Feed ingredients for ration for livestock and poultry

ASAP2101(2-1-0)

Session: 14

Centurion University of Technology and Management, Village Alluri Nagar,

R.Sitapur, Odisha 761211
 Feeding of Broiler

Feed Formulation
In the previous chapters we have discussed about the feed stuff suitable for poultry,
nutrient requirements of poultry and methods of estimation of nutrient requirements. The
second step of feeding management is how to fulfil these nutrient requirements through the
available feed ingredients and computes the ration of optimum nutrient density so that it can
satisfy bird’s daily nutrient needs.
Feed formulation is a process by which different feed ingredients are combined in a
proportion necessary to provide proper amount of nutrients needed at a particular stage of
production. For feed formulation the knowledge of nutrient composition of feed stuffs is very
essential along with the knowledge of nutrient requirement. The formulated feed should be
palatable and should not cause any serious digestive disturbance or toxic effects to the birds.
There are some factor that should be considered in feed formulation for optimum
efficiency and better output from birds.
Acceptability: The feed formulated should be made of fresh, good quality
ingredients.
Digestibility: The nutrients in the feed should be digestible and released into the
gastrointestinal tract to be absorbed by the birds. Feed with high fibre content can
not be utilized efficiently by poultry.
Cost: The requirement of the birds can be met through several combinations of
feed ingredients. However, when the costs of these ingredients are considered,
there can only be least-cost formulation. The least-cost feed should ensure that
the requirements of the birds are met and the desired objectives are achieved.
Avoiding anti-nutritional factors and toxins: The presence of anti-nutritional
factors and mycotoxins in the feed ingredients affects the digestion and utilization
of some nutrients and not only makes them unavailable to the birds but also
produces several conditions and diseases. The inclusion of these feed ingredients
should, therefore, be limited in the formulation.
Other factors: other factors that should be considered are texture, moisture and
the processing of feeds need to be considered.

Method of Feed Formulation

During feed formulation the information of nutritive value of feed ingredients is not
enough; the maximum inclusion levels of ingredients depending on several factors discussed
above also play very important role in formulating a balanced chicken feed. The approximate
inclusion levels of various feed ingredients, which are changeable depending on different
factors, in poultry ration may be considered as follow:
1. For energy: Maize upto 65 % of the ration, jowar (sorghum) upto 45 %, wheat
upto 25 % with enzyme, wheat bran upto 15%, rice upto 15%, rice by-products
 (bran, polishing) upto 15%,
2. For protein: Soybean meal upto 30%, sesame oil cake upto 10%, corn gluten upto
15%, linseed meal-15 % (20% in layers), ground nut oil cake upto 20 %,
safflower meal or sunflower meal upto 10%, meat meal or fish meal upto 10%,
blood meal or feather meal upto 2%
3. For energy and essential fatty acids: Fats and oils like tallow, lard, soybean oil,
coconut oil or palm oil up to 5% after 3 weeks. Poultry fat, fish oil and vegetable
oils are good sources of linoleic acid which is dietary essential in birds. Besides
supplying energy, the addition of fat improves the absorption of fat-soluble
vitamins but increases the inclusion of antioxidants. Birds fed diets having higher
levels of poly unsaturated fatty acids tend to produce soft fat.
4. For minerals, vitamins, essential amino acids and additives: Calcium can be
added in the form of limestone powder (LSP), dicalcium phosphate (DCP) and
oyster or other marine shells. Phosphorus can be added from manufactured
products such as dicalcium or monocalcium phosphate. Phytate phosphorus only
becomes available when phytase enzyme is added to the ration. Sodium and
chlorine are usually added as salt (NaCl) at about 0.25% of the ration. If animal
by-products are being fed the minerals present in these feed ingredients should be
used in the calculation of the amount to be added. Trace minerals and vitamins
are required in small quantities. Synthetic trace minerals and vitamins are
commercially available for poultry and added to their diets as per needs. These
are added to the ration as per the instruction of the manufacturers. Organic or
inorganic synthetic amino acids like methionine, lysine, etc. are also added to the
feed. Commercial preparations of additives like probiotics, prebiotics, enzymes,
acidifiers, emulsifiers, antioxidants, anticoccidials, toxin binders, etc. are mixed
with the feeds at the rate following manufacturers’ recommendations.

Method of Feed Formulation

Steps in feed formulation

Suppose we want to prepare 100 kg ration for broiler starter (nutrient requirement as
per BIS 2007: (CP = 22 % and ME = 3100 kcal/kg diet). In practical diet formulation by
calculation the essential steps are as follows.

Step I:
Minor ingredients are fixed at slack space (4.125 kg) may be left to include them later
(Table 1). Trace minerals, vitamins, feed additives can be fixed because the contribution of
major feed ingredients for these nutrients is little. Slack space may be left for addition of salt,
calcium and phosphorus sources, supplemental amino acid to balance the diet.
Ingredients in slack space

S.No. Ingredients Parts (%)

1. Common salt 0.325

2. Dicalcium phosphate (DCP) 1.758
3. Limestone powder (LSP) 1.375
4. DL-methionine 0.227
5. L-lysine 0.105
6. Toxin binder 0.050
7. Coccidiostat (Maduramicin) 0.050
8. Choline chloride 0.050
9. Sodium bicarbonate 0.10
10. Trace mineral premix 0.050
11. Vitamin Premix 0.025
12 Antioxidants 0.010
Total 4.125

Step II:
Vegetable protein sources and energy sources are added to provide the required
amount
of protein and energy. Till now 4. 125 kg of ingredients were added. Remaining 95. 875 kg
of ingredients are to be added to get 22.0% protein because slack space will not provide any
protein.

Soybean meal as vegetable protein sources and maize as energy sources are considered. The
required protein level can be calculated by Pearson’s square formula.
Table – Final ration for broiler starter

Ingredients Parts/kg CP (%) ME (kcal/kg)

Maize 52.4 5.28 1729.20
Soybean meal 38.4 16.72 921.60
Vegetable Oil 5.1 448.80
Common Salt 0.325
DCP 1.758
LSP 1.325
DL-meithionine 0.227 0.22
L-lysine 0.105 0.10
Toxin binder 0.050
Coccidiostat 0.050
Sodium bi carbonate 0.050
Trace mineral 0.050
Vitamin premix 0.025
Antioxidant 0.010
Total 100 21.996 3099.6
 Physical Form of Diet
The methods give the information about quantity of ingredients used in feed
formulation. The nutrients for poultry are properly utilized when the formulated feed is given
in suitable physical form respective to categories of birds. The poultry feeds are generally
prepared in the following physical forms.
Mash
Ground and completely homogenously mixed feed is called mash. This feed is
suitable for all categories of birds. The preparation cost is less and loss of nutrient during
processing is also less but the major disadvantage of feeding mash feed is that there is
wastage of feed during handling and consumption by birds.
Pellet
Ground feed compacted by steaming and forcing the material through die openings is
called pellet. This feed is suitable for all categories of birds more than age of 2 -3 weeks. The
preparation cost is more as compared to mash feed. However, the wastage of feed is less and
selective feeding is prevented causing optimum utilization.
Crumble
Pelleted feed reduced to granular form is called crumble. This feed is more suitable
for birds of 0 -3 weeks of age because of smaller particle size of feed. The preparation cost is
more as compared to mash feed. The wastage of feed is less and selective feeding is also
prevented similar to pelleted feed.

Feeding Management of chicken

Poultry can be managed under different feeding systems, depending on the husbandry
practice and feeds available.
1. Complete dry feed offered as a mash ad libitum
2. Complete dry feed offered as pellets or crumbles ad libitum
3. Complete feed with added whole grain
4. Complete wet feed given once or twice a day
5. A complete feed offered on a restricted basis
6. Choice feeding- Choice feeding can be applied on both a small or large
commercial scale. Under choice feeding or ‘free-choice feeding’ birds are usually
offered a choice among three types of feedstuffs:
An energy source (e.g. maize, rice bran, sorghum or wheat)
A protein source (e.g. soybean meal, meat meal, fish meal or coconut meal) plus
vitamins and minerals
In the case of laying hens, calcium in granular form (i.e. oyster-shell grit)

Feeding Management of Broiler

Broiler feeding programme is more emphasized on live weight gain and feed
conversion ratio of broilers and profitability of farmers. The growth of broilers depends upon
the level of balanced protein in their diet along with other nutrients. In absence of optimum
level of protein and amino acids the growth is restricted and birds need longer time to reach
the marketable weight. The feeding of high protein (23% CP) in initial phase results in
higher weight gain and due to lower feed intake it does not significantly affect the cost of
production. In finishing stage the energy level is enhanced to convert energy into body fat,
thereby producing the desired body weight for the market.
During feeding the feeds should be appropriate in particle size for maximum
acceptability. Crumble feeds are more suitable for age of 0-3 weeks and latter mash or
palleted feed is given. The feed should be free from all type of contamination and fungal
infestation. The feeding is done with right kinds of feeding equipments for chicks. Small
feeder should be used and their number should be more. As the size of birds increase feeder
height and size is increased. The feeding is generally done twice in a day morning and
evening when feed intake is likely to be the highest due to lower environmental temperature.
There always must be provision of fresh and clean drinking water optimum performances of
the birds.
The feed intake during initial age is very small and it is increased after the age of 2
weeks resulting in higher weight gain and after the age of 6-8 week the feed consumption is
high but gain is less so at this age the birds are suitable for table use.
The main factors that influence the feed intake are breed characteristics, feeds and
feeding management and environmental temperature.
During the hot weather birds require less energy to maintain body temperature. As
environmental temperature increases birds consume less feed at the rate of 1.5% with
increase of 10C rise in environmental temperature. This means birds tend to get less protein
and other nutrients which cause reduction in growth and production. To avoid this effect the
nutrient density of ration should be increased in correct proportion during summer months.
The broiler birds have higher feed intake, higher digestibility of feed and higher rate
of conversion of feed into body mass. Feed conversion ratio (FCR) is defined as the ratio
between amount of consumed feed and body weight gain for a specified period. Presently the
FCR of broiler birds ranges around 1.6-1.7. The FCR has inverse relationship with feed
efficiency or feed utilization efficiency.
Factors affecting FCR
Factors affecting FCR are
1. Type of feed: When feed is balanced in nutrients the FCR is low.
2. Forms of feed: When crumble and pellet feeds are given to chicks the FCR is low
as compared to mash feeding.
3. Strain of bird: Strain of birds affects the FCR, e.g. Vencobb-200 has FCR
around 1.7 and Vencobb-400 having FCR around 1.65.
4. Environmental temperature: FCR is directly proportional to
environmental temperature.
5. Age and weight of the bird: Initially FCR is low. As the age advances the FCR
also becomes higher.
6. Poor health of birds and farm management increase FCR.

A
 Average growth rate and feed requirements for broiler
chicken (2014):

Balanced Age in daily feed Weekly Cumulativ Body Total FCR

feed weeks intake/bir total feed e feed weight body (Cum)
d (g) intake (g) intake (g) gain (g) weight (g)
0 day little 40 g
pre-starter 1st week 25 175 175 188 228 1.07
pre-starter 2nd week 45 315 490 440 480 1.11
starter 3rd week 70 490 980 790 830 1.24
starter 4th week 120 840 1820 1280 1320 1.42
finisher 5th week 145 1015 2835 1795 1835 1.58
finisher 6th week 150 1050 3885 2290 2330 1.69
3885

NUTRITION UNDER STRESS CONDITION

NUTRITIONAL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY BIRDS DURING SUMMER:

Today poultry birds are more susceptible to heat stress than ever before due to their
higher production performance and feed conversion efficiency. Poultry production in the
tropical countries suffers badly due to high ambient temperature and humidity. Because, in
hotter months there are some undesirable effects on the performances of poultry birds and
ultimately leads to economical losses to the poultry farmers. There is decreased feed intake
but increased water intake. There is reduction in production of eggs, reduced size of egg,
poor shell quality and increased cracked eggs. There is decreased weight gain of the birds
and poor feed conversion efficiency, lower disease resistance. Decreased number of fertile
eggs and reduced hatchability percentage. Prostration due to heat stroke and possible
mortality ultimately causes economic loss in poultry industry.
Effects of summer heat on feed intake of poultry birds:
Poultry birds take feed primarily to fulfill its energy requirements or to keep its body
warm. There are two sources of energy for the poultry birds. One is from the feed itself and
another source is the environmental temperature. When feed energy is increased in a constant
environmental temperature then feed intake of the bird decreases. Feed intake of the bird is
also decreases when the environmental temperature is increased though the feed energy
remains constant. The ideal ambient temperature range for poultry birds lies between 13-
200C. Consumption of feed decreases by 1.5- 2% for every 10C increase in ambient
temperature in the range of 200C-300C while the feed intake may decline by 4-5% for each
10C rise in temperature in the range of 30-400C. So, in high environmental temperature only
energy requirement of the feed is reduced but other dietary nutrient requirements like protein,
minerals and vitamins remain the same, in fact the summer diets need to contain higher level
of these nutrients.
 Feeding protocols to be followed during the period of high temperature:
The increasing proportion of poultry production in tropical and subtropical regions
makes it necessary to reconsider the nutritional strategies which aimed to alleviate the
negative effects of heat stress by maintaining feed intake, electrolytic and water balance and
by supplementing micronutrients such as Vitamins and minerals to satisfy the special needs
during heat stress. To enhance the birds' thermotolerance by early heat conditioning or feed
restriction seems to be one of the most promising management methods in enhancing the
heat resistance of poultry birds.
The fall in feed consumption may cause general or specific nutrient deficiency.
Strategies such as temporary feed restriction or feeding at specific times of the day,
increasing density of nutrients in diet (because feed intake decreases during heat stress),
providing birds with extra electrolytes and vitamin (especially through drinking water), and
changing the lighting programme may all be helpful in managing heat stress-induced
problems in poultry.
There are two simple ways to increase nutrient consumption are to increase nutrient
density and take advantage of natural increases in feed consumption at certain times of the
day. A very direct way to ensure optimum nutrient intake despite decreases in feed
consumption is to increase the nutrient density of the ration. During the hottest period of the
day when ambient temperature exceeds 360C, then offering of feed to the birds should be
restricted. But a wet mash prepared by mixing water can be offered in feeders during the
hotter parts of the day. It will result in higher intake but no mash should remain in the feeders
overnight otherwise mould will grow in the wet feed. Use anti-stress drugs, vitamins like
vitamin A, E, C and probiotics in the feed or water.
If birds are fed during the cooler part of the day, feed consumption will be higher. So,
birds should be encouraged to consume feed at night and early in the morning that is at
cooler part of the day. Birds should not be fed during the afternoon in periods of hot weather
since this will increase the amount of body heat that they must dissipate and thus increase the
potential for heat prostration. During the late afternoon there is a significant rise in body
temperature, which, if severe, may kill the bird. The late afternoon may not be the hottest
time in the day, but it is the peak of digestion in birds when eating in the early-mid morning
period. A good management strategy for layers to aid in reducing heat stress is to withdraw
feed prior to the anticipated time of peak temperature so that it may take an unneeded heat
load off the bird. For broilers, a period of darkness in the late afternoon can be used to avoid
excessive activity. If using a feed withdrawal program, it can be beneficial to give
supplemental lights during the period of natural darkness. For night feeding light schedule
should be adjusted with intermittent lighting program. A second alternative is to feed the
birds at the time of day when feed consumption is highest. The light-to-dark cycle results in
a U-shaped feed consumption curve. Shortly after light come on, feed consumption is high. It
gradually declines during midday and then increases about 1 hour before lights are turned
off.
 When the laying house temperature is above 320C, birds are uncomfortable and the feed
consumption is greatly reduced with low egg production. Over 370C, the mortality rate is
rather high. Coupled with these, the farmer often faces low egg prices also. For each 2.50C
increase in house temperature above 300C, the energy requirement changes about 22Kcal/kg
of feed. The heat stress can be reduced by feeding diets with result in relatively lower heat
increment production in the body. Among the nutrients utilized by the body for energy, the
fat energy has lower feed increment capacity than proteins and carbohydrates. Protein causes
the maximum heat increment. As the total amount of energy in the feed is decreased, the
proportion of total energy provided by the added fat may be as high as 4.5% of the ration.
This practice not only increases the energy intake, but also reduces the specific dynamic
effect of the diet thus helping birds to cope better with heat stress. As compared to proteins
and carbohydrates the digestion of fat results in less production of body heat per calorie of
feed energy. The heat load of the bird can be replaced by reducing other dietary energy with
dietary fat. Reduced growth rate due to heat stress can partially be overcome by increasing
fat calories of diet. The non-energy nutrients like proteins, amino acids, minerals and
vitamins are increased in the feed formulae in proportion to feed intake. The protein content
of the feed may be reduced by about 0.5% below the calculated value if better quality
proteins containing more of lysine and methionine are used in place of incomplete proteins.
In some cases the intake of required amino acids can be optimized by providing synthetic
amino acids such as lysine and methionine in increased quantity. Otherwise provision of
higher rate of animal protein should be made. Vitamin supplement must be increased by 20-
40% depending up on the heat stress. Increase mineral supplementation by 20-30% as feed
consumption is lowered in summer. So, nutritional manipulations such as addition of fat,
reduction of protein, addition of essential amino acids, minerals and vitamins is one of the
option to be followed to ameliorate the effect of heat stress in the poultry birds.
At higher temperature there is a reduction in the body synthesis of Vitamin C. There is
impairment of the thyroid gland function of the birds in high ambient temperature. Addition
of vitamin C can partially restore this impairment and protect the birds from the effect of
heat stress by drastically reducing the mortality due to heat stress. Vitamin C @330 mg/kg
feed or water should be provided to the birds in the hotter days. With the Vitamin C
supplementation of summer diets there is an improvement in egg production and shell quality
of eggs.
Pellet feeding is beneficial when low energy diets are used in summer months. In order
to enhance increase in feed intake, the feed should also be offered in pelletted form.
Provision of 10% more feeders inside the shed may encourage the birds to consume more
food

Drinking Water management during summer:

The normal intake of feed: water is 1:2 but this ratio rises to nearly 1:4 or even more
when temperature exceeds 350C. Birds need more water at higher temperatures. It is always
recommended to provide birds with cool water. So, plenty of clean and cool water must be
ensured during the summer months. Lowering the water temperature helps to keep the birds
cool. Ensure that the water is clean and of optimum quality. Waterers must be protected from
sunlight to prevent heating of water. Waterers must be provided in adequate number on deep
litter system along with fresh supply of clean water at regular intervals which may be
minimum four times a day. Cool water must be provided to the newly arrived chicks. This
helps to avoid dehydration and stress. Addition of dextrose and electrolytes may help to
maintain the ionic balance of the body in extreme summer heat. Because the electrolyte
balance in birds is altered during heat stress due to panting. Panting increases carbon dioxide
loss in the bird, which reduces the bird’s ideal water intake. By adding electrolytes to the
feed or water, birds increase their water intake, which aids in keeping a constant body
temperature and maintains an effective system of evaporative cooling. Potassium chloride
and ammonium chloride @ 2-3kg/ ton of feed is beneficial in reducing mortality in birds.
These replace electrolytes which can correct the acid base imbalance during hotter days and
encourage consumption of water. Molasses or jaggery may be added to water in hot days.
The concentration of medicines in drinking water should be reduced in summer months as
the water consumption of the birds is very high. There was beneficial effect to use water
having sodium bicarbonate (1000 mg/liter) for boiler rearing during summer season. It
increases water intake and improves survivability and performance of broilers. The high
environmental temperature causes excessive loss of CO2 due to hyper ventilation and
respiratory alkalosis develops. So, concentration of HCO3 in the blood decreased and blood
pH is increased. Thin shelled or shell less egg is the result of this condition. Supplementation
with sodium- bi- carbonate in feed @ 4 kg/ton or in drinking water will be helpful in this
condition.

NUTRITION AND INFECTIOUS DISEASES

 During early stages of Ranikhet disease, requirement of vitamin K is increased.
 Vitamin A in excess than the minimum levels needed for growth is important in
the prevention of severe lesions and losses from the CRD.
 Excess protein above the normal requirements markedly increases the vitamin A
requirements of chicks.
 Vitamin A is involved in maintaining the integrity of the cells of the mucous
membrane and secretion of mucus.
 Vitamin A helps in increasing the antibody synthesis against pathogens. e.g.
Salmonella.
 Folic acid deficiency causes a marked reduction in the number of white blood
cells. Its deficiency also causes anemia.
Feeding of antibiotic: It is used in reducing early chick mortality and also in times of stress.
Thus, this is indicated in stress conditions like overheating, chilling, vaccination, deworming
and debeaking. It is fed 2 days prior to stress and 2-5 days following stress.

NUTRITION AND COCCIDIOSIS

 Chickens receiving ten times more vitamin A than the minimum requirement gain
their appetite faster and also grow faster, when infected with oocyst of coccidian.
Vitamin A store of the infected bird is lowered down as compared with the
healthy chicken. Dose: In severe out-break 60 I.U. dose of vitamin A per bird per
day almost completely prevented mortality, while mortality was almost complete
in the chickens fed vitamin A deficient
diet. Vitamin A is important for keeping the epithelial lining of the intestine
healthy and intact.
 Requirement of vitamin K increases (from normal 1.2 mg/kg to 8 mg/kg feed) in
the coccidiosis affected birds which gives maximum growth rate and feed
efficiency in the affected birds.
 Higher levels of dietary protein and Ca favors establishment of oocysts of
coccidia but a low protein and low Ca diet discourage them. For activation of
trypsin enzyme, protein and Ca is required. Whenever trypsin activity is low, due
to low Ca and protein, cysts of oocysts of coccidia are not dissolved; hence, ova
are not released in the intestine.
Dairy ration and feed formulations

The Feed Pyramid

Use the Feed Pyramid to think about how rations should be formulated and cows fed.
A basic ration with high quality forages (bottom three sections of pyramid) should
support up to 75 lb of milk per day. Fats, bypass proteins and feed additives are
needed by higher producing cows and should top off the base ration.

Feed
additives

Fat Bypass
suppl. protein

Minerals and vitamins

NFC feeds Rumen

Grains degradable
Byproducts protein

FORAGES
PHYSICAL FIBER
 DRY MATTER INTAKE (DMI)

Milk Cows

DMI (lb/day) = .0185 × BW* + .305 × 4% FAT MILK (lb/day)

4% FAT MILK (lb/day) = .4 × MILK (lb/day) + 15 × FAT (lb/day)

Estimated daily DMI for milk cows

Body weight, lb
3.75%
fat milk 900 1100 1300 1500
- - - - - - - - - - - - - DMI, lb/day* - - - - - - - - - -
---
30 26 29 33 37
50 31 35 39 42
60 34 38 42 45
70 37 41 45 48
80 40 44 48 51
90 43 47 50 54
100 50 53 57
100+ 52 56 60
*Decrease DMI .2%/day for cows <90 days in milk

Dry Cows

Far-off (2 to 8 weeks before

freshening) DMI (lb/day)
= 1.8 to 2.0% BW
Close-up (0-2 weeks before freshening)
DMI (lb/day) = 1.5% BW

DMI guidelines for dry cows DMI range

BW Far-off Close-up
- - lb - - - - lb/day - - - - lb/day - -
900 16 - 18 14 - 16
1100 20 - 22 16 - 18
1300 23 - 26 18 - 22
1500 27 - 30 20 - 24
*BW = Body weight
Check the following when observed DMI is different than expected:

(DMI is amount the cows consume, not amount fed)

DMI 5% above guidelines

1. Feed weight accuracy - mixer scales calibrated, good feed mixing.

2. Weigh back amounts accounted for.
3. Moisture or DM content of feeds correct.
4. Cow body weights.
5. Compare milk production to amount of DMI. Cows should average 1.8 to 2.2 lb
of milk per lb of DMI.

DMI less than predicted

1. Ration DM below 50%.

2. Empty bunks, cows not on full feed.
3. Inadequate bunk space, crowded facilities.
4. High fiber ration, check NDF and ADF.
5. Low salt intake.
6. Water intake restricted or quality problem.
7. Moldy feed.
8. Poor bunk management, old feed not cleaned out.
9. Unpalatable feeds and/or low quality forages being fed.
10. Heat stress and/or poor barn ventilation.
11. Excess RUP (bypass protein) being fed.
 ENERGY - REQUIREMENTS AND SOURCES

Carbohydrates and fat are the major source of energy in dairy rations.
Carbohydrates should be considered as the primary source with fat an additional
source when ration energy recommendations cannot be met.

Ration recommendations and concentrations

Lactation stage
Item Early Mid Late Dry Close-up
Net energy-lactation
(NEL), Mcal/lb .78 - .81 .74 - .78 .70 - .74 .60 - .65 .70
Non-fiber carbohydrates
(NFC), % 37 - 42 35 - 40 30 - 40 20 - 30 35
Fat, add %, maximum 3 3 2 0 1

Non-fiber carbohydrate (NFC) is a measure of starches, sugars and pectins. NFC

values for feeds are calculated as follows:
NFC (%) = 100 - [NDF% + CP% + ASH% + FAT%]
All values are on a DM basis

Excess ration NFC symptoms

1. Low or fluctuating DMI.

2. Low milk fat %, high milk protein %.
3. Acidosis problems.
4. Rapid hoof growth, sore feet.
5. Excessive corn in the manure.

Inadequate ration NFC symptoms

1. No peak milk, generally low production.

2. Considerable body weight loss, especially in early lactation.
3. Ketosis problems.
4. High milk fat %, low milk protein %.
Fat feeding guidelines

1. Maximum fat added to a lactating ration should be 4% of DM.

2. General feeding guidelines, maximum amount of fat from source:

Animal fat - 1.0

lb/cow/day Plant/vegetable -
1.2 lb/cow/day Inert fats
- 1.0
lb/cow/day
3. Symptoms of excess fat feeding:
Low DMI
Over-conditioned
(fat) cows Loose
greasy manure
High milk fat test (>3.6%) with low fiber (<19% ADF) ration

Grain processing/rumen degradability

Rumen degradability or digestion of starch from fastest to lowest in grains as

follows: Oats, Wheat, Barley, Corn, Sorghum

Processing also affects degradability with steam flaking, fine grinding and
ensiling increasing degradability compared to coarse or whole dry grains.

Energy feeds
NEL Fat NFC Feeding limit
Feed Mcal/lb % % lb/cow/day
- - - - - - - - - DM basis - - - - - - - - - - - As fed - -
Grains
Corn, shelled 0.92 4 75 25
Ear corn 0.90 3 62 30
Barley 0.87 2 61 15
Oats 0.75 2 46 15
Byproducts
Beet pulp 0.81 3 30 10
Brewers grains - wet 0.81 6 21 25
Corn gluten feed 0.82 3 19 15
Distillers grains 0.99 10 16 5
Soybean hulls 0.85 2 14 10
Wheat midds 0.87 5 34 10
Fats
Tallow 2.65 99 0 1.0
Vegetable fats
 Free oil 2.65 99 0 0.5
Cottonseed, fuzzy 1.01 20 13 7
Soybeans, cracked 0.92 19 16 5
Sunflowers, whole 1.10 40 10 3
Rumen inert fats 2.5+ 80+ 0 1

PROTEIN RECOMMENDATIONS AND SOURCES

Four forms of protein are often considered in evaluating or formulating rations. Crude
protein (CP), or total protein, is first and foremost. Rumen degradable protein (RDP)
and rumen undegradable protein (RUP) are used to fine-tune protein feeding. Soluble
protein (SP) is considered in some cases for rumen fermentation, and should be
about 50% of RDP in rations.

Ration protein recommendations

Lactation stage
Far-off Close-up
Protein Early Mid Late dry dry
CP, % of DM 18 - 19 16 - 17 13 - 15 12 - 13 15 - 16
RDP, % of CP 60 - 65 64 - 68 64 - 68 65 - 68 60 - 64
RUP, % of CP 35 - 40 32 - 36 32 - 36 32 - 35 36 - 40
SP, % of CP 30 - 35 30 - 40 30 - 40 30 - 35 30 - 35

Protein Checks and Considerations

1. All rations should be balanced for CP requirements first and then for RDP,
RUP and SP.
2. Guideline is: 1 lb of CP is required to produce 10 lb of milk (example: 7 lb CP
intake = 70 lb milk).
3. Forages should be checked for loss of CP from heat damage.
Heat damage indicators:
ADF-CP/CP ratio >13%
Forage color is dark brown
to black Manure dark color
and dry
DMI high with low milk production

4. Excess RUP in ration results in:

Lowered milk
production
Manure may be
 stiff, dry
DMI low because of inadequate rumen RDP decreasing digestibility of feeds

5. Excess RDP in ration indicators:

Low milk production; high, early peaks with low
persistency High milk urea nitrogen (MUN) levels:
(>18 mg/dl)
Loose manure
6. General RUP and RDP feeding guidelines based on forages in the
ration: High corn silage, >50% of forage DMI
 Limit use of corn based protein supplements like corn gluten meal,
brewers grains and corn distillers grains because of low
lysine contents
 Feed soybean meal based protein supplements
 Consider feeding some urea
High alfalfa based rations, >50% of forage DMI
 More need for higher RUP supplements
 Corn based or animal RUP sources complement alfalfa protein

Protein sources Feed CP

% of DM - - - - - - - - - % of CP - - - - - - - - -
Grains
Corn, dry 10 50 50 12
Corn, high-moisture 10 60 40 30
Barley 13 75 25 22
Oats 13 80 20 30
Forages
Alfalfa hay 20 70 30 35
Alfalfa haylage - <40% DM 20 80 20 60
- 40-50% DM 20 75 25 50
- >55% DM 20 70 30 40
Grass hay 12 63 37 35
Grass haylage 12 70 30 50
Corn silage 8 70 30 45
Corn silage - NPN Protein 12 65 35 55
sources Blood meal
88 20 80 10
Brewers grains, dry 28 47 53 10
Canola meal 40 77 28 25
Corn gluten meal 68 45 55 5
Cottonseed, fuzzy 24 65 35 27
Distillers dry grains 32 45 55 15
Fish meal 67 30 70 10
Linseed meal 38 65 35 40
Meat and bone meal 54 45 55 15
Soybean meal - 44% 49 65 35 18
Soybeans, raw 41 80 20 30
Soybeans, heated 41 50 50 18
Sunflower, meal 32 76 24 30
Urea 287 100 0 100
 FIBER AND FORAGE RECOMMENDATIONS

Three measures of fiber should be evaluated in dairy rations: Acid Detergent Fiber
(ADF), Neutral Detergent Fiber (NDF), and NDF from Forage (NDF-Forage). The
NDF- Forage considers the NDF from hays, haylages, corn silage and 50% of the
NDF in whole cottonseed. Any NDF from non-forage sources, like grains or
byproducts other than cottonseed, are not considered in calculating NDF-Forage.
Ration guidelines are below:

Lactation stage
Measure Early Mid Late Dry
ADF, minimum 18* 20 21 28
NDF, minimum 28 28 32 35
NDF-Forage, minimum 20 21 21 25
NDF-Forage, maximum 24 26 28 --
*Increase to 20% minimum when fat added to rations

Effective, Physical or Cud Chewing Fiber

Cows need a minimum of 15 and preferably 20% of the forage particles over 1.5
inches long to stimulate rumination. Cows should chew 11 to 12 hours/day or about
15 minutes/lb of DMI.

Particle size guidelines - Forages and TMR

Separator box level
Feed Top Middle Bottom
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - % by weight - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Chopped hay 15 - 25 40 - 60 <30
Haylage 15 - 25 30 - 50 <40
Corn silage <5 50 - 65 <40
TMR >7 30 - 50 <50
Assessing fiber adequacies in rations:

Excess fiber

1. Low milk production, cows not peaking.

2. DMI lower than expected.
3. High milk fat %.
4. Energy content of feed or ration is generally inverse of fiber content. High
fiber levels mean low energy. Early lactation cows fed high forage rations
may become ketotic and have rapid and excessive body weight loss.

Fiber deficiencies

1. Acidosis, off-feed problems, fluctuating DMI.

2. Low milk fat %.
3. Cows not chewing their cud.

Byproduct fiber values:

Feeds like whole (fuzzy) cottonseed can substitute for some forage in rations. Their
"effectiveness" to substitute for forage fiber depends on particle size. Grinding and
processing tends to reduce particle size and, thus, reduce the effectiveness of even
high fiber byproducts substituting for large quantities of forages in rations. All rations
should contain a minimum of 20% NDF-Forage (DM basis). Effective fiber from
forages and high fiber byproduct feeds should be a minimum of 75% of total NDF in
the ration.

Effective NDF (% of NDF) of some feeds

Feed NDF, % Effective NDF, % NDF NDF-Forage, %
Legumes and grasses
Hay 45 100 100
Haylage - coarse 45 80 100
Haylage - fine 45 60 100
Corn silage
1/4" chop 24 70 100
Processed 32 80 100
Concentrates
Barley 19 40 7.6
Beet pulp 41 40 16.4
Brewers grains 47 35 16.5
Corn, ear 26 35 9.1
Corn, shelled 10 0 0
Corn gluten feed 35 35 12.2
Cottonseed, whole 44 50 22.0
 Malt sprouts 44 45 19.8
Soybean hulls 64 20 12.8
Wheat midds 36 33 12.0

MINERAL AND VITAMIN GUIDELINES

Ration guidelines
Lactation stage
Mineral/vitamin Early Mid Late Dry: far-off
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - % of DM - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Calcium >0.80 0.70 0.60 0.50
Phosphorus 0.50 0.45 0.40 0.30
Magnesium >0.30 0.25 0.20 0.20
Potassium 1.50 1.20 1.20 0.65
Salt 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50
Sulfur 0.25 0.20 0.20 0.20
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - PPM - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Iodine 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60
Iron 50 50 50 50
Cobalt 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10
Copper 10 10 10 10
Manganese 40 40 40 40
Selenium 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30
Zinc 40 40 40 40
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1000 IU/day - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Vitamin A 150 100 100 80
Vitamin D 30 30 30 25
Vitamin E 0.5 0.5 0.5 1.0
Some key mineral and vitamin evaluation points:

Lactating cows

Calcium: >150 grams/day or .75% of ration DM

Phosphorus: about 100 grams but maximum of .50% of ration DM
Calcium at: .9 to 1% and magnesium at .3% when fat is included in
ration
Salt: 3 to 4 ounces/cow/day (1 oz for maintenance plus 1 oz/25 lb of
milk) DCAD of: +20 milliequivalents or greater/100 grams of DM
Selenium: 6 to 7 milligrams/cow/day
Vitamin E: 400 to 600 IU/day
Dry cows

Calcium: <100 grams/day

Phosphorus: 30 to 40 grams/day
Vitamin E: 800 to 1000 IU/day

Close-up dry cows - without anionic salts

Calcium: <100 grams/day without

anionic salts Potassium: <1% of DM
Other minerals: same as for far-off dry cows

Close-up dry cows - with anionic salts

Calcium: 150 grams/day

Phosphorus: 40 grams/day
Magnesium: 4% of DMI
Sodium (Na): .05% of DMI
Potassium (K): 65% of DMI

Chloride (Cl): up to .8% of DMI

Sulfur (S): up to .4% of DMI
 Example ration: Na - .1%, K - 1.2%, Cl - 1% and S - .45% (DM basis)
[(.1% × 43.5) + (1.2% × 25.6)] - [(1% × 28.2) + (.45% ×
62.6)] = -21.3 meq/100 grams DM

DCAD calculation: [(Na% × 43.5) + (K% × 25.6)] - [(Cl% × 28.2) +

(S% × 62.6)]

*Goal: -10 to -30 meq/100 g of DMI

BODY CONDITION SCORES

Recommended scoring time Body condition score 1 = thin; 5 = fat

Freshening 3.2 - 3.5
Breeding, 60-90 days 2.5 - 3.0
Late lactation 3.0 - 3.5
Dry off 3.2 - 3.5

Body condition should not drop more than .5 score from freshening to pregnancy.

Weight gain during lactation requires about 2.5 lb of corn (2.3 Mcal NEL) /lb of gain in
addition to grain for milk.

NUTRITION MANAGEMENT

Feed Bunk

 1 to 3% weigh back or feed remaining after 24-hour feeding period.

 Cows need 24 to 30 inches of linear bunk space, but may get by at 12 inches if
TMR fed and available at all times.

 Cows eat best in grazing position off smooth surfaces.

Ration Formulation

 When balancing rations, the reference cow should be at the 75th percentile of the
herd. To calculate reference cow, take the average peak milk of older cows and
add the daily average of all cows and divide by 2.

Example: Bulk tank average - 60 lb, peak milk older cows

 - 86 lb (60 + 86) 2 = 73 lb of milk to balance
for

Two groups: Balance rations at 20% above average

milk production of each group.
Three or more groups: Balance rations at 10 to 15% above average
milk production of each group.Water Intake

 Cows should consume 3 to 5 lb of water per pound of DM consumed.

Example: 50 lb DM intake at 4 lb of water/lb of milk DM intake

= 200 lb of water/day or 200 8 lb/gallon = 25 gallons

Ration Check

All rations should contain at least 1 feed from each category:

Forage
Grains
Protein
supplements Ca P mineral
Salt

FEED COST GUIDELINES

Target - Milking Cows

<$5.00/cwt milk produced

Daily cow cost: $3.00 to $4.00

Ingredient
costs % of total
daily cost
Feed
Forages 35 - 50
Grains/byproducts 30 - 40
Purchased protein, minerals, 10 - 20
vitamins, additives