cos 
From the previous example, we have
1
cos   
2 2

5
25 x 2  4 
 1  2
   cos1    
4 x
dx  2 
2
sec2   1 d
 2 3

5 3

2 2 2
when x   ,   sec 
 2  tan     2

5 5 5
3
25 1
  2 2    
 2  tan       tan   5 2 cos 
  3 3   cos  1
  2     cos 1  1  
 2  0       3  
  3   2
In the range of     , the tangent is
  3
 2   3 negative. Therefore
3 
4 4 2
x2   tan 2    tan 
25 25 5

x 2 tan 1 x
Evaluate:  1  x2
dx
Let x  tan  , the dx  sec 2  d
and   tan 1 x.
2 1
x tan x 1  tan 2   sec 2 
I  dx
1  x2
tan 2  . 
 sec 2  d
1  tan 2 
tan 2  . 
 sec 2  d IBP
sec 2 
Let
  sec   1 .  d
2
u  and dv  sec2  d

   .sec 2  d    d du  d and v  tan 

2
  .tan     tan  d  ( IBP)
2
2
  .tan    log(sec ) 
2
2
  .tan    log 1  tan 2  
2
2
  .tan    log 1  tan 2   
1
2 2

  x.tan 1 x   log 1  x 2    tan 1 x 

1 1 2

2 2
.

x tan 1 x
Evaluate:  dx Let x  tan  , the dx  sec 2  d
1  x2 
2
0
and   tan 1 x.

x tan 1 x 1  tan 2   sec 2 
I  dx
0 1  x  2 2

 /2
tan  . 
  sec 2  d
1  tan  
2 2
0
IBP
 /2
tan  .  Let
 
0
sec4 
sec2  d u  and dv  sin 2 d

 /2
tan  .  cos 2
 
0
sec2 
d du  d and v
2
 /2
sin 
  .
cos
.cos 2  d
cos   1, sin 0  sin   0
0

 /2
 
0
 .sin  cos d

 /2
1

2 
0
 .sin 2 d

 /2  /2
1   cos 2  1  cos 2
  .
2 2 0  
2 
0
2
d ( IBP)

 /2
1 1
   .cos 2 0 
 /2

4 4 
0
cos 2 d

 /2
1   1  sin 2 
   cos    
42  4  2  0
1 
   
4 2


8

.
 x sin 1 x sin 1 x
Evaluate:  dx Evaluate:  dx
1  x2 1  x 2 3/2

x sin 1 x sin 1 x
I  dx I  dx
1 x
1  x2 
2 3/2

Put x  sin  , dx  cos  d ,   sin 1 x

Put x  sin  ......(i )
 .sin 
I  cos  d dx  cos  d ,   sin 1 x
1  sin 2 

 .sin  I  cos  d
I  cos  d
1  sin 2  
3/2

cos 2 

I    .sin  d 
I  cos d
cos3 
Let u   , dv  sin  d
I    .sec 2  d
 du  d , v   cos  d
Let u   , dv  sec 2  d
By int egration by parts,
 du  d , v  tan  d
I     cos      cos  d
By int egration by parts,
  cos  sin 
I    tan     tan  d
  1  sin 2   sin 
  tan   ( log cos )
  sin 1 x . 1  x 2  x
  tan   log cos 

x
 sin 1 x.  log 1  x 2
1 x 2

From (i )

cos   1  sin 2   1  x 2

sin  x
tan   
cos  1  x2

.
TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION:
Let us consider a rational function
𝑃(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑄(𝑥)
where𝑃 and 𝑄 are polynomials. It’s possible to express 𝑓 as a sum of simpler fractions
provided that the degree of 𝑃 is less than the degree of 𝑄. Such a rational function is called
proper.
If 𝑓 is improper, that is, deg (𝑃) ≥ deg (𝑄) , then we must take the preliminary step of
dividing 𝑄 into 𝑃 (by long division) until a remainder 𝑅(𝑥) is obtained such that deg (𝑅) <
deg (𝑄) . The division statement is
𝑃(𝑥) 𝑅(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) = = 𝑆(𝑥) +
𝑄(𝑥) 𝑄(𝑥)
Where 𝑆 and 𝑅 are also polynomials.
𝑥 3:𝑥
Example: Find ∫ 𝑑𝑥.
𝑥;1

Since the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator, we first
perform the long division. This enables us to write
𝑥3 + 𝑥 2
∫ 𝑑𝑥. = ∫ (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 2 + )𝑑𝑥
𝑥 −1 𝑥−1
𝑥3 𝑥2
= + + 2𝑥 + 2 ln |𝑥 − 1| + 𝐶
3 2
INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS BY PARTIAL FRACTIONS:

The process of expressing a rational expression and decomposing it into simpler rational
expressions, that we can add or subtract to get the original rational expression, is called partial
fraction decomposition.
Suppose
𝑄(𝑥) = (𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 )(𝑎 2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 ) ⋯ (𝑎 𝑘 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑘 )
where no factor is repeated. In this case the partial fraction theorem states that there exist
constants 𝐴 1 ,𝐴 2, . . . , 𝐴 𝑘 such that

𝑅(𝑥) 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴𝑘
= + + ⋯+
𝑄(𝑥) 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑎 2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑎 𝑘 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑘

𝑅(𝑥) 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴2
Suppose 𝑄(𝑥) = (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑘, then = + + ⋯+
𝑄(𝑥) (𝑎𝑥:𝑏) (𝑎𝑥:𝑏) 1 (𝑎𝑥:𝑏) 𝑘

𝑅(𝑥) 𝐴1 𝑥+𝑏 𝐴2 𝑥+𝑐 𝐴2 𝑥+𝑧

Suppose 𝑄(𝑥) = (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) 𝑘, then = + + ⋯+
𝑄(𝑥) (𝑎𝑥2 :𝑏𝑥:𝑐) (𝑎𝑥 2:𝑏𝑥:𝑐) 1 (𝑎𝑥 :𝑏𝑥:𝑐) 𝑘
2

These constants can be determined as in the following example.

 𝑥 2 :2𝑥;1
Example: Evaluate∫ 𝑑𝑥.
2𝑥 3:3𝑥 2 ;2𝑥

Since the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator, we don’t need to
divide. We factor the denominator as
2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 = 𝑥(2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 2) = 𝑥(2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2)
Since the denominator has three distinct linear factors, the partial fraction decomposition of
the integrand (2) has the form

𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= + +
𝑥(2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2) 𝑥 2𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 2
To determine the values of , 𝐵, and 𝐶, we multiply both sides of this equation by the example
product of the denominators, 𝑥(2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2) , obtaining
𝑥2 + 2𝑥 − 1 = 𝐴(2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2) + 𝐵𝑥(𝑥 + 2) + 𝐶𝑥(2𝑥 − 1)
𝑥2 + 2𝑥 − 1 = (2𝐴 + 𝐵 + 2𝐶)𝑥2 + (3𝐴 + 2𝐵 − 𝐶)𝑥 − 2𝐴
The coefficient of 𝑥2 on the right side, 2𝐴 + 𝐵 + 2𝐶, must equal the coefficient of 𝑥2 on the left
side—namely, 1. Likewise, the coefficients of 𝑥 are equal and the constant terms are equal.
This gives the following system of equations for , 𝐵, and 𝐶:
2𝐴 + 𝐵 + 2𝐶 = 1 1
A
3𝐴 + 2𝐵 − 𝐶 = 2 2
B  2C  0...(1) adding (1) & (2)
−2𝐴 = −1 1 2
2B  C  5B  2  B 
Solving, 2 5
1 B 1
we get 𝐴 = , 𝐵 = 1/5, and 𝐶 = −1/10, 4 B  2C  2...(2) (1)  C    
2 2 5

𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1 11 1 1 1 1
∫ 3 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ + − 𝑑𝑥
2𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 𝑥 5 2𝑥 − 1 10 𝑥 + 2
1 1 1
= In |𝑥| + ln |2𝑥 − 1| − In |𝑥 + 2| + 𝐾
2 10 10

𝑑𝑥
Example: Find∫ , where 𝑎 ≠ 0.
𝑥 2;𝑎2

The method of partial fractions gives

1 1 𝐴 𝐵
2 2 = = +
𝑥 −𝑎 (𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 + 𝑎) 𝑥 − 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑎

1 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 𝑎) + 𝐵(𝑥 − 𝑎)
1 1
put 𝑥 = 𝑎, 𝐴(2𝑎) = 1. so A = . put 𝑥 = −𝑎, 𝐵(−2𝑎 ) = 1, so 𝐵 = − .
2𝑎 2𝑎

𝑑𝑥 1 1 1
∫ = ∫ − 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 −𝑎 2 2𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑎
 1
= ( ln |𝑥 − 𝑎| − ln |𝑥 + 𝑎|) + 𝐶
2𝑎

1 𝑥 −𝑎
= ln | |+𝐶
2𝑎 𝑥 +𝑎

INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS BY PARTIAL FRACTION :

𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴𝑟
+ 2 + ⋯+
𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 (𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 ) (𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 ) 𝑟
By way of illustration, we could write
𝑥3 − 𝑥 + 1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐷 𝐸
2 3 = + 2+ + 2 +
𝑥 (𝑥 − 1) 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 − 1 (𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 − 1) 3
𝑥 4 ;2𝑥 2:4𝑥:1
Example: Find∫ 𝑑𝑥.
𝑥 3 ;𝑥 2;𝑥:1

The first step is to divide. The result of long division is

𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1 4𝑥
= 𝑥 + 1 +
𝑥3 − 𝑥2 − 𝑥 + 1 𝑥3 − 𝑥2 − 𝑥 + 1
The second step is to factor the denominator 𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1. Since 𝑄(1) = 0, we
know that 𝑥 − 1 is a factor and we obtain
𝑥3 − 𝑥2 − 𝑥 + 1 = (𝑥 − 1) (𝑥2 − 1)
= (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)
= (𝑥 − 1) 2(𝑥 + 1)

4𝑥 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
2 = + 2 +
(𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 − 1 (𝑥 − 1) 𝑥 +1

4𝑥 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1) + 𝐵(𝑥 + 1) + 𝐶(𝑥 − 1) 2

Put x 1 Put x  1 Put x0

4  2B 4  4C 0  A B  C
B2 C  1 0   A  2 1
A 1

𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1 1 2 1
∫ 3 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫,𝑥 + 1 + + 2 − -𝑑𝑥
𝑥 −𝑥 −𝑥 + 1 𝑥 − 1 (𝑥 − 1) 𝑥+1
𝑥2 2
= + 𝑥 + ln |𝑥 − 1| − —In |𝑥 + 1| + 𝐾
2 𝑥;1

𝑥2 2 𝑥 −1
= +𝑥− + ln | |+𝐾
2 𝑥 −1 𝑥 +1
 2𝑥 2;𝑥:4
Example: Evaluate∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 3:4𝑥

Since 𝑥3 + 4𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑥2 + 4) can’t be factored further, we write

2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 4 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
= + 2
𝑥(𝑥 2 + 4) 𝑥 𝑥 +4
2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 4 = 𝐴(𝑥 2 + 4) + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)𝑥
Comparing the coefficient of x 2 Comparing the coefficient of x Put x  0

2  A B C  1 4  4A
B 1 A 1

2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 4 1 𝑥 −1
∫ 3 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ + 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 + 4𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 +4
2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 4 1 𝑥 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 (𝑥 2 + 4) 𝑥 𝑥2 + 4 𝑥2 + 4
1 1
= ln |𝑥| + ln (𝑥 2 + 4) − tan ;1 (𝑥/2) + 𝐾
2 2
4𝑥 2 ;3𝑥:2
Example: Evaluate ∫ 𝑑𝑥
4𝑥 2 ;4𝑥:3

Since the degree of the numerator is not less than the degree of the denominator, we first
divide and obtain
4𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 𝑥 −1
2 = 1+ 2
4𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 3 4𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 3
Notice that the quadratic 4𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 3 is irreducible because its discriminant is
2

𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = −32 < 0. This means it can’t be factored, so we don’t need to use the
partial fraction technique.
To integrate the given function we complete the square in the denominator:
4𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3 = (2𝑥 − 1) 2 + 2
This suggests that we make the substitution 𝑢 = 2𝑥 − 1. Then, 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑑𝑥 and
1
𝑥 = (𝑢 + 1) , so
2

4𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 𝑥−1
∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (1 + 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
4𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 3 4𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 3
𝑥;1
= ∫ .1 + / 𝑑𝑥
(2𝑥;1)2:2

1
1 2 (𝑢 + 1) − 1
=𝑥+ ∫ 𝑑𝑢
2 𝑢2 + 2

1 𝑢−1
= 𝑥+ ∫ 2 𝑑𝑢
4 𝑢 +2
 1 𝑢 1 1
=𝑥+ ∫ 2 𝑑𝑢 − ∫ 2 𝑑𝑢
4 𝑢 +2 4 𝑢 +2
1 1 1 𝑢
= 𝑥+ ln (𝑢2 + 2) − ⋅ tan ;1 ( ) + 𝐶
8 4 √2 √2
1 1 2𝑥 − 1
=𝑥+ ln (4𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3) − tan ;1 ( )+ 𝐶
8 4√2 √2

x2  x 1 x2
Evaluate I   dx Evaluate I   dx
x3  x 2  6 x ( x  a)( x  b)

Consider Consider
x3  x 2  6 x  x  x 2  x  6  x2 A B
 1 
( x  a )( x  b) x a x b
 x( x  3)( x  2)
x 2  ( x  a )( x  b)  A( x  b)  B ( x  a )
x  x 1
2
A B C
  
x( x  3)( x  2) x x  3 x  2 Put x  a Put x  b

x 2  x  1  A( x  3)( x  2)  Bx( x  2)  Cx( x  3) a 2  A(a  b) b 2  B (b  a )

Put x  0 Put x  2 Put x  3 a2 b2

A B
a b a b
1  6 A 5  10C 5  15 B
x2 A B
A
1
C
1
B
1  ( x  a )( x  b)
dx   1 
xa
dx  
x b
dx
6 2 3
x2  x 1 a2 1 b2 1

11 1 1
 
1 1 I   1dx   dx   dx
x( x  3)( x  2) 6 x 3 x  3 2 x  2 a b x a a b x b
a2 b2
1 1 1 1 1 1 I  x log( x  a )  log( x  b)
I   dx   dx   dx a b a b
6 x 3 x3 2 x2
1 1 1
 log x  log( x  3)  log( x  2)
6 3 2
.
 1
1
Evaluate I   dx Evaluate I  
1
x  x5  1
dx
0
2e  1
x

x4 dz
I  5 5 dx (multiply Nr & Dr by Put e x  z , then e x dx  dz i, e. dx 
x  x  1 z
when x  0, z  e0  1
x4 )
when x  1, z  e
Put x5  z, then 5 x 4dx  dz 1
1
I  dx
1 1 2e  1
x

I  dz 0

5 z  z  1 e
1
 dz
1 A B z (2 z  1)
  1
z  z  1 z z  1
Consider
1  A( z  1)  B( z )
1 A B
 
Put z  0 put z  1 z (2 z  1) z 2 z  1

1 A B  1 1  A(2 z  1)  B( z )

1 1 1 1
  Put z  0 Put z 
z  z  1 z z  1 2

1 1 1 1 1 1 A  1 B2

5 z  z  1
dz   dz  
5 z 5 z 1
dz
1 1 2
 
1 z (2 z  1) z 2 z  1
  log z  log( z  1)
5 1
e e e
1 2
 z (2 z  1)
dz   dz  

dz
 log x 5  log  x 5  1 
1 1 1
z 1
2 z 1
5
   log z 1   log(2 z  1) 1
e e

1 x5
 log 5
5 x 1    log e  log1   log(2e  1)  log1

  1  log(2e  1) 
When the denominator contains repeated and non repeated linear factors:

x 1 3x  1
Evaluate I   dx Evaluate I   dx
( x  2)( x  1) 2 ( x  3)( x  1) 2

x 1 A B C 3x  1 A B C
     
( x  2)( x  1) 2
x  1 ( x  1) 2
x2 ( x  3)( x  1) 2
x  1 ( x  1) 2
x3

x  1  A( x  2)( x  1)  B( x  2)  C ( x  1) 2 3 x  1  A( x  1)( x  3)  B( x  3)  C ( x  1) 2
Put x  2 Put x  1 Put x  0 Put x  1 Put x  3 Put x  0
1  9C  2  3B  1  2 A  2 B  C 4  4B  8  16C 1  3 A  3B  C
1 2 4 1 1 1
C B  1  2 A   B 1 C 1  3 A  3 
9 3 3 9 2 2
1 1
i.e. A   i.e. A 
9 2
x 1 A B C 3x  1 1/ 2 1 1/ 2
     
( x  2)( x  1) 2
x  1 ( x  1) 2
x2 ( x  3)( x  1) 2
x  1 ( x  1) 2
x3
1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
I  
9 x 1
dx  
3 ( x  1) 2
dx  
9 x2
dx I 
2 x 1
dx  
( x  1) 2
dx  
2 x3
dx

1 2 1  1 1 1 1
  log( x  1)     log( x  2)  log( x  1)   log( x  3)
9 3  x  1  9 2 x 1 2

The following method is useful for the case where the denominator contains repeated linear
factor with high index. In this method arrange Nr and Dr in ascending powers of x.
x 1 Divide x  1 by 1  x till x appears
4
Evaluate I   4 dx
x ( x  1) as a factor in the remainder.
 1  2 x  2 x 2  2 x3
1 x 1
Consider 4 1  x 1  x
x 1  x
1 x
1 x 1
  1  2 x  2 x  2 x  
1 2 3 2
2x
x 4 1  x x 4 1  x
2 x  2 x2
1 2
  x 4  2 x 3  2 x 2  2  2 x2
x 1  x
2 x 2  2 x3
1 x 1 1 2
 x 4 1  x dx    x  2 x  2 x  2 x  1  x dx
4 3 2
2 x3
2 x3  2 x 4
x 3 x 2 x 1
 2 2  2log x  2log( x  1) 2x4
3 2 1
x 1 2 x4
1 1 1 1    1  2 x  2 x  2 x  
2 3

 3
 2  2  2log x  2log( x  1) 1  x 1  x
3x x x
TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION:
If 𝑄(𝑥) has the factor 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, where 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0, then, the expression for 𝑅(𝑥)/𝑄(𝑥)
cx  d
will have a term of the form
ax  bx  c
2

Where 𝐴 and 𝐵 are constants to be determined. For instance, the function given by
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥/,(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 2 + 1)(𝑥 2 + 4)- has a partial fraction decomposition of the form
𝑥 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸
= + + 2
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 2 + 1)(𝑥 2 + 4) 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 2 + 1 𝑥 +4
The term can be integrated by completing the square and using the formula

x 1 x
Evaluate I   dx Evaluate I   dx
 x  1 ( x  1)
2
 x  4 ( x  1)
2

Consider Consider
x 1 A Bx  C x A Bx  C
  2   2
 x  1 ( x  1) x  1 x  1
2
 x  4  ( x  1) x  1 x  4
2

x  1  A  x 2  1  ( Bx  C )( x  1) x  A  x 2  4   ( Bx  C )( x  1)

Put x  1 Put x  0 Compare coeff of x 2 Put x  1 Put x  0 Compare coeff of x 2

2  2 A 1  A  C 0  A B 1  5A 0  4A  C 0  A B

A  1 C 0 B 1 1 4 1
A C B
5 5 5
x 1 1 x
  2
 x  1 ( x  1) x  1 x  1
2 x

1 1

1 x4
 x  4  ( x  1) 5 x  1 5 x 2  4
2

1 x
I  dx   2 dx
x 1 x 1 1 1 1 x 4 1
I 
5 x 1
dx   2
5 x 4
dx   2
5 x 4
dx

  log( x  1)  log  x 2  1
1
log  x 2  4  
1 11 4 x
2  log( x  1)  tan 1
5 52 5 2 2

 log( x  1)  log  x 2  4   tan 1

1 1 4 x
5 10 10 2
Integration of Irrational Functions

1
To integrate  quadratic dx
Make the coefficient of x 2 unity by taking coefficient of x 2 outside.
Complete the square in terms containing x by adding and subtracting the square of half of the
coefficient of x .
Use the proper standard form.
Note: If the denominator is a perfect square, factorise and apply partial fraction method.
1 1
Evaluate:  2x 2
 2x 1
dx Evaluate:  3x 2
 12 x  15
dx

1 1
I  dx I  dx
2x  2x 1
2
3x  12 x  15
2

1 1 1 1
 
2 x2  x  1
dx  
3 x  4x  5
2
dx
2
1 1
1 1
 
3  x  2    2 2  5
2
dx
  2 2
dx
2  1 1 1
 x      1 1
 2 2 2  
3  x  2 2  9
dx
1/ 2
 dx
 1 1
2 2 1 1 ( x  2)  3
 .
x   
log
 2 2 3 2.3 ( x  2)  3

 1 1 ( x  2)  3
x   log
 2 18 ( x  2)  3
 tan 1 
1 
 
 2 
1 1 xa
 tan 1 (2 x  1) Note :  dx  log
x a 2
2
2a xa

linear
Method to evaluate  quadratic dx
d
Put linear  A  B (quadratic )
dx
Equate the coefficients on both sides and find the constants and use this in the given integral
and take integration.
 x 1 2x 1
Evaluate: x 2
 2x  5
dx Evaluate:  3x 2
 12 x  15
dx

2x 1
I  dx
x 1 3 x  12 x  15
2
I  dx
x  2x  5
2

Let
Let
x 1  A  B
d 2
dx
 x  2 x  5 2x 1  A  B
d
dx
 3 x 2  12 x  15 

x  1  A  B(2 x  2) 2 x  1  A  B (6 x  12)

Comparing the coefficients comparing the coefficients

1  A  5B 1
2  6 B i.e. B 
3
1
1  2 B i.e. B  1  A  12 B
2
1 5 3 1
A  5    1 i.e. A  1    1  A  12   i.e. A  3
2 2 2 3
3 1 1
x  1    (2 x  2) 2 x  1  3  (6 x  12)
2 2 3
x 1 2x 1
I  dx I  dx
x  2x  5
2
3 x  12 x  15
2

3 1 1
  (2 x  2) 3  (6 x  12)
 22 2 dx  3 dx
x  2x  5 3 x  12 x  15
2

3 3 1 (6 x  12)
 1 (2 x  2)  dx   2 dx
 2 2 dx   2 dx 3 x  12 x  15
2
3 3 x  12 x  15
x  2x  5 2 x  2x  5
3 1 1 (6 x  12)
3
 
1
dx  log  x 2  2 x  5 
1  
3 x  4x  5
2
dx   2
3 3 x  12 x  15
dx
2  x  1  1  5
2
2
dx  log  3 x 2  12 x  15 
3 1 1
 
3 ( x  2)  4  5
2

dx  log  x 2  2 x  5 
3 2 1 3
 
2  2  x  1  4
2
2
dx  log  3 x 2  12 x  15 
3 1 1
 
3 ( x  2)  9
2
3
 x 1  1
  log  x  2 x  5 
3
  tan 1  2

  ( x  2)  3 1
 log  3 x 2  12 x  15 
4 2 2 1
 1  log
23 ( x  2)  3 3
.
 2x  3
Evaluate x 2
 x 1
dx

2x  3
Let I   dx
x  x 1
2

2x  3  A  B
d 2
dx
 x  x  1
2 x  3  A  B  2 x  1
Comparing the coefficients
2 x  3  A  B  2 x  1
2  2 B, B 1
3  A  B, A  2

2  (2 x  1)
I  dx
x2  x  1
2 (2 x  1)
 2 dx   2 dx
x  x 1 x  x 1

2
2 
dx  log x 2  x  1 
 1 1
 x   1
 2 4

2
2 
dx  log x 2  x  1 
 1 3
x  
 2 4
3
dx  log  x 2  x  1
2
 2  2
2
1  3
2
3 
x   
 2  2 
 1
 x 
tan 1   log  x 2  x  1
4 2

3  3 
 
 2 
.
 x  1 4 x2  3
2 1

Evaluate: x 2
 2x  2
dx Evaluate: 0
8x2  4 x  5
dx

1/ 2
x  2x 1
2
Let I   dx 4 x2  0 x  3
x2  2x  2
8x2  4 x  5 4 x2  2 x  5 / 2
1  2x  1 / 2
x2  2x  1 1
1 2 x  21
x  2x  2 x  2x  2
2 2
I   dx
2 8x2  4 x  5
 4x 1 0

4x 1
1
1 1 1
  x 0   dx
2 2 0 8x  4 x  5
2

4x 1
I  1  dx
x  2x  2 4x 1
2 1
1 1
   dx
4x 1 2 2 0 8x  4 x  5
2

 x dx
x  2x  2
2

Consider 4 x  1  A  B
d
dx
8x 2  4 x  5
Consider
4 x  1  A  B (16 x  4)
4x 1  A  B
d 2
 x  2x  2
dx Comparing the coefficients : 4  16 B i.e. B  1
4

4 x  1  A  B(2 x  2)
1  A  4 B,  1  A  1 i.e. A  2
Comparing the coefficients
4 x  1  2  41 (16 x  4)
4  2 B i.e. B  2
1 1 2  41 (16 x  4)
1

1  A  2B I   dx
2 2 0 8x2  4 x  5
1  A  4 i.e. A  3
1 1 2 (16 x  4) 
1 1
1
   dx   dx 
4 x  1  3  2(2 x  2) 2 2  0 8x  4 x  5
2
4 0 8x  4 x  5 
2

3  2(2 x  2) 1
(16 x  4)
1
I  x 1 2 1 1
x2  2 x  2
dx   
2 28 0 x  2 x  8
2 1 5
dx  
8 0 8x2  4 x  5
dx

 3 (2 x  2) 
 x   2 dx  2  2 dx  1
dx  log  8 x 2  4 x  5  
1 1 1 1 1

2 8 0
 x  2x  2 x  2x  2   
 x  41   161  85 8
2 0

1 (2 x  2)
 x  3 dx  2  dx
( x  1)  1  2
2
x  2x  2
2
1
1 1 1 1
(2 x  2)
    log17  log 5
1 2 80
x   9 8
2
 x  3 dx  2  2 
1
dx
( x  1)  1 x  2x  2
2 4
16

 x  3tan 1 ( x  1)  2log  x 2  2 x  2  1 1 4  1  x  4   1 17
1
1

   tan   log
2 8 3  3
4  8 5
0

1 1  1  5   1   1 17
   tan    tan 1     log
2 6 3  3  8 5
 1
To evaluate  quadratic dx or  quadratic
dx

Make the coefficient of x 2 unity by taking its coefficient outside the square root sign.
Complete the square in terms containing x by adding and subtracting the square of half of the
coefficient of x .
Use proper standard form
x 2 a2 x dx x dx x
 a 2  x 2 dx 
2
a  x 2  sin 1
2 a
 a x
2 2
 sin 1
a  a x2 2
 sinh 1
a
2
x 2 a x
 a 2  x 2 dx  a  x 2  sinh 1 dx x dx 1 x
2
x 2 a
2
2
a
x
 x a
2 2
 cosh 1
a x x a2
 sec1
a 2a
 x 2  a 2 dx 
2
x  a 2  cosh 1
2 a
.

Evaluate  x2  2 x  2 dx Evaluate  3  2x  x2 dx

 x2  2 x  2 dx   ( x  1)2 12  2 dx  3  2x  x2 dx   3   x  2 x  dx
2

  ( x  1)2  12 dx   3  12  ( x  1)2 dx

x 12 ( x  1)   22  ( x  1)2 dx
 ( x  1) 2  12  sinh 1
2 2 1
x 2 22 ( x  1)
 2  ( x  1)  sin 1
2

2 2 2
.
1 1
Evaluate  x2  2x  2
dx Evaluate 
3  2 x  x2
dx

1 1 1 1
 dx   dx  dx   dx
x  2x  2 ( x  1)  1  2 3  2x  x 3   x2  2 x 
2 2 2 2

1
 dx 
1
dx
( x  1)  1
2 2
3  1  ( x  1) 2
2

 sinh 1 ( x  1) 1
 dx
2  ( x  1)2
2

( x  1)
 sin 1
2
.
 1
Evaluate  3x  2  x 2
dx

1 1
 dx   dx
3x  2  x 2 2   x 2  3x 

1
 dx
2
9  3
2    x  
4  2

1
 dx
2
1  3
 x  
4  2

 3
x 
 sin 1 
2
1
2
 sin 1  2 x  3

2x  5 ( x  2)
Evaluate I   dx Evaluate I   dx
x  2x  2
2
2 x2  2 x  1

( x  2)  A  B
d
dx
 2 x 2  2 x  1

x  2  A  B(4 x  2)
comparing the coefficients
1  4B 2  A  2B
1 2 3
B 2  A i.e. A 
4 4 2
 ( x  2)
(2 x  5)  A  B
d 2
 x  2x  2 I  dx
dx 2 x2  2 x  1
2 x  5  A  B (2 x  2) 3 1
 (4 x  2)
comparing the coefficients  2 4 dx
2 x2  2 x  1
2  2B 5  A  2B
3 1 1 (4 x  2)
B 1 A7
 
2 2x2  2x  1
dx  
4 2x2  2x  1
dx

2x  5 7  (2 x  2)
I  dx   dx In the sec ond int egral , let
x  2x  2
2
x  2x  2
2

u  2 x 2  2 x  1, du  (4 x  2) dx
1 2x  2
I  7 dx   dx 3 1 1 1
2 4 u
x2  2x  2 x2  2x  2  dx  du
2 1
1 2x  2 x2  x 
I  7 dx   dx 2
( x  1) 2  1  2 x2  2 x  2
3 1 1  12
2 2
 dx   u du
In the sec ond int egral , let u  x 2  2 x  2 
2
1 1 1 4
 x    
du  (2 x  2)dx  2 4 2

3 1 1  12
2 2  4
1 1  dx 
I  7 dx   du 2
u du
( x  1) 2  1 u 1 1
x  
 2 4
 1
u2   1
I  7sinh 1 ( x  1)    x   1

1 2  1 u 2 
sinh 1 
  3
   
2 2 2 1 4 1 
2 2
 7sinh 1 ( x  1)  2 u
3 2
1
 7sinh ( x  1)  2 x  2 x  22  sinh 1 (2 x  1)  2 x2  2 x  1
2 2 4

IMPROPER INTEGRALS:
𝑏
In defining a definite integral ∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 we dealt with a function 𝑓 defined on a finite interval

,𝑎, 𝑏- and we assumed that 𝑓 does not have an infinite discontinuity. In this section we extend
the concept of a definite integral to the case where the interval is infinite and also to the case
where 𝑓 has an infinite discontinuity in ,𝑎, 𝑏-. In either case the integral is called an improper
integral. One of the most important applications of this idea is probability distributions.

TYPE I: INFINITE INTERVALS

Consider the infinite region 𝐴 that lies under the curve 𝑦 = 1/𝑥 2, above the 𝑥‐axis, and to the
right of the line 𝑥 = 1. One may think that, since 𝐴 is infinite in extent, its area must be infinite,
but let’s take a closer look. The area of the part of 𝑆 that lies to the left of the line 𝑥 = 𝑡 is
𝑡
1 1𝑡 1
𝐴(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = − -1 = 1 −
1 𝑥2 𝑥 𝑡
Notice that 𝐴(𝑡) < 1 no matter how large 𝑡 is chosen.
We also observe that
1
lim 𝐴 (𝑡) = lim ( 1 − ) = 1
𝑡→∞ 𝑡→∞ 𝑡
The area of the shaded region approaches 1 as → ∞ , so we say that the area of the infinite
region 𝐴 is equal to 1 and we write
∞ 𝑡
1 1
∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = lim ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = 1
1 𝑥 𝑡→∞ 1 𝑥

DEFINITION OF AN IMPROPER INTEGRAL OF TYPE I

𝑡
(a) If ∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 exists for every number 𝑡 ≥ 𝑎, then
∞ 𝑡
∫ 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = lim ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑡→∞ 𝑎

provided this limit exists (as a finite number).

𝑏
(b) If ∫𝑡 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 exists for every number 𝑡 ≤ 𝑏, then
𝑏 𝑏
∫ 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = lim ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥
;∞ 𝑡→;∞ 𝑡

provided this limit exists (as a finite number).

∞ 𝑏
The improper integrals ∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 and ∫;∞ 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 are called convergent if the corresponding

limit exists and divergent if the limit does not exist.

∞ 𝑎
(c) If both ∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 and ∫;∞ 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 are convergent, then we define
∞ 𝑎 ∞
∫ 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥
;∞ ;∞ 𝑎

In part (c) any real number 𝑎 can be used.

Note:

1 The above integrals convergent if the associated limit exists and is a finite number and
divergent if the associated limit either doesn’t exist or it is infinity.
2 Any of the above improper integrals can be interpreted as an area provided that 𝑓 is a
∞
positive function. For instance, in case (a) if 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0 and the integral ∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 is

convergent, then we define the area of the region 𝑆 = *(𝑥, 𝑦)|𝑥 ≥ 𝑎, 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝑓(𝑥)+
∞
𝐴(𝑆) = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎

This is appropriate because

∞
∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 is the limit as 𝑡 → ∞ of the
area under the graph of 𝑓 from 𝑎 to 𝑡.

∞
Determine whether the integral ∫𝟏 ( 𝟏/𝒙)𝒅𝒙 is convergent or divergent.

According to Definition(a), we have

∞ 𝑡
1 1 The limit does not exist as a finite number
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = lim ∫ 𝑑𝑥 ∞
1 𝑥 𝑡→∞ 1 𝑥 and so the improper integral ∫1 ( 1/𝑥)𝑑𝑥 is
divergent.
= lim ln |𝑥|-1𝑡
𝑡→∞

= lim𝑡→∞(𝐼𝑛 𝑡 − ln 1)
= lim𝑡→∞ In 𝑡 = ∞

∞ 1 ∞1
𝐸𝑋𝐴𝑀𝑃𝐿𝐸: ∫1 𝑑𝑥converges ∫1 𝑑𝑥 diverges
𝑥2 𝑥

Geometrically, this says that although the curves 𝑦 = 1/𝑥 2 and 𝑦 = 1/𝑥 look very similar for
𝑥 > 0, the region under 𝑦 = 1/𝑥 2 to the right of 𝑥 = 1 has finite area whereas the
corresponding region under 𝑦 = 1/𝑥 has infinite area.

Note that both 1/𝑥 2 and 1/𝑥 approach 0 as 𝑥 → ∞ but 1/𝑥 2 approaches 0 faster than 1/𝑥.
The values of 1/𝑥 don’t decrease fast enough for its integral to have a finite value.
 0
Example: Evaluate∫;∞𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.

Using part (b) of Definition 1, we have

0 0 We integrate by parts with
∫ 𝑥 𝑒 𝑋 𝑑𝑥 = lim ∫ 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑢 = 𝑥, 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 so that
;∞ 𝑡→;∞ 𝑡 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥, 𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥
0
= lim ,𝑥𝑒 𝑥 -0𝑡 − lim ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑡→;∞ 𝑡→;∞ 𝑡

= lim ,0 − 𝑡𝑒 𝑡 - − lim ,𝑒 𝑥 -0𝑡

𝑡→;∞ 𝑡→;∞

We know that 𝑒𝑡 → 0 as 𝑡 → −∞,

= lim ,0 − 𝑡𝑒 𝑡 - − lim ,1 − 𝑒 𝑡 - and by L’Hospital’s Rule we have
𝑡→;∞ 𝑡→;∞
𝑡
= −0 − 1 + 0 = −1 lim 𝑡 𝑒𝑡 = lim
𝑡→−∞ 𝑡→−∞ 𝑒 −𝑡

1
= lim𝑡→;∞
;𝑒−𝑡

= lim𝑡→;∞( − 𝑒 𝑡 ) = 0

1 
1 1
Show that 
0
x
dx diverges Show that  x2
dx converges
1


1 1 Lt c 1
The function
x
is continuous on (0,1] and 
1
x2
dx 
c   1 x 2
dx
unbounded near 0, and we have
Lt  1  c
 
c    x 1
1
1 Lt 1 1
0 x c  0 c x dx
dx 
Lt  1 
 1
Lt c    c 

 ln x c
1

c0
1
Lt
 ln1  ln c 
1
c  0 Therefore 
1
x2
dx converges.
 0  ln0

Therefore the given integral diverges

Note:
 d

1 To show that 
0
f ( x)dx diverges, it is enough to find one d in (0, ) for which 
0
f ( x) or



d
f ( x)dx diverges.

 d 
2 But 
0
f ( x)dx converges, both 
0
f ( x)dx and 
d
f ( x)dx converges where d is in (0, ) .


1
Show that 
0
x2
dx is divergent

This is an integral over an infinite interval and

it also contains a discontinuous integrand.
Hence we split the integral into two as follows:

 1 
1 1 1

0
x 2
dx   2 dx 
0
x  1
x2
dx

1
1
First let us evaluate 
0
x2
dx

1
The function 2 is continuous on (0,1] and
x
unbounded near 0, and we have
1
1 Lt 1 1
 c  0 c x 2
dx  dx
0
x2

Lt  1 1
 
c  0  x  c

Lt  1
 
1  
c0  c


Since the first integral is divergent, by Note 1, given
integral is divergent.
  
dx dx
Evaluate 1 x3/2 Evaluate 
1 x
 
dx Lt t 1 dx Lt t 1
1 x3/2  t   1 x3/2 dx 1 x1/2  t   1 x1/2 dx
Lt t 3/2 Lt t 1/2
t   1 t   1
 x dx  x dx

t t
Lt  x 1/2  Lt  x1/2 
 
t    1/ 2 1 t   1/ 2 1
t
Lt  2  Lt t
   2 x 
t    x 1 t   1

Lt  2  Lt
   2  2 t  2

t   t  t   

2 
The integral is convergent The integral is divergent
.
 
4a x
Evaluate  2 dx Evaluate  (1  x) dx
0
x  4a 2 1
3



4a Lt t
2a x Lt t (1  x)  1
0 x2  4a 2 dx  t   20 x 2   2a 2 dx 
1
(1  x)3
dx 
t   0 (1  x)3
dx

t
Lt  x  Lt t (1  x) Lt t 1
 2  tan 1 
t   0 (1  x)3 t   0 (1  x)3
 dx  dx
t   2a  0
Lt  t 
 2  tan 1  0 Lt t Lt t
t    
2
2a   (1  x ) dx  (1  x) 3 dx
t 0 t 0
 2 tan 1 

t t
Lt  (1  x) 1  Lt  (1  x) 2 
2  
2 t    1  0 t    2  0

The integral is convergent Lt  1  t Lt  1 

t

       2
t    1  x  0 t    2(1  x)  0

Lt  1  Lt  1 1
    1     
t    1  t  t    2(1  t ) 2 
2

1
 1
2
The integral is convergent
.
  
1
Evaluate  x e x dx 
2
Evaluate dx
0 0 (1  x) x

 
Lt t 1 Lt t 1
   
 x2
x e dx  x e  x dx dx 
2
dx
0
t 0 1 (1  x) x t   1 (1  x) x

Put z  x 2 , dz  2 x dx Put z  x , dz 
1
dx, z 2  x
2 x
when x  0, z  0 & when x  t , z  t 2
when x  1, t  1; when x  t , z  t
 t2
Lt 1
 
 x2 z
x e dx  e dz  t
t  2 1 Lt 1
0 0

1 (1  x) x
dx 
t 
2 1
(1  z 2 )
dz
t2
1Lt  e z 
  1  Lt t
t  2  0  2  tan 1 z 
t  1

Lt 1
  e  t  1
2
Lt
t  2    2  tan 1 t  tan 1 1
t 
1
  e   1  2  tan 1   tan 1 1
2
1   
  2  
2 2 4


2

.
Determine whether the improper 1
dx
3
dx
Evaluate x 2
(the integrand is infinite at
integral  converges or diverges. 0
0 x lower limit)
(the integrand is infinite at lower limit) 1
dx Lt 1 2
3
dx Lt 3 1/ 2 0 x 2  0  x dx

0 x1/ 2   0  x dx
1
Lt  x 1 

 0  1 
3
Lt  x1/ 2 

 0 1/ 2 
Lt  1 1
 
 0  x 
Lt
 2 3  2 
 0  
Lt  1
2 3   1    
 0  
The integral is convergent The integral is divergent
  b
1 1
Evaluate a xn dx, a  0 converges if and Prove that
a
(b x ) n
dx converges iff n  1 .

only if n  1 . (the integrand is infinite at upper limit)


1 Lt t 1 b
1 Lt b  1
a xn dx  t   a xn dx 
a
(b  x) n
dx  
 0 a (b  x) n
dx

Case I : When n  1

1 Lt t 1 Case I : When n  1
a xn dx  t   a x dx b
1 Lt b  1
a (b  x)  0 a (b  x) dx
dx 
Lt
 log x a
t

t  Lt
  log(b  x)a
b 

 0
Lt
 log t  log a  Lt
t     log   log(b  a)
 0
 log   log a  
Case I : When n  1   log 0  log(b  a)  


1 Lt t
Case I : When n  1
 xn
dx 
t   x  n dx
Lt b 
a a b
1
Lt  x1n 
t  (b  x) n
dx  
 0 a
(b  x)  n dx
 a

t   1  n  a b 
Lt  (b  x)1n 

Sub case (i ) when n  1, 1  n  0  0  (1  n)  a

1 Lt 1
  t1n  a1n  1 Lt
dx  1n (b  a)1n 
a
x n
t  1 n n  1 0


1
  a1n    Sub case (i ) when n  1, 1  n  0
1 n  b
1 Lt 1 1n
Sub case (ii ) when n  1, i.e. n  1  0 
a
(b  x) n
dx   (b  a )1n 
 0 1  n 
 t
1 Lt  x1n 
 a
xn
dx 
t   1  n  a

1
1 n
(b  a )1n   finite

Lt  1 1  t Sub case (ii ) when n  1, i.e. n  1  0

 
t    n  1 x n1  a b
1 Lt 1  1 1 
Lt 1  1 1 

a
(b  x) n
dx  
 0 n  1 n 1
 n 1 
(b  a) 
  n 1
 n1 
t   n 1  t a 
1  1 
   n 1 

1 1 1  n 1  (b  a ) 
   n1 
n 1   a 
1 1

n  1 a n1
.
Determine whether the integral

1
0 x 2  4 dx is convergent or divergent.

1 Lt 1 t 2
0 x 2  4 t   2 0 x 2   2 2 dx
dx 

Lt 1  1 x  t
 tan
t   2  2  0
Lt 1  1 t 
 tan  tan 1 0 
t   2  2 
1
 tan 1 
2
1 
 .
2 2

 The integral is convergent

.


 xe  x dx is convergent or divergent.
2
Determine whether

Since both the limits are infinite, we split the integral such that each integral has one infinite
limit as follows:
 0 

  dx   xe  x dx
 x2  x2
dx 
2
xe xe
  0
0 0  t
Lt Lt
   
 x2  x2  x2
dx  dx  xe x dx
2
Consider xe xe dx Consider xe

t   t 0
t  0
0 t

   
Lt 1 Lt 1
 2 e x d x 2  2 e x d x 2
2 2

t   t
t  0

Lt 1 0 Lt 1 t
  e x    e x 
2 2

t   2  t t  2  0
Lt 1 Lt 1
  1  et    et  1
2 2

t   2   t  2  
1 1
 sin ce e   0   sin ce e   0 
2  2 

 0 
1 1
  dx   xe  x dx     0
 x2  x2
dx 
2
Therefore xe xe
  0
2 2

∞ 1
Example: Evaluate∫;∞ 𝑑𝑥.
1:𝑥 2

It’s convenient to choose 𝑎 = 0 :

∞ 0 ∞
1 1 1
∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥
;∞ 1 + 𝑥 ;∞ 1 + 𝑥 0 1+𝑥
We must now evaluate the integrals on the right side separately:

∞ 𝑡 0 0
1 𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑥
∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = lim ∫ ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = lim ∫
0 1+𝑥 𝑡→∞ 0 1 + 𝑥 2 ;∞ 1 + 𝑥
2 𝑡→;∞ 𝑡 1 + 𝑥 2

= lim tan ;1 𝑥-𝑡0 = lim𝑡→;∞ tan;1 𝑥-0𝑡

𝑡→∞

= lim𝑡→∞( tan;1 𝑡 − tan ;1 0) = lim𝑡→;∞( tan ;1 0 − tan ;1 𝑡)

𝜋
= lim tan ;1 𝑡 = 0 − .− /
𝑡→∞
𝜋
2
=
𝜋 2
=
2

Since both of these integrals are convergent, the given integral is convergent and
∞
1 𝜋 𝜋
∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = + =𝜋
;∞ 1 + 𝑥 2 2

Note: Since 1/(1 + 𝑥 2 ) > 0, the given improper integral can be interpreted as the area of the
infinite region that lies under the curve 𝑦 = 1/(1 + 𝑥 2 ) and above the 𝑥‐axis

∞ 1
Example :For what values of 𝑝 is the integral ∫1 𝑑𝑥 convergent?
𝑥𝑝

∞1
Sol: If 𝑝 = 1, then it is proved that the integral ∫1 𝑑𝑥 is divergent.
𝑥

let’s assume that 𝑝 > 1. Then

∞ 𝑡
1
∫ 𝑝 𝑑𝑥 = lim ∫ 𝑥 ;𝑝 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑥 𝑡→∞ 1

𝑥 ;𝑝:1 𝑥<𝑡 If 𝑝 > 1, then 𝑝 − 1 > 0, so as

= lim - 𝑡 → ∞, 𝑡 𝑝;1 → ∞ and
𝑡→∞ −𝑝 + 1 𝑥<1
1/𝑡 𝑝;1 → 0.
1 1
= lim𝑡→∞ , − 1-
1;𝑝 𝑡𝑝−1

1
= lim𝑡→∞ ,0 − 1-
1;𝑝

1
=
𝑝;1
 If 𝑝 > 1 and so the integral converges.

let’s assume that 𝑝 < 1. Then

∞ 𝑡
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = lim 𝑥 ;𝑝 𝑑𝑥
∫
1 𝑥𝑝 𝑡→∞ 1

𝑥 ;𝑝:1 𝑥<𝑡
= lim -
𝑡→∞ −𝑝 + 1 𝑥<1
if 𝑝 < 1, then 𝑝 − 1 < 0 and so
1 1
= lim𝑡→∞ , − 1- 1
1;𝑝 𝑡𝑝−1
= 𝑡 1;𝑝 → ∞ as 𝑡 → ∞
𝑡𝑝−1
1
= lim𝑡→∞ , − 1-
1;𝑝

=

 If 𝑝 < 1 and so the integral diverges.

∞ 1
∫1 𝑑𝑥 is convergent if 𝑝 > 1 and divergent if 𝑝 ≤ 1.
𝑥𝑝

TYPE 2: DISCONTINUOUS INTEGRANDS

Suppose that 𝑓 is a positive continuous function defined on a finite interval ,𝑎, b) but has a
vertical asymptote at 𝑏. Let 𝑆 be the unbounded region under the graph of 𝑓 and above the 𝑥‐
axis between 𝑎and 𝑏. (For Type 1 integrals, the regions extended indefinitely in a.

DEFINITION OF AN IMPROPER INTEGRAL OF TYPE 2:

(a) If 𝑓 is continuous on ,𝑎, b) and is discontinuous at 𝑏, then
𝑏 𝑡
∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = lim𝑡→𝑏− ∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 and 𝑓 has 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 asymptotes at 𝑏, if this limit exists .

(b) If 𝑓 is continuous on (𝑎, 𝑏] and is discontinuous at 𝑎, then

𝑏 𝑏
∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = lim𝑡→𝑎+ ∫𝑡 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 and 𝑓 has 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 asymptotes at 𝑎, if this limit exists .

𝑐 𝑏
(c) If 𝑓 has a discontinuity at 𝑐, where 𝑎 < 𝑐 < 𝑏, and both ∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 and ∫𝑐 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 are

convergent, then we define

 𝑏 𝑐 𝑏
∫ 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎 𝑐

5 1
Example: Find∫2 𝑑𝑥.
√𝑥;2

The given integral is improper because 𝑓(𝑥) = 1/ √𝑥 − 2 has the vertical asymptote 𝑥 = 2.
Therefore by definition,
5 5
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∫ = lim+ ∫
2 √𝑥 − 2 𝑡→2 𝑡 √𝑥 − 2

= lim+ 2 √𝑥 − 2-5𝑡
𝑡→2

= lim+ 2 (√3 − √𝑡 − 2)
𝑡→2

= 2√3

Thus the given improper integral is convergent and, since the integrand is positive, we can
interpret the value of the integral as the area of the shaded region in Figure.
𝜋/2
Example: Determine whether ∫0 sec 𝑥𝑑𝑥 converges or diverges.

The given integral is improper because lim𝑡→ 𝜋 sec 𝑥 = ∞. Therefore by definition

2

𝜋
𝑡
2
∫ sec 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = lim −
∫ sec 𝑥𝑑𝑥
0 𝑡→(𝜋/2) 0

= lim ln | sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥|-𝑡0

𝑡→(𝜋/2) −
 = lim , ln ( sec 𝑡 + tan 𝑡) ‐ 𝑙𝑛 1- = ∞
𝑡→(𝜋/2) −

because sec 𝑡 → ∞ and tan 𝑡 → ∞ as 𝑡 → (𝜋/2) ;. Thus the given improper integral is
divergent.
3 𝑑𝑥
Example: Evaluate∫0 if possible.
𝑥;1

Observe that the line 𝑥 = 1 is a vertical asymptote of the integrand. Since it occurs in the
middle of the interval ,0, 3 -. Therefore by definition

3 1 3
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∫ =∫ +∫
0 𝑥 −1 0 𝑥 −1 1 𝑥−1
Where
1 𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∫ = lim− ∫
0 𝑥 − 1 𝑡→1 0 𝑥 − 1

= lim𝑡→1; ln |𝑥 − 1|-𝑡0

= lim𝑡→1;( ln |𝑡 − 1| − ln | − 1|)
= lim𝑡→1; ln (1 − 𝑡) = −∞, 𝑙𝑜𝑔0 = −∞
1
Thus ∫0 𝑑 𝑥/(𝑥 − 1) is divergent.

3 3
This implies that ∫0 𝑑 𝑥/(𝑥 − 1) is divergent. [We do not need to evaluate ∫1 𝑑 𝑥/(𝑥 − 1)

If we had not noticed the asymptote 𝑥 = 1 in the above problem, then we might have made the
following erroneous calculation:
3
𝑑𝑥
∫ = ln |𝑥 − 1|-30 = ln 2 − ln 1 = ln 2
0 𝑥−1
This is wrong because the integral is improper and must be calculated in terms of limits.

3
1
Show that 
2
x3
dx is divergent

This integrand is not continuous at x  0 and hence split the integral as follows:

3 0 3
1 1 1

2
x 3
dx   3 dx 
2
x 
0
x3
dx

0 t
1 Lt 1
Consider the first integral 
2
x 3
dx 
t 0 
2
x3
dx
 t
Lt  1 
   2 x 2 
t  0 2

Lt  1 1
   2t 2  8 
t 0
 
Since the first integral is divergent, the entire integral is divergent.

A COMPARISON TEST FOR IMPROPER INTEGRALS

Sometimes it is impossible to find the exact value of an improper integral and yet it is
important to know whether it is convergent or divergent. In such cases the following theorem
will be useful. Although we state it for Type1 integrals, a similar theorem is true for Type 2
integrals.

COMPARISON THEOREM:

Suppose that 𝑓 and 𝑔 are continuous functions with 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 𝑔(𝑥) ≥ 0 for 𝑥 ≥ 𝑎.
∞ ∞
(a) If ∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 is convergent, then ∫𝑎 𝑔 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 is convergent.

∞ ∞
(b) If ∫𝑎 𝑔 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 is divergent, then ∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 is divergent.

This is explained in the following Figure. If the area under the top curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is finite,
then so is the area under the bottom curve = 𝑔(𝑥) . And if the area under 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥) is infinite,
then so is the area under 𝑓(𝑥) .
∞ ∞
[Note that the reverse is not necessarily true: If ∫𝑎 𝑔 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 is convergent, ∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 may or

∞ ∞
may not be convergent, and if ∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 is divergent, ∫𝑎 𝑔 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 may or may not be

divergent.]

∞ 2
Example: Show that ∫0 𝑒 ;𝑥 𝑑𝑥 is convergent.
2
Sol: We can’t evaluate the integral directly because the antiderivative of 𝑒 −𝑥 is not an
elementary function. We write
∞ 1 ∞
2 2 2
∫ 𝑒 ;𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑒 ;𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑒 ;𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0 0 1
and observe that the first integral on the right‐hand side is just an ordinary definite integral.
In the second integral we use the fact that for 𝑥 ≥ 1 we have 𝑥2 ≥ 𝑥, so −𝑥 2 ≤ −𝑥 and
2
therefore 𝑒−𝑥 ≤ 𝑒 −𝑥. (See Figure .) The integral of 𝑒 −𝑥 is easy to evaluate:
∞ 𝑡
∫ 𝑒 ;𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = lim ∫ 𝑒 ;𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = lim ( 𝑒 ;1 − 𝑒 ;𝑡 ) = 𝑒 ;1
1 𝑡→∞ 1 𝑡→∞

∞ 2
Therefore by comparison theorem, ∫1 𝑒 ;𝑥 𝑑𝑥 is convergent.

1
1 𝑒 −𝑥
Also ∫0 𝑒 ;𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 0 1 = 1 − 𝑒 ;1
;1 0

1 2
Therefore by comparison theorem, ∫0 𝑒 ;𝑥 𝑑𝑥 is convergent.

∞ 2
therefore ∫0 𝑒 ;𝑥 𝑑𝑥 is convergent


e x
Example: show that by comparison test, 
1
x
dx is convergent.

To prove the integral is convergent, we need a larger integrand. From the given limit

x 1
1
i.e.  1
x
e x
 e x , Since e x > 0
x

 
e x
Hence 
1
x
dx  1
e x dx …….(1)

 t
Lt
Consider 
1
e x dx 
t  
1
e  x dx

t
Lt  e  x 

t    1 1
 Lt
  e  t  e 1 
t 

 e1  and hence convergent.


e x
Hence from (1) 1
x
dx is convergent

 e  x dx is convergent.
2
Example: show that by comparison test,
1

To prove the integral is convergent, we need a larger integrand.

 x1
We know that e  x is decreasing function and hence whenever x1  x2 then e  e x2

 x2
From the given limit, we have x  1 i.e. x  x and hence e
2
 e x . .

 

 e x dx   e x dx ………(1)
2
Hence
1 1


But we know that 
1
e x dx  e1 , which is convergent and hence from (1) , by comparison test we

 e  x dx is convergent.
2
conclude that
1

Moments and Centres of Gravity

Moment is a quantity which measures the tendency of mass to

produce rotation. It is used to define a point called the centre
of gravity of a set of points in a plane. The moment of the
point mass about the y  axis is defined to be mx .

Suppose that there are several point masses whose masses are
m1 , m2 ,...mn located at the respective points
 x1, y1  ,  x2 , y2  ,..... xn , yn  in a plane. The moment M y of
the collection of all point masses about the y  axis is the sum
of moments of all point masses.  M y  m1x1  .....  mn xn
If M y  0 , then the point masses is said to be in equilibrium.

Similarly, we can define the moment of point masses m1 , m2 ,...mn about the x  axis by setting
M x  m1 y1  ....  mn yn .

Now let m  m1  m2  ....  mn be the combined mass of all point masses considered and let us take a point

mass with mass m at  x , y  , then its moment about the x axis and y axis is M x and M y respectively.

Now mx  M y  m1x1  .....  mn xn and my  M x  m1 y1  ....  mn yn .

My m1 x1  .....  mn xn M m y  ....  mn yn
Therefore x   and y  x  1 1
m m m m

The point  x , y  is called the centre of gravity or centroid of the given collection of point masses.

Find the moments and centre of gravity of objects with masses 2, 3, 6 and 8 located ate the points (2,1),
(1,3), (3,2) and (3,0) respectively.

The moments are

M y  m1x1  .....  mn xn  2(2)  3(1)  6(3)  8(3)  43 and

M x  m1 y1  ....  mn yn  2(1)  3(3)  6(2)  8(0)  1

My 43 M 1
Since m  2  3  6  8  19 , we have x   and y  x 
m 19 m 19

Definition: Let f and g be continuous on [ a , b ] , with g ( x)  f ( x) for a  x  b and let R be the

region between the graphs of f and g on [ a , b ] . Then the moment M x of R about the x axis is

b
1
given by M x    f ( x)   g ( x) dx and the moment M y of R about the y axis is given by
2 2

2a

b
M y   x  f ( x)  g ( x)dx .
a

Note: If R has positive area A , then the centre of mass or centre of gravity of R is the point
My Mx
 x , y  defined by x and y  .
A A
Find the moment about the y axis of the rectangle R
bounded by the lines x  a , x  b , y  0 and y  c .

Here we have f ( x )  c and g ( x)  0. Therefore the

height of the rectangle is c. So

b
M y   x  f ( x)  g ( x)dx
a
b
  x  c  0dx
a
b
 x2 
 c 
 2 a
 b2  a 2 
c
2
ba
 c(b  a )
2
.
Let R be the semicircular region bounded by the y

axis and the graphs of f ( x )  r 2  x 2 and

g ( x)   r 2  x 2 for 0  x  r. Find the moments.

The moment M x of R about the x axis is

b
1
Mx    f ( x)   g ( x) dx
2 2

2a
r
Mx 
1
20  r 2  x 2    r 2  x 2  dx  0

The moment M y of R about the y axis is

b
M y   x  f ( x)  g ( x)dx
a
r Let r  x  u . Then
2 2
2xdx  du
 2 x r  x dx 2 2
when x  0, u  r
2

when x  r , u  0
0
0
   udu
r2
2
r 1
  u du 2

0
r2
 32 
 3 
u
 
 2  0
2
 r3
3

1 2
Since the area A of R is  r , we have
2
 2r 3
M 4r Mx
x  y  32  and y 0
A r 3 A
2

MASS AND CENTRE OF MASS

Find the mass M and the centre of mass x of a rod lying on the x  axis over the
interval [1,2] whose density function is given by  ( x)  2  3 x 2

We know that Mass Therefore center of mass

b
M    ( x)dx b
a
M  x. ( x) dx
x 0 
2

 2  3x 2  dx
a
 M b

1   ( x)dx
a
3 2
  2 x  x  b 2

 x. ( x) dx   x.  2  3x  dx
1 2
 (4  8)  (2  1) a 1
9 2
 3x 4 
  x2 
 4 1
 3
  4  12   1  
 4
7
 16 
4
57

4

57
M 19
x 0  4 
M 9 12

A lamina is a thin flat sheet having uniform thickness. The centre of gravity of a lamina is the point where it
balances perfectly, i.e. the lamina’s centre of mass.
Centre of gravity of plane area bounded by the curve y  f ( x) , the x axis and the ordinates x  a and
x b.

b
y
b
 2  ydx 
 x  ydx  y a
b
x
 ydx
a
b

 ydx
a
a
If the area is symmetrical
about x axis, then y  0 .

Centre of gravity of plane area bounded by the curve x  f ( y ) , the y axis and the abscissae y  a and
y  b.
 b
x
 2  xdy 
b

x a  y  xdy 
b
y a

 xdy
b

a  xdy
If the area is symmetrical a

about y axis, then x  0 .

Cerntre of gravity of the area enclosed between two curves

y1  y2
x  y  y  dx  y1  y2  dx
x
1 2  2
y
  y  y  dx
1 2
  y1  y2  dx
The limit of integration being the values of x for the
points of intersection A and B

Here P  x, y1  and Q  x, y2 

Centre of gravity of the sectorial area bounded by the curve r  f ( ) and the radii vectors   and
 .

 
2 3 2 3
3  3 
r cos  d r sin  d
x  y 

 r d  r d
2 2

 

.
F ind the position of the centroid of the area
bounded by the curve y  5 x  x and the x-
2

axis.

Let C  x , y  be the coordinates of the centroid.

b

 x  ydx 
Then x  a
b

 ydx
a
 5 5

 x  5 x  x  dx
y
 2  y  dx
2

 0
5
y 0
5

  5 x  x  dx   y  dx
2

0 0

 x x 
3 4 5 5
5x  x  2

5 3  4    5 x  x  dx
2

 0 2
  0
5
3 5
 x x 
  5 x  x  dx
2
2
5 2  3 
 0 0

625 625
 5

 3
125 125
4 1
2   25 x 2  x 4  10 x3  dx
  0 , from x
2 3 125
625 6
5
 12 6  25 x3 x5 10 x 4 
  
250  3 4  0
125
5
6
6  3125 3125 6250 

5   
2 250  3 5 4 
5

2
.
F ind the position of the centroid of the area bounded
by the curve y  3 x , the x-axis and the ordinates
2

x = 0 and x = 2.

Let C  x , y  be the coordinates of the centroid. Then

b

 x  ydx 
x a
b

 ydx
a
2

 x  3x  dx
2
y
 2  y  dx
2

 0
2 y 0

  3x  dx
2

  y  dx
2

0
0

 3x 
2
 3x 4  2 2
 4 
 0   3x  dx
2

 2  0
2
 3x3  2

 3    3x  dx
2

 0 0

 48  2

 4 
1
  9 x 4  dx
  2
 0 , from x
 24  24
 3 
3
3 2
 9  x5 

16  5  0
2
 9  32 

16  5 
18

5

Find the centre of gravity of a plane lamina of uniform density in the form of a quadrant of an ellipse.
x2 y2
Let the equation of ellipse be  1
a 2 b2

The parametric equations are

x  a cos t , y  b sin t

dx  a sin tdt , dy  b cost dt


Here  varies from 0 to .
2

b b
y
 x  ydx   2  ydx 
x a
b
y a
b

 ydx
a
 ydx
a
 0
1 2 2
2 
2
b sin t.(a sin t )dt
 a cos t.b sin t.(a sin t )dt
 0
  2
0
2

 b sin t.(a sin t )dt  b sin t.(a sin t )dt


0 2
 
2
b2 3
a  cos t.sin 2 tdt
2 0
sin tdt
 0
  
2 2

 sin tdt  sin

2 2
tdt
0 0

1 b 2
a.
 3.1  2 3.1
1  1 
. .
2 2 2 2
4a 4b
 
3 3
Find the centre of gravity of a plane lamina bounded by x axis and the part of the ellipse for which y is
positive.

a
y
x y
Let the equation of ellipse be 2  2  1
2 2
 2  ydx 
a b y a
a

The parametric equations are

 ydx
a
x  a cos t , y  b sin t 
1 2 2
2 0
b sin t.(a sin t )dt
dx  a sin tdt , dy  b cost dt  
Here  varies from 0 to  .  b sin t.(a sin t )dt
0


Since the area is symmetric about y axis. b 2 3

2 0
.2 sin tdt
Hence  
a

 x  ydx  2  sin 2 tdt

x a
a
0 0
2

a
ydx b.
 3.1
1 
2. .
2 2
4b

3
.

Find the centre of gravity of the area between the curve y  cos x from x  0 to x   bounded by the
2
line y  0.
 
The equation of the curve is y  cos x 2
y
 2  ydx 
 y 0

2

 x  ydx 
2

 ydx
x 0

0

 ydx


12

0

20
cos 2 xdx
2  
 x cos xdx 2

 0
  cos xdx
0
2

 cos xdx
0


 12
4 0
 ( x)(sin x)  (1)( cos x)02 1  cos 2 xdx
  
sin x 02

2

 x sin x  cos x 02


 cos xdx
0
  
sin x 02 1
x
sin 2 x  2

4 2  0
 
.1  0  1 
 2 sin x 02
1 0
 1  
 1 42 
2   
1 8
.
Find the centroid of the cardioid
r  a (1  cos  )

Since the curve is symmetrical about the initial line

  0 , y  0.

2 3
3 
r cos  d
x 

 r d
2




2
 Dr   r 2d
Nr   r 3 cos d 
3  
  2   r 2d
2
 2   r 3 cos d 0
30 
 2 a  (1  cos )2 d
2

2
 2   a3 (1  cos )3 cos d 0
30 
 2a 2  1  cos 2   2cos  d
 0
4
 a3  cos  cos 4   3cos 2   3cos3   d  

3 0
 2a  0  2(0)  2  cos  d 
2
2
 2


 cos  d  0 when n is odd  

n
But 0

0
   /2  1
Also  cos n d  2  cos n  d when n is even  2a 2   2
 2 2 
0 0
 1

 2 a 2 1  
 2
4 2  3 a
 a3  2 cos4   3cos2   d
2

3 0
8  3.1  1
  a3   3.
2 2 
5 3
3  4.2 2  a 5a
8  3.1  1 Therefore x  2 2 
  a3   3. 3 a 6
3  4.2 2 2 2 
 15 
 x , y   
8 5a 
  a3    i.e. ,0 
3 44  6 
5
  a3
2

Find the centroid of the area of a loop of the

lemniscate r 2  a 2 cos 2

Since the curve is symmetrical about the initial line.

Therefore y  0.


4
2
 r

2 3
3
cos  d
3 
r cos  d 3

x   4


 r d
2 4

 r d
2


4 
 4

Nr 
2 4

 r cos d
3 Dr   r 2 d
3 
4

4


4
2

4
 2. r cos d
3
 a 2  cos 2 d
3 0 
 
4
4 3
2 
 2  a (cos 2 ) cos d
3 2
4
3 0  2a 2  cos 2 d
 0
4 3
4
 a3
3  1  2sin 2   cos d 2

0  sin 2  4
 2a 
2
Let 2 sin   sin  , then 2 cos d  cos  d  2  0
1
When   0, 0  sin  , i.e.   0  2a 2  
2
  a
When   , 1  sin  , i.e.  
2

4 2


2 3
4

3 2
a3 
0
1  sin 2   2 cos  d
 
2
 a3
4
 a3  cos 4  d a
3 2 Therefore x  4 22 
0 a 4 2
4 3.1  a

3 2
a3 .
4.2 2 i.e.  x , y    
,0 
4 2 
 a3

4 2

Centre of gravity of a solid revolution

Centre of gravity of a solid generated by the b

 x  y dx 
2
revolution of the area enclosed by the curve Since the CG of the solid
y  f ( x) , the x axis and the ordinates x  a x a of revolution lies on the
b
and x  b , about the x -axis. x axis, y  0 .
 y dx
2

.
Centre of gravity of a solid generated by the b

 y  x dx 
2
revolution of the area enclosed by the curve Since the CG of the solid
x  f ( y ) , the y axis and the abscissae y  a y a of revolution lies on the
b
and y  b , about the y -axis. y axis, x  0 .
 x dx
2

.
Centre of gravity of a solid generated by the b

 x y  y22  dx
2
revolution of the area enclosed by any two given 1
curves about the x -axis, then where a and b x a
b
y 0
are the abscissae of the common points of
 y  y22  dx
2
1
intersection. a

.
Centre of gravity of a solid generated by the b

 yx  x22  dx
2
revolution of the area enclosed by any two given 1
curves about the y -axis, then where a and b y a
b x 0
are the ordinates of the common points of
x x  dx
2 2
1 2
intersection. a

.
Find the centre of gravity of the segment of a sphere of
radius a cut off by a plane at a distance c from the
centre, and deduce the CG of a hemisphere.

The sphere is generated by rotating the circle x  y  a

2 2 2

about x -axis. By symmetry of the given solid, y  0 .

 x  y  dx
2

x c
a

 y dx
2

a a
Nr   x  a  x 2 2
 dx Dr    a 2  x 2  dx
c c
a a
 a2 x2 x4   x3 
   a2 x  
 2 4  c  3 c
 a 2 a 2 a 4 a 2c 2 c 4   a3 c3 
      a3   a 2c  
 2 4 2 4  3 3
 a 4 a 4 a 2c 2 c 4   2a 3 c3 
      a c 
2

2 4 2 4  3 3
1 1
  a 4  2a 2c 2  c 4    2a 3  3a 2c  c 3 
4 3
  a  c2   (2a  c )  a 2  2ac  c 2 
1 2 2 1
4 3
1 1
 a  c a  c  (2a  c )( a  c ) 2
2 2

4 3

1
(a  c) 2 (a  c) 2 3 (a  c) 2
Therefore x  4 
( a  c) 2 (2a  c) 4 (2a  c)
1
3
3a
In case the segment is a hemisphere, c  0. Therefore x  , y 0
8

Find the centre of gravity of the volume formed by the

revolution of the portion of the parabola y  4ax cut
2

off by the ordinate x  h about the x -axis.

By symmetry of the given solid, y  0 .

 x  y  dx
2

x 0
h

 y dx
2

0
 h

 x  4ax  dx
 0
h

 4ax dx
0

x
2
4a dx
 0
h
4a  x dx
0

h
 x3 
4a  
  3 0
h
 x2 
4a  
 2 0

 h3 
3
  2
h 
 2
 

2h

3
.
Find the centre of gravity of a solid right circular
cone of height h .

Let  be the semi vertical angle of the cone. The

cone is generated by revolving the right triangle OAC
about x axis. OA being the line y  mx, where
m  tan  .

By symmetry of the given solid, y  0 .

 x  y  dx
2

x 0
h

 y dx
2

 xm x 2  dx
2

x 0
h

m
2
x 2 dx
0
 h

 x dx
3

x 0
h

 x dx
2

h
 x4 
4
x    h0
 x3 
3
 0

3 h 4 3h
x 
4 h3 4

Hydrostatic Force

A particle under water experiences pressure due to the

weight of the water above. Consider a horizontal plate
of area A sq. ft. at a depth of x feet below. The water
directly above the plate exerts a constant force F
equal to its weight on the plate.

This force is called hydrostatic force.

Suppose a vertical plate is submerged in water and we want to know the force that is exerted
on the plate due to the pressure of the water. Hence the hydrostatic force on a vertical plate is
not constant, since the pressure will vary with depth.

The hydrostatic pressure at x meters below the water level is given by, P   gx where
 = the density of the water = 1000 kg/m3
g = the gravitational acceleration = 9.81 m/s2 .
x = the distance between water level to a point at which pressure is measured
Suppose that a constant pressure P is acting on a surface with area A. Then the hydrostatic
force that acts on the area is, F = PA

Note: All measurements should be in meters or convert into meters . If water is replaced by some other
fluid, then the number 1000 kg/m3 must be replaced by the weight of that fluid.
Solved Problems

Determine the hydrostatic force on the

following isosceles triangular plate that is
submerged vertically in water as shown below:

First let us fix the axis system. Let the water level be y  axis and positive x  axis towards the depth of the
water. Hence x  4 corresponds to the depth of the tip of the triangle.

Consider a strip of width x and length 2a in the plate. We use the property of similar triangles to
determine a.

3 a

4 4 x
3
a  (4  x)
4
3
a  3 x
4
since the pressure on this strip is constant, the
pressure is given by

P   gx
 1000  9.81 x
 9810 x

The area of each strip is 2ax

 3 
and the hydrostatic force on each strip is, F  PA  (9810 x)  2ax   19620 x  3  x  x
 4 
n
 3 
Hence the hydrostatic force of the plate is F  
i 1
19620 xi  3  xi  xi
 4 
Taking the limit, we have
 Lt n
 3 
F
n
i 1
19620 xi  3  xi  xi
 4 
 3 
4
  19620 x  3  x  dx
0  4 
 3 2
4
 19620 
0
 3 x  x  dx
 4 
4
 3x 2 x3 
19620   
 2 4 0
 48 64 
 19620   
2 4
156960 N

Find the hydrostatic force on a circular plate of radius 2 that is submerged 6 meters in the water.
First let us fix the axis system. Let the origin of the axis is at the centre of the plate. Hence the water level is
parallel to y  axis . Therefore the plate is at 6m depth and the centre is at 8m depth.

Consider a rectangular strip of width x and its length is 2 4  x 2

since the pressure on this strip is constant, the pressure is given by

P   gx
 1000  9.81 (8  x)
 9810(8  x)

The area of each strip is 2 4  x .x

2

and the hydrostatic force on each strip is,

  
F  PA  (9810)(8  x) 2 4  x 2 .x  19620(8  x)  
4  x 2 x

  x
n
Hence the hydrostatic force of the plate is F  
i 1
19620(8  xi ) 4  xi
2
i

Taking the limit, we have

Lt
  x
n
F
n

i 1
19620(8  xi ) 4  xi
2
i

 
2
F 
2
19620(8  x) 4  x 2 dx

2 2
F  19620 
2
8 4  x 2 dx  19620 
2
x 4  x 2 dx

2
F  19620  8  2 
0
4  x 2 dx  19620 (0) , {By odd and even integral property}

2
x 4 x
F  313920  4  x 2  sin 1 
2 2 2 0
 313920  2sin 1 1
 313920

An isosceles triangular plate 3m tall and 1.5m wide is located on a vertical wall of a
swimming pool, the bottom vertex 6m below water level. Find the hydrostatic force F
on the plate.

For our convenience we place the origin at the bottom vertex of the plate. Then the plate
extends from x  0 to x  3 . Therefore the depth at a given x is 6  x.
w
Consider a strip AB of length w. Half of the length is . From the properties of isosceles
2
triangles, we have

w 1.5
2  2
x 3
w 1

2x 4
x
w
2
Consider a strip of width x and its length is x as explained above.

since the pressure on this strip is constant, the pressure is given by

P   gx
 1000  9.81 (6  x)
 9810(6  x)
x
The area of each strip is w.x  .x and the hydrostatic force on each strip is,
2
x 
F  PA  9810(6  x)  x   4905  6 x  x 2  x
2 

 
n
Hence the hydrostatic force of the plate is F   4905 6 xi  xi 2 xi
i 1

Taking the limit, we have

 
Lt n
F
n

i 1
4905 6 xi  xi xi
2

3
F  4905  6 x  x  dx
2

0
3
 x3 
 4905 3 x 2  
 3 0
 4905  27  9
 88290 N
Suppose the triangular plate is placed with the vertex at
the top. Again consider the origin at the bottom. Hence
for a given x the depth from the water level is 6  x.

From the properties of triangles

w 1.5
2  2
3 x 3
w 1

2(3  x) 4
3 x
w
2
3 x
Hence the width w( x) would be .
2

Consider a strip of width x and its length is

3 x
as explained above.
2

since the pressure on this strip is constant, the

pressure is given by

P   gx
 1000  9.81 (6  x)
 9810(6  x)
3 x
The area of each strip is w.x  .x and the
2
hydrostatic force on each strip is,
 3 x 
F  PA  9810(6  x)  x 
 2 
 4905  6  x  3  x  x

 4905 18  9 x  x 2 x 
Hence the hydrostatic force of the plate is

 
n
F   4905 18  9 xi  xi xi
2

i 1
Taking the limit, we have the required force

 
Lt n
F
n
i 1
4905 18  9 xi  xi xi
2
 3
F  4905 18  9 x  x 2  dx
0
3
 x 2 x3 
 4905 18 x  9  
 2 3 0
 81 27 
 4905 54   
 2 3
 110362.5 N