Advisory Board

Dr. Chumnarn Pongsri, SEAFDEC Secretary-General and

Chief of SEAFDEC/TD
Mr. Kenji Matsumoto, SEAFDEC Deputy Secretary-General
and Deputy Chief of SEAFDEC/TD
Mr. Yeap Soon Eong, Chief of SEAFDEC/MFRD
Dr. Joebert D. Toledo, Chief of SEAFDEC/AQD
Ms. Mahyam Mohd. Isa, Chief of SEAFDEC/MFRDMD
Dr. Magnus Torell, SEAFDEC Senior Advisor

Editor-in-Chief
Dr. Chumnarn Pongsri

Editorial Board
Ms. Nualanong Tongdee, Information Program
Coordinator, a.i., SEAFDEC Secretariat
Dr. Somboon Siriraksophon, Policy and Program
Coordinator, SEAFDEC Secretariat
Mr. Bundit Chokesanguan, Special Departmental
Coordinator of SEAFDEC/TD
Mr. Yeap Soon Eong
Ms. Belen O. Acosta, Special Departmental Coordinator
of SEAFDEC/AQD
Mr. Abu Talib Ahmad, Special Departmental Coordinator
of SEAFDEC/MFRDMD
Ms. Virgilia T. Sulit, Fisheries Technical Officer,
SEAFDEC Secretariat

Production Team
Ms. Nualanong Tongdee
Ms. Virgilia T. Sulit
Ms. Saivason Klinsukhon, Information Officer,
SEAFDEC Secretariat

Southeast Asian Fisheries

Development Center (SEAFDEC)
What is SEAFDEC?
SEAFDEC is an autonomous intergovernmental body
established as a regional treaty organization in 1967 to
promote sustainable fisheries development in Southeast
Asia.

Mandate:
“To develop and manage the fisheries potential of the
region by rational utilization of the resources for providing
food security and safety to the people and alleviating
poverty through transfer of new technologies, research
and information dissemination activities”

Member Countries:
Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Japan, Lao PDR,
Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and
Vietnam

The operations of SEAFDEC were undertaken through

its Secretariat and four technical departments, namely:
Training Department (TD); Marine Fisheries Research
Department (MFRD); Aquaculture Department (AQD); and
Marine Fishery Resources Development and Management
Department (MFRDMD).
 PREFACE

Information on status and trends of fisheries is widely recognized to be crucial in serving as a basis
for sustainable development and management of fisheries. The “Resolution on Sustainable Fisheries
for Food Security for the ASEAN Region Towards 2020” adopted during the ASEAN-SEAFDEC
Conference in 2011 emphasized the necessity to “strengthen knowledge/science-based development
and management of fisheries”; while the “Plan of Action” stressed the need to “strengthen national
statistical mechanisms for fisheries and aquaculture and the exchange of statistical data and related
information; and include other non-routine data and information such as fish consumption surveys as
well as mobilizing local and indigenous knowledge with the aim of improving the valuation of fisheries
and monitoring their performance, to address the needs of the ecosystem approach to fisheries and
adaptation to climate change”.

SEAFDEC throughout the past decades had undertaken several activities to compile various forms
of fishery-related data and information. These include regional fishery statistics based on the national
statistics data provided by the Southeast Asian countries, as well as other data and information from
different SEAFDEC programs/projects, e.g. fishery resources surveys in the Southeast Asian waters,
information collection of highly migratory species, deep sea fishery resources exploration, tagging of
sea turtles and research study on their habitats, tagging of economically-important pelagic species,
development and usage of practical indicators for sustainable development and management of capture
fisheries, among others. However, the outputs from these initiatives had rarely been integrated or
digested to come up with information that could be used to support development and management for
sustainable fisheries of the region.

SEAFDEC therefore undertakes a pilot exercise in developing the publication entitled “The Southeast
Asian State of Fisheries and Aquaculture” or “SEASOFIA” aiming to provide platform for
compilation of synthesized data and information generated from various programs of activities,
incorporating other data and information available in the region, in order to provide better understanding
on the status and trends of fisheries and aquaculture of the region. Also included in the publication are
selected fisheries-related issues/challenges and the outlook of fisheries and aquaculture, in order to raise
awareness/preparedness and enhance the capacity of countries in the region in response to the issues.

This SEASOFIA 2012 is considered as our first step towards this direction. We do hope that you find
the information in this publication useful in providing clearer picture and better understanding on the
fisheries situation of the region; and could contribute to improving science-based policy planning and
management of fisheries in order to achieve sustainable fisheries and enhancing the contribution from
fisheries to food security in the years to come.

Chumnarn Pongsri, Ph.D.

Secretary-General
SEAFDEC
Preparation and Distribution of this Document

The Southeast Asian State of Fisheries and Aquaculture (SEASOFIA) was prepared by the Secretariat
of the Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC), in collaboration with the SEAFDEC
Departments, namely: Training Department (TD), Marine Fisheries Research Department (MFRD),
Aquaculture Department (AQD), and Marine Fishery Resources Development and Management Department
(MFRDMD). The document is distributed to the SEAFDEC Member Countries and Departments, partner
agencies, other fisheries-related organizations, as well as to the public to enhance the better understanding
on status and trends of fisheries and aquaculture of the Southeast Asian region.

Bibliographic Citation

SEAFDEC. 2012. The Southeast Asian State of Fisheries and Aquaculture 2012. Southeast Asian Fisheries
Development Center, Bangkok, Thailand. 130 p.

Notice of Copyrights

This publication may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, by any method or process,
without written permission from the copyright holder. Applications for such permission
with a statement of the purpose and extent of the reproduction desired should be made
through and addressed to:

SEAFDEC Secretariat
Kasetsart University Campus
P.O. Box 1046, Kasetsart Post Office,
Chatuchak, Bangkok 10903, THAILAND

Copyright©2012 by SEAFDEC

The production of this publication is supported

TRUS

AN

by the Japanese Trust Fund to SEAFDEC.

AP
TF

UN
FJ

D- O
FISHERIES AGENCY
 CONTENTS
Page
Preface
List of Tables
List of Boxes
List of Figures
List of Appendices
List of Acronyms

PART I. STATUS AND TRENDS OF CAPTURE FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE IN

SOUTHEAST ASIA
1. Global Production and Utilization of Fish 1
2. Fishery Production of Southeast Asia 2
3. Marine Capture Fisheries Production of Southeast Asia 3
3.1 Tunas 6
3.2 Sharks and Rays 7
4. Production from Inland Capture Fisheries of Southeast Asia 9
5. Aquaculture Production of Southeast Asia 11
5.1 Mariculture 13
5.2 Brackishwater Culture 15
5.3 Freshwater Aquaculture 16
6. Fish Trade 18
6.1 Global Trading of Fish and Fishery Products 19
6.2 Southeast Asian Export-Import of Fish and Fishery Products 21
7. Summary 23
PART II. ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN SUSTAINABLE FISHERIES DEVELOPMENT
OF THE SOUTHEAST ASIAN REGION
1. Marine Fishery Resources 27
1.1 Important Pelagic Fishery Resources 27
1.1.1 Tunas 27
1.1.2 Round Scads 29
1.1.3 Mackerels 31
1.1.4 Anchovies 34
1.1.5 Sardines 35
1.2 Deep Sea Fishery Resources 36
1.3 Species Under International Concern 37
1.3.1 Sharks and Rays 38
1.3.2 Tunas 40
1.3.3 Sea Turtles 41
1.3.4 Sea Cucumbers 45
1.3.5 Seahorses 46
2. Inland Fishery Resources 49
2.1 Status, Issues and Concerns 50
2.1.1 Inland Fisheries for Food Security and Poverty Alleviation 50
2.1.2 Data/Information Collection on Inland Fisheries 50
 Page
2.1.3 Impacts of Water Barrier Construction on Inland Fisheries 51
2.1.4 Inland Fisheries vs. Aquaculture 51
2.2 Challenges and Future Direction 51
3. Utilization of Fishery Resources 52
3.1 Status, Issues and Concerns 53
3.1.1 Onboard Post-harvest Technologies 53
3.1.2 Onshore Post-harvest Technologies 54
3.1.3 Utilization of New Fishery Resources and Waste Products 55
3.1.4 Traditional Products and Post-harvest Technologies 55
3.1.5 Post-harvest Technologies and Livelihoods 56
3.1.6 Post-harvest Quality, Safety and Control Systems 58
3.2 Challenges and Future Direction 59
4. Fisheries Management 59
4.1 Management of Fishing Capacity and Combating IUU Fishing 59
4.1.1 Fishing Vessel Registration and Fishing Licensing 60
4.1.2 Catch Documentation Including Logbook Systems 61
4.1.3 Port Monitoring and Port Inspection 62
4.1.4 Monitoring, Control and Surveillance Systems and Network 63
4.1.5 Legal and Institutional Matters 64
4.1.6 Future Direction 64
4.2 By-catch Reduction and Management 65
4.3 Community-based Fishery Management Approach in the Southeast 65
Asian Region
4.3.1 Issues and Concerns 66
4.3.2 Future Direction 69
4.4 Habitats Protection and Coastal Fishery Resources Enhancement 69
4.4.1 Issues and Concerns 69
4.4.2 Use of Big-size Artificial Reefs: Malaysian Experience 70
4.5 Responsible Fishing and Practices in Southeast Asia 73
4.5.1 Key Issues Related to Responsible Fisheries 73
4.6 Optimizing Energy Use in Fisheries 75
4.7 Safety at Sea and Standards for Fisheries in Southeast Asia 75
5. Aquaculture 75
5.1 Integration of Aquaculture in Rural Development 76
5.1.1 Aquaculture and Rural Development in Southeast Asia 76
5.1.2 Integrating Aquaculture in Rural Development: Issues and 77
Opportunities
5.1.3 Perspectives in Integrating Aquaculture in Rural Development 80
5.2 Good Quality Seeds for Aquaculture 81
5.2.1 Status of Seed Production 81
5.2.2 Issues and Concerns 81
5.2.3 Challenges and Future Direction 82
 Page
5.3 Disease Diagnosis, Control, Monitoring and Surveillance of Aquatic 83
Animals
5.3.1 Status, Issues and Concerns 83
5.3.2 Challenges and Future Direction 85
5.4 Development of Sustainable Aquaculture Feeds 86
5.4.1 Use of Fishmeals and Fish-based Products in Aquafeeds 86
5.4.2 Issues and Concerns 86
5.4.3 Challenges and Future Direction 88
5.5 Minimizing Impacts of Aquaculture on the Environment 89
5.5.1 Status, Issues and Concerns 89
5.5.2 Challenges and Future Direction 91
6. Adaptation and Mitigation of the Impacts of Climate Change 93
6.1 Vulnerability of Coastal Habitats 93
6.2 Impacts of Climate Change on Capture Fisheries 94
6.3 Impacts of Climate Change on Aquaculture Development 94
6.4 Adaptation Strategies 95
6.5 Reduction of Carbon Footprints from Fisheries 95
7. Human Resources in Fisheries 96
7.1 Status of Human Resources in Fisheries 96
7.2 Strategy for Human Resource Development in Fisheries in the 97
ASEAN Region
7.3 Way Forward 98
PART III. OUTLOOK OF FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE FOR THE SOUTHEAST
ASIAN REGION
1. Rising to the Challenges and Opportunities from the Establishment of the 99
ASEAN Community: Fisheries and the People Involved
2. Growing Demands of Fisheries that Challenge Food Security 99
3. Increasing Demands for Environmentally and Socially Sustainable 101
Development of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources in Southeast Asia
4. Future Direction and Way Forward 107
PART IV. APPENDICES
1. SEAFDEC Programs on Sea Turtles in Southeast Asia 109
2. Aquatic Species Farmed in Southeast Asian Countries and Sources of 111
Seedstocks
3. Genetic Methods Employed in Various Southeast Asian Countries for 112
Production of Quality Seeds for Aquaculture
4. Technical and Non-technical Issues in the Production of Quality 113
Seedstocks for Aquaculture in the Southeast Asian Region
5. Impacts of Climate Change on Fisheries and Aquaculture 114
PART V. REFERENCES 117
PART VI. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 129
List of Contributors to SEASOFIA 2012 130
 List of Tables
1. World’s fishery production and utilization from 2000 to 2009
2. Fishery production by continent from 2000 to 2009
3. Total fishery production of the Southeast Asian countries from 2000 to 2009
4. Fishery production (quantity and value) of Southeast Asia by sub-sector in 2009
5. Production volume from marine capture fisheries in Southeast Asia by country from 2000 to 2009
6. Production value from marine capture fisheries in Southeast Asia by country from 2000 to 2009
7. Production from marine capture fisheries of the Southeast Asian countries by species groups in 2009
8. Tuna production of Southeast Asia by country and by species in 2009
9 Total tuna production of Southeast Asia by FAO Fishing Area and by species in 2009
10. Contribution of sharks and rays to the total marine capture fisheries production of the Southeast
Asian region from 2000 to 2009
11. Production of sharks of the Southeast Asian countries from 2000 to 2009
12. Production of rays of the Southeast Asian countries from 2000 to 2009
13. Production of sharks and rays by species and by fishing area of some Southeast Asian countries
in 2009
14. Production volume from inland capture fisheries of the Southeast Asian countries from 2000 to 2009
15. Production value from inland capture fisheries of the Southeast Asian countries from 2000 to 2009
16. Contribution of inland capture fisheries to the respective Southeast Asian country’s total fishery
production in 2009
17. Aquaculture production by continent from 2000 to 2009
18. Total fishery and aquaculture production by aquaculture sub-sector of the Southeast Asian countries
from 2000 to 2009
19. Aquaculture production by aquaculture sub-sector of the Southeast Asian region in 2009
20. Production volume from mariculture of the Southeast Asian countries from 2000 to 2009
21. Production value from mariculture of the Southeast Asian countries from 2000 to 2009
22. Mariculture production in the Southeast Asia by species group from 2000 to 2009
23. Mariculture production in Southeast Asia by country and by major species in 2009
24. Production volume from brackishwater aquaculture of the Southeast Asian countries from 2000
to 2009
25. Production value from brackishwater aquaculture of the Southeast Asian countries from 2000
to 2009
26. Brackishwater culture production by major groups of species from 2000 to 2009
27. Brackishwater aquaculture production in Southeast Asia by country and by major species in 2009
28. Production volume from freshwater aquaculture of the Southeast Asian countries from 2000 to 2009
29. Production value from freshwater aquaculture of the Southeast Asian countries from 2000 to 2009
30. Freshwater aquaculture production of the Southeast Asian region by species groups from 2000
to 2009
31. Freshwater aquaculture production in Southeast Asia by country and by major species in 2009
32. World’s fishery production and trade by continent in 2008
33. World’s export volume of fish and fishery products by continent from 2000 to 2008
34. World’s export value of fish and fishery products by continent from 2000 to 2009
35. World’s import volume of fish and fishery products by continent from 2000 to 2008
36. World’s import value of fish and fishery products by continent from 2000 to 2009
37. World’s top ten exporters and importers of fish and fishery products in 2008
38 Trading of fish and fishery products by the Southeast Asian countries in 2008
39 Export volume of fish and fishery products by the Southeast Asian countries from 2000 to 2008
40. Export value of fish and fishery products by the Southeast Asian countries from 2000 to 2008
41. Fish and fishery products exported by Southeast Asia
42. Import volume of fish and fishery products by the Southeast Asian countries from 2000 to 2008
43. Import value of fish and fishery products by the Southeast Asian countries from 2000 to 2008
44. Production of major tuna species in the Southeast Asian region in 2008 and 2009
45. Production of major scad species in the Southeast Asian region in 2008 and 2009
46. Percent contribution of scads and mackerels to total fish production of Southeast Asia in 2008
47. Contribution of scads and mackerels to the total catch and total small pelagic fish production in
the South China Sea and Eastern Indian Ocean in 2008
48. Production of major mackerel species in the Southeast Asian region in 2008 and 2009
49. Production of anchovies in the Southeast Asian region in 2008 and 2009
50. Production of sardines in the Southeast Asian region in 2008 and 2009
51. Number of sharks and rays in Malaysia, Indonesia and Thailand compared with that of the world’s
total number
52. Number of species and families of sharks and rays in Malaysia, Indonesia and Thailand
53. Sea Turtles which are confirmed to nest in Southeast Asian countries
54. Estimated number of sea turtles recorded in the Southeast Asian countries
55. Production of sea cucumbers in some Southeast Asian countries
56. Destination countries and value of sea cucumber products exported from Indonesia, Philippines
and Thailand in 2007
57. Seahorses Hippocampus spp. identified in Southeast Asia
58. Incidence of poverty in selected economies in Southeast Asia, 1997-2002
59. Fishmeal (FM) and fish oil (FO) uses and efficiencies (1995), and estimates based on expected
growth (2007-2010) in milkfish and four species groups
60. Population, fish production and consumption of the Southeast Asian countries

List of Boxes
1. Recommendations from the Special Meeting on Sharks Information Collection in Southeast
Asia, Bangkok, Thailand, 15-17 September 2011
2. Recommendations from the Special Meeting on Improvement of Tuna Information and Data
Collection in Southeast Asia, Songkhla, Thailand, 7-9 September 2011
3. Recommendations on Safety at Sea for Small Fishing Boats in Southeast Asian Region
4. Fisheries Human Resource: Gaps and Requirements of Southeast Asia
5. Strategy for Human Resource Development in Fisheries in the ASEAN Region
6. Observation and recommendations from the Project on HRD on Fisheries for Poverty
Alleviation
 List of Figures
1. Percentage of fishery production used for human consumption from 2000 to 2009
2. Global per capita fish consumption from 2000 to 2009
3. Map of Southeast Asia with corresponding FAO Fishing Areas
4. Fishery production of Southeast Asia by country
5. Percentage of Southeast Asia’s fishery production by sub-sector in 2009
6. Global trend in marine capture fisheries production
7. Export volume of sharks and rays by types of products from Southeast Asia in 2006
8. Contribution of aquaculture to the total fishery production of the Southeast Asian region
9 Percentage of aquaculture production of the Southeast Asian countries in 2009: quantity in MT
and value in US$ 1,000
10. Production of aquatic plants, marine fishes and molluscs from mariculture of Southeast Asia
11. Production of aquatic plants, marine fishes and crustaceans from brackishwater aquaculture of
Southeast Asia
12. Changes in production trends of whiteleg shrimps and giant tiger shrimps in Thailand and Vietnam
13. Vietnam’s production of Pangas catfish
14. Export volume of fish and fishery products and percentage of export quantity by continent in 2008
15. Major groups of commodities exported by the Southeast Asian countries in 2008
16. Thailand’s import of fish and fish products in 2008 and countries of origin
17. Malaysia’s import of fish and fish products in 2008 and countries of origin
18. Production of major tuna species of the Southeast Asian region
19. Trend of tuna production from four main tuna-producing countries of Southeast Asia
20. Tuna production of Thailand in 2005: from the Gulf of Thailand (GOT), Andaman Sea (AM)
and outside Thai waters
21. Species composition of tuna from four major tuna-producing countries of Southeast Asia
22. Relative distribution of tuna catches in Southeast Asia in 2001 and 2006
23. Round scads production in selected Southeast Asian countries (1995-2009)
24. Exploitation rate of D. macrosoma and D. maruadsi in the South China Sea (2002-2005)
25. Production trends of scads and mackerels in selected Southeast Asian countries
26. Landings of scads from the South China Sea and Eastern Indian Ocean waters of Malaysia and
Thailand in 2007
27. Landing trends of scads caught by purse seines in the South China Sea and Eastern Indian Ocean
waters of Malaysia and Thailand in 2007
28. Landing compositions (2009) and production trends (1999-2009) of mackerels by main gear
types of Malaysia and Thailand in the South China Sea areas
29. Landing compositions (2009) and production trends (1999-2009) of mackerels by main gear
types of Malaysia and Thailand in the Andaman Sea
30. Production status and trends of anchovies in selected Southeast Asian countries (1995-2009)
31. Production status and trends of sardines in selected Southeast Asian countries (1995-2009)
32. Decline in production trends of sardines in the Gulf of Thailand and Andaman Sea (1995-
2009)
33. Overall habitat preferred by species of sharks and rays in Malaysia, Indonesia and Thailand
34. Migration routes of green turtles in the Southeast Asian waters determined through satellite
telemetry studies and location of 11 genetically distinct breeding stocks or management units
of green sea turtles in Southeast Asia
35. Possible foraging habitats of sea turtles in the Southeast Asian waters based on results of
satellite telemetry studies
36. Export of seahorses from the Southeast Asian countries
37. Percentages of seahorses (live and non-live) exported from Southeast Asian region by
countries
38. Aquaculture production from 1950 to 2009
39. Contributions of Southeast Asian countries to aquaculture production of the region from 1950
to 2009
40. Aquaculture production of the top six producing countries in Southeast Asia from 1950 to
2009
41. Schematic representation of the impacts of climate change and fishing activity on the marine
ecosystem and its fish component

List of Appendices
1. SEAFDEC Programs on Sea Turtles in Southeast Asia
2. Aquatic Species Farmed in Southeast Asian Countries and Sources of Seedstocks
3. Genetic Methods Employed in Various Southeast Asian Countries for Production of Quality
Seeds for Aquaculture
4. Technical and Non-technical Issues in the Production of Quality Seedstocks for Aquaculture in
the Southeast Asian Region
5. Impacts of Climate Change on Fisheries and Aquaculture
 List of Acronyms

ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations

AFCF ASEAN Fisheries Consultative Forum
APFIC Asia-Pacific Fisheries Commission
AQD SEAFDEC/Aquaculture Department
AR Artificial Reef
ASWGFi ASEAN Sectoral Working Group on Fisheries
CBFM Community-based Fisheries Management
CCRF FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries
CF Community Fisheries
CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna
and Flora
CM Co-management
EAF Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries
EC The European Commission
EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone
EU The European Union
FAD Fish Aggregating Device
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
FOVOP One Village, One Fishery Product
GLP Good Laboratory Practices
GMOs Genetically Modified Organisms
GMP Good Manufacturing Practices
GR Global Record of Fishing Vessels, Refrigerated Transport Vessels, &
Supply Vessels
HACCP Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point
ILO International Labour Organization
IMO International Maritime Organization
IPOA-Fishing Capacity International Plan of Action for the Management of Fishing Capacity
IPOA-IUU International Plan of Action to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal,
Unreported and Unregulated Fishing
IPOA-Sharks International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of
Sharks
IUU Fishing Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing
JTEDs Juvenile and Trash Excluder Devices
LBCRM Locally-based Coastal Resources Management
MCS Monitoring, Control and Surveillance
MFRD SEAFDEC/Marine Fisheries Research Department
MFRDMD SEAFDEC/Marine Fishery Resources Development and Management
Department
MPA Marine Protected Area
NGO Non-governmental Organization
PPEs Pre-processing Establishments
PSM Port State Measures
RCCRF Regionalization of the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries
REBYC FAO Program on Responsible Fishing Technologies and Practices, and
By-catch Reduction Technologies and Change of Management
RFBs Regional Fisheries Bodies
RFPN SEAFDEC/Regional Fisheries Policy Network
RPOA-IUU Regional Plan of Action to Promote Responsible Fishing Practices
(including Combating IUU Fishing) in the Region
SCS South China Sea
SEAFDEC Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center
SMEs Small and Medium Enterprises
SPS Sanitary and Phytosanitary
SSOP Standard Sanitary Operating Practices
TD SEAFDEC/Training Department
TEDs Turtle Excluder Devices
TPEs Traditional Processing Establishments
UNCLOS United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
UNEP United Nations Environmental Programme
UNFSA United Nations Fish Stock Agreement
VMS Vessel Monitoring System
WCPFC Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission
WCPO Western Central Pacific Ocean
WWF World Wide Fund for Nature
 SEASOFIA: The Southeast Asian State of Fisheries and Aquaculture 2012

PART I
Status and Trends of Capture Fisheries
and Aquaculture in Southeast Asia

I. GLOBAL PRODUCTION AND

UTILIZATION OF FISH

Fish and fishery products are among the most important

agricultural commodities providing significant contribution
to the world’s food security and economic development.
Out of the total value of the global agricultural products
reported at US$ 1,168.85 billion in 2009, fish or fishery
products accounted for US$ 90.73 billion or about 8% of
the total value (WTO, 2010). Aside from its contribution
to the world’s economies, fish and fishery products are
also important source of protein for people worldwide and Figure 1. Percentage of fishery production used for human
represent a significant part of the diets of peoples in many consumption from 2000 to 2009
countries. From 2000 to 2009, the global fishery production Sources of data: FAO State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2004 and 2010
had continuously increased from about 131.0 million MT
to 145.1 million MT (Table 1) while the percentage of the
production for human consumption also gradually rose
from almost 74% to 81% (Fig. 1). It should however be
noted that the increasing trend in total fishery production is
mainly due to the increasing contribution from aquaculture
sector, while the production from capture fisheries has
gradually been declining. With the world’s population
increasing from 6.1 billion to 6.8 billion over the same
period, the per capita fish consumption has also escalated
(Fig. 2) and is expected to continue to rise particularly in
the developing countries where the population and demand
Figure 2. Global per capita fish consumption (kg/year) from
for food are continuously growing because of increased
2000 to 2009
income and purchasing power for high value and quality Sources of data: FAO State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2004 and 2010
food including food fish. In addition, the fishery sector with
its ancillary activities which has expanded with increased The global fishery production by continent (Table 2)
numbers of people employed, significantly contributes to indicates that production from both capture fisheries and
improved livelihoods and employment opportunities, as aquaculture during the period from 2000 to 2009 had been
well as to the enhanced well-being of millions of peoples increasing at the rate of approximately 1.41 million MT
including those in the Southeast Asian region. per year. In the like manner, production from the Asian
Continent (including Southeast Asia) also increased by

Table 1. World’s fishery production and utilization from 2000 to 2009

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Production (million MT)
Capture 95.5 92.9 93.2 90.3 92.4 92.1 89.7 89.9 89.7 90.0
Aquaculture 35.5 37.8 39.8 41.9 41.9 44.3 47.4 49.9 52.5 55.1
Total 131.0 130.7 133.0 132.2 134.3 136.4 137.1 139.8 142.3 145.1
Utilization (million MT)
Human consumption 96.8 99.5 100.7 103 104.4 107.3 110.7 112.7 115.1 117.8
Non-food uses 34.2 31.1 32.2 29.2 29.8 29.7 26.3 27.1 27.2 27.3
Population (billions) 6.1 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.8
% of production for human 73.9 76.1 75.7 77.9 77.7 78.7 80.7 80.6 80.9 81.2
consumption (%)
Per capita fish consumption (kg) 15.9 16.2 16.2 16.3 16.2 16.5 16.8 16.9 17.1 17.2
Sources: FAO State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2004 and 2010

1
 Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center

about 1.96 million MT per year. Specifically in 2009, and Vietnam; but, due to the inavailability of fishery
the Asian Continent remained the world’s largest fish statistics and information from Timor-Leste, the scope of
producer contributing about 66% to the world’s total this publication would focus mainly on the ten ASEAN
fishery production. Member Countries.

Moreover, the contribution of the Southeast Asian region In terms of fishery statistics for both capture fisheries and
to the total fishery production in 2009 was about 30% with aquaculture, fishery production of the countries in the
respect to the Asian Continent’s total production and 20% Southeast Asian region is reported under FAO Fishing Area
to the global fishery production. While the ten-year global 57 (Indian Ocean, Eastern), 71 (Pacific, Western Central),
fishery production seems to follow an increasing trend, 61 (Pacific, Northwest), and 04 (Asia, Inland Water). Based
some of the world’s continents such as the Americas and on such arrangement, the total fishery production of the
Europe had been providing stable or gradually declining Southeast Asian region from 2000 to 2009 is compiled
inputs but the contribution from Asia and the Southeast by SEAFDEC from inputs of the countries and published
Asian region has continued to be steadily increasing and in the Fishery Statistical Bulletin for the South China Sea
providing significant contribution to the rising fishery Area 2000-2007 and the Fishery Statistical Bulletin of
production of the world. Southeast Asia 2008-2009, as summarized in Table 3.

II. FISHERY PRODUCTION OF SOUTHEAST The fisheries of the region are by nature tropical, multi-
ASIA species and multi-gears, and involve large numbers
of fishers and farmers mostly engaged in small-scale
The Southeast Asian region (Fig. 3) is bordered by the fishing operations and aquaculture practices. Indonesia
Andaman Sea and the Indian Ocean on the west, and the consistently remains the highest producer of fish and
western part of the Pacific Ocean on the east. Although fishery products from 2000 to 2009 with an average
the region comprises 11 countries, namely Brunei annual production increase of almost one-half of a million
Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, MT (Fig. 4). Vietnam which also recorded an increasing
Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Timor-Leste, Thailand production trend of about 280,000 MT per year ranked the

Table 2. Fishery production by continent from 2000 to 2009 (million MT)

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
World 131.0 130.7 133.0 132.2 134.3 136.4 137.1 139.8 142.3 145.1
Africa 7.3 7.7 7.6 8.0 8.2 8.4 7.9 8.1 8.4 8.3
Americas 27.6 25.2 26.4 23.2 27.9 26.5 25.1 24.6 24.5 23.6
Asia* 59.4 60.5 61.2 62.3 59.0 60.6 62.1 64.3 65.4 67.0
Southeast Asia** 16.9 17.6 18.9 20.3 21.2 23.0 24.5 25.3 27.2 28.9
Europe 18.6 18.4 17.6 17.0 16.4 16.2 15.9 15.9 15.4 15.9
Oceania 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.6 1.7 1.6 1.6 1.4 1.4
* Excludes Southeast Asia
** Sources: Fishery Statistical Bulletin for the South China Sea Area (SEAFDEC, 2000-2009) and Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia
(SEAFDEC 2010, 2011)
Source of other data: FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Information and Statistics Service

Table 3. Total fishery production of the Southeast Asian countries from 2000 to 2009 (MT)
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Brunei Darussalam 2,577 1,575 2,152 2,160 3,133 3,103 3,100 3,227 2,747 2,418
Cambodia 298,798 441,200 424,432 390,657 343,492 546,000 661,542 525,100 536,320 515,000
Indonesia 5,120,490 5,409,504 5,515,648 5,915,989 6,005,622 6,646,965 7,183,586 7,510,767 9,054,873 10,064,140
Lao PDR 71,000 81,000 93,000 95,000 95,000 107,800 107,800 91,660 93,500 105,000
Malaysia 1,457,139* 1,411,740 1,467,486 1,483,957 1,537,988* 1,421,403* 1,644,527* 1,654,221 1,753,310* 1,870,000*
Myanmar 1,309,830 1,474,460 1,606,240 1,987,020 2,148,580 2,581,780 2,817,990 2,808,037 3,147,605 3,491,103
Philippines 2,993,332** 3,166,528** 3,369,524 3,619,282 3,926,173 4,161,870** 4,408,472** 4,711,252** 4,966,889** 4,079,977**
Singapore 9,984 7,784 7,795 7,109 7,579 7,837 11,675 8,026 5,141 5,687
Thailand 3,713,248 3,648,429 3,797,014 3,914,025 4,137,066 4,132,826 4,051,824 3,675,382 3,204,200 3,137,672
Vietnam 1,961,145 2,009,623 2,647,407 2,859,200 2,944,030 3,397,200 3,656,152 4,315,500 4,559,720 4,782,400
Total 16,937,296 17,621,843 18,930,761 20,274,399 21,147,665 22,987,784 24,501,878 25,302,872 27,207,826 28,917,096
Sources: Fishery Statistical Bulletin for the South China Sea Area (SEAFDEC, 2000-2009) and Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia (SEAFDEC 2010, 2011)
* Updated figures provided by Fisheries Management Information Division, DoF Malaysia; but not used for the calculation of total production.
** Updated figures provided by the Philippine Bureau of Agricultural Statistics,Department of Agriculture; but not used for the calculation of total production.

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 SEASOFIA: The Southeast Asian State of Fisheries and Aquaculture 2012

Table 4. Fishery production (quantity and value) of

Southeast Asia by sub-sector in 2009
Sub-sector Quantity Value Value
(MT) (US$ 1000) (US$/MT)
Marine Capture Fisheries 14,140,387 10,416,661 737.00
Inland Capture Fisheries 2,397,273 2,834,477 1,182.00
Aquaculture 12,379,436 15,964,173 1,290.00
Total 28,917,096 29,215,311
Source: Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia (SEAFDEC, 2011)

Figure 5. Percentage of Southeast Asia’s fishery production by

sub-sector in 2009 (left: by quantity; right: by value)

The fishery production of Malaysia also encountered ups

and downs during the same ten-year period.

Fishery production of the Southeast Asian region

comes from three sub-sectors, namely marine capture
fisheries, inland capture fisheries, and aquaculture.
Table 4 which shows the total fishery production of the
region by sub-sector in 2009 indicates that the largest
Figure 3. Map of Southeast Asia (above) with corresponding portion of the production is derived from marine capture
FAO Fishing Areas (below) fisheries accounting for approximately 49% followed by
aquaculture of about 43%, and inland fisheries 8% (Fig.
second with Myanmar and Philippines having production 5). While marine fisheries contribute the largest volume
growth of about 200,000 MT per year placing third and of production, its production value which accounts for
fourth, respectively. Although Thailand’s production 36% of the total production value only comes next to
was second after Indonesia in 2000, its production went aquaculture which contributes approximately 54% and
through a see-saw pattern during the ten-year period until that of inland capture fisheries was about 10%. While the
2009 that landed the country into the fifth place in terms value per metric ton of aquaculture production was about
of total fishery production. From an increasing production US$ 1,290/MT that of marine capture fishery production
growth of about 85,000 MT per year from 2000 to 2004, was only about US$ 740/MT.
the fishery production of Thailand decreased from 2005
until 2009 at an average rate of about 200,000 MT per year. III. MARINE CAPTURE FISHERIES
PRODUCTION OF SOUTHEST ASIA

While the trend of the global marine capture fishery

production seems to have slightly declined from 2000 to
2009 (Fig. 6), the production trend of the Southeast Asian
region had been increasing at the rate of approximately
251,100 MT per year. In 2009, the Southeast Asian region
contributed about 18% to the world’s global production
from marine capture fisheries.

Figure 4. Fishery production of Southeast Asia by country

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 Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center

about 9% of the total production. Moreover, the volumes

of the marine capture fishery production of Cambodia,
Singapore and Brunei Darussalam represent less than 1.0%
of the region’s total production while Lao PDR does not
produce any marine aquatic products being a landlocked
country.

As mentioned earlier, the trend of marine capture fisheries

production in the Southeast Asian region has been
increasing from 2000 to 2009 at an average increase of
about 251,000 MT per year. The countries that contribute
Figure 6. Global trend in marine capture fisheries
production (* Asia excludes Southeast Asia) to the increasing production trend include Indonesia,
Myanmar, Vietnam, Philippines, Malaysia and Cambodia
The marine capture fishery production of the Southeast while in the case of Thailand although its production in
Asian countries in 2000-2009 (Table 5) indicated that 2000 was 2,773,665 MT it had some traces of ups and
Indonesia which is the largest producer accounting for downs in certain years and finally decreased to 1,496,162
34% of the total production of the region in 2009. The MT in 2009. Only small amount of production from
Philippines which emerged as the second largest producer capture marine fisheries had been reported by Singapore
of the region contributed 17% to the total production and Brunei Darussalam.
of the region. After Indonesia and Philippines come
Vietnam accounting for about 15% of the total production, Specifically, Indonesia’s increased production of 14 major
Myanmar at 13%, Thailand at about 11%, and Malaysia at groups of marine species that include marine fishes nei

Table 5. Production volume from marine capture fisheries in Southeast Asia by country from 2000 to 2009 (MT)
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Brunei Darussalam 2,464 1,476 2,044 1,985 2,425 2,709 2,279 2,551 2,357 1,958
Cambodia 3,600 4,200 45,882 55,607 55,817 60,000 60,500 54,900 66,000 75,000
Indonesia 3,807,191 3,966,480 4,073,506 4,383,103 4,320,241 4,408,499 4,512,191 4,734,280 4,701,933 4,789,410
Lao PDR … … … … … … … … … …
Malaysia 1,285,696* 1,231,275 1,272,078 1,283,256 1,331,645 1,209,601 1,371,733* 1,381,424 1,394,531 1,393,226*
Myanmar 949,670 1,026,460 1,060,250 1,132,340 1,220,030 1,375,670 1,525,000 1,485,740 1,679,010 1,867,510
Philippines 1,740,309** 1,809,727 1,899,487 2,031,487 2,067,128 2,122,216 2,154,802 2,328,149** 2,377,514 2,413,863**
Singapore 5,371 3,342 2,769 2,085 2,173 1,920 3,103 3,522 1,623 2,121
Thailand 2,773,665 2,631,702 2,643,711 2,651,223 2,635,969 2,615,565 2,484,803 2,079,351 1,644,800 1,496,162
Vietnam 1,280,590 1,481,175 1,575,640 1,647,482 1,745,413 1,791,100 1,816,100 1,987,400 1,946,600 2,098,300
Total 11,880,478 12,196,637 12,575,367 13,188,568 13,380,841 13,586,961 13,938,748 14,056,985 13,814,368 14,140,387
Sources: Fishery Statistical Bulletin for the South China Sea Area (SEAFDEC, 2000-2009) and Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia (SEAFDEC 2010, 2011)
* Updated figures provided by Fisheries Management Information Division, DoF Malaysia; but not used for the calculation of total production.
** Updated figures provided by the Philippine Bureau of Agricultural Statistics,Department of Agriculture; but not used for the calculation of total production.

Table 6. Production value from marine capture fisheries in Southeast Asia by country from 2000 to 2009 (US$ Million)
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Brunei Darussalam … … … … … … … 8 7 5
Cambodia … … … … … … … … … 111
Indonesia 1,810 2,225 2,896 2,927 3,164 3,726 4,106 4,868 4,957 1,687
Lao PDR … … … … … … … … … …
Malaysia 1,158* 1,096* 1,107* 1,056 1,103* 1,087* 1,343* 1,464* 1,667* 1,833*
Myanmar … … … … … … … … 1,585 3,081
Philippines 1,445 1,322 1,444 1,459 1,597 1,681 1,997 2,452 2,811 2,650**
Singapore 11 7 6 6 6 6 111.5 14.3 8.6 10.4
Thailand 1,230 1,197 1,346 1,545 1,535 1,533 1,629 1,586 1,276 1,244
Vietnam … 924 875 964 … … … … … …
Total 5,723 6,771 7,676 7,958 7,405 8,094 9,091 10,421 12,336 10,417
Sources: Fishery Statistical Bulletin for the South China Sea Area (SEAFDEC, 2000-2009) and Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia (SEAFDEC 2010, 2011)
* Updated figures provided by Fisheries Management Information Division, DoF Malaysia; but not used for the calculation of total production.
** Updated figure provided by the Philippine Bureau of Agricultural Statistics,Department of Agriculture; but not used for the calculation of total production.

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 SEASOFIA: The Southeast Asian State of Fisheries and Aquaculture 2012

(Osteichthyes), scad nei (Decapterus spp.), skipjack Although some Southeast Asian countries did not report
tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis), short mackerel (Rastelliger the value of their production from marine capture fisheries,
brachysoma), stelophorus anchovies (Stelophorus spp.), the total value of the region’s marine capture fishery
kawakawa (Euthynnus affinis), goldstripe sardinella production from 2000 to 2008 seemed to have increased
(Sardinella gibbosa), yellowstripe scad (Selaroides corresponding to the increasing trend of the volume of
leptolepis), Bali sardinella (Sardinella lemuru), and frigate production, but eventually dropped in 2009 (Table 6). This
tuna (Auxis thazard) among others, had contributed to the could have been due to the drastic drop of the production
country’s overall increasing production trend. On the other values of Indonesia and Philippines during the same year.
hand, although production from marine capture fisheries of Although Myanmar reported the value of its production
Myanmar and Vietnam had not been classified by species, only in 2008 and 2009, such value increased by almost
both countries recorded escalating production trend of 200% between these two years.
marine fishes nei (Osteichthyes). In the case of Myanmar,
its production is mainly from Area 57 in the Eastern While production from marine capture fisheries of
Indian Ocean, while for Vietnam its production comes Indonesia especially from 2008 to 2009 appears to have
from Area 71 in the Western Central Pacific Ocean. For been increasing, the value of its production during the
the Philippines, increased production of six major groups same period decreased by about 60%, which could be
of marine species that include sardinellas nei (Sardinella due to the decreasing values of the production of major
spp.), skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis), scad nei species that ranged from 86% for marine species nei, 83%
(Decapterus spp.), yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares), for barramundi (Lates calcarifer) and scad nei (Decapterus
frigate tuna (Auxis thazard), and bigeye scad (Selar spp.), 81% for skipjack tuna, 80% for narrow-barred
crumenophthalmus) among others, contributed to the Spanish mackerel (Scomberomorus commerson), 78%
country’s rising production from marine capture fisheries. for snappers nei (Lutjanus spp.), 77% for longtail tuna

Table 7. Production from marine capture fisheries of the Southeast Asian countries by species groups in 2009
Quantity (MT) Value
Major species
Brunei (US$
groups Cambodia Indonesia Malaysia Myanmar Philippines Singapore Thailand Vietnam Total 1000)
Darussalam
Shads, milkfish, 2 … 87,520 16,773 … 3,553 25 54 … 107,927 42,075
barramudi, etc.
Flounders, 9 … 28,930 6,891 … 920 … 6,537 … 43,287 39,906
halibuts, soles,
etc.
Red fishes, 1 … 127,980 47,878 … 13,619 96 31,685 … 221,259 108,611
basses, congers,
etc.
Jack, mullets, 156 … 791,190 176,736 … 346,167 501 124,756 … 1,439,506 924,786
sauries, etc.
Herrings, sardines, 291 … 569,570 26,024 … 560,739 43 101,608 … 1,258,275 587,971
anchovies, etc.
Tunas 182 … 925,660 56,012 … 612,008 2 47,490 … 1,641,354 1,218,040
Mackerels 578 … 1,258,490 409,517 … 699,498 243 401,564 … 2,769,890 1,990,401
Sharks and rays 87 … 98,750 26,278 … 14,354 278 18,105 … 157,852 174,101
Misc. fishes 493 55,460 401,607 412,878 1,867,510 16,920 460 543,077 1,572,100 4,870,505 3,548,806
Crabs 2 … 69,320 … … 31,241 32 25,270 … 125,865 156,171
Lobsters 0.3 … 11,500 805 … 293 11 1,006 … 13,615 20,367
Shrimps, prawns, 103 … 139,750 29,264 … 41,511 52,084 … 262,712 508,306
etc.
Misc. crustaceans 0.3 5,013 96,160 73,137 … 5,982 332 5,170 127,300 313,094 5,679
Oysters … … 333 … … … … … … 333 712
Mussels … … 520 … … 29 … … … 549 1,570
Cockles, clams, … … 71,790 23,746 … 361 … 16,295 … 112,192 141,301
etc.
Cuttlefish, squids, 51 … 100,680 81,136 … 70,361 97 112,815 … 365,140 929,808
etc.
Mollusks … 14,527 3,060 … … … … 4,681 … 22,268 3,902
Invertebrates 0.1 … 6,600 4,013 … 1,282 3,965 398,900 414,760 14,148
Total 1,958 75,000 4,789,410 1,393,226* 1,867,510 2,418,838 2,121 1,496,162 2,098,300 14,140,387 10,416,661
Source: Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia (SEAFDEC, 2011)
* Updated figure provided by Fisheries Management Information Division, DoF Malaysia.

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 Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center

(Thunnus tonggol), and 73% for yellowfin tuna (Thunnus 3.1 Tunas
albacares) among others.
Tuna species which are important commercial fishery
In the case of the Philippines, while its production from resources in the exclusive economic zones (EEZs) of the
marine capture fisheries also increased from 2008 to 2009, countries in Southeast Asia are taxonomically grouped into
the corresponding values decreased by about US$ 500 the family Scrombridae comprising about 50 species. The
million in 2009. This could have been brought about by a important tuna species in the region, in terms of production
notable decrease in value of about 89% in marine fishes nei quantity and value, that are caught include the skipjack
followed by slight decreases by 11 to 17% of the values of tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis), yellowfin tuna (Thunnus
Indian mackerel (Rastrelliger kanagurta), skipjack tuna, albacares), bigeye tuna (T. obesus), albacore tuna (T.
yellowfin tuna, and scad nei (Decapterus spp.). alalunga), bluefin tuna (T. thynnus, T. orientalis, and T.
macoyii), and the tuna-like species such as the long-tail
Specifically for 2009, production from marine capture tuna (T. tonggol), frigate tuna (Auxis thazard), bullet tuna
fisheries of the Southeast Asian countries classified into (A. rochei), and kawakawa (Euthynnus affinis).
species groups and reported in terms of quantity and value
(Table 7), indicated that about 34% of the volume of the As of 2009, only six countries, namely: Brunei Darussalam,
total marine capture production are from “Miscellaneous Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand
Fishes” although such volume was not recorded at more could provide their respective tuna production statistics
detailed species level. However, for some species that have by species and by gear type, while Cambodia, Myanmar
been classified into major groups, the largest volume was and Vietnam, although generally known to be engaged to
provided by “Mackerels” followed by “Tunas”, “Jack, a certain extent in tuna fisheries, could not provide their
mullets, sauries”, and “Herrings, sardines, anchovies”. respective current tuna statistics (Table 8).
For the non-fish groups, the largest volume was derived
from “Cuttlefishes, squids” followed by “Miscellaneous Thus for the Southeast Asian region, the volume of tuna
crustaceans” and “Shrimp, prawns”. production in 2009 was about 6% of the region’s total fishery
production and in terms of value, it contributed about 4%.
However, the highest value of the production per metric However, the region’s tuna production accounts for about
ton was that of the mussels at US$ 2,850/MT which 12% in terms of volume of the region’s production from
were mainly produced by Indonesia and small quantity marine capture fisheries and also about 12% in terms of
by the Philippines. This was followed by “Cuttlefishes, value. Indonesia is the leading tuna producer contributing
squids” at US$ 2,545/MT produced mainly by Indonesia about 56% of the region’s total tuna production with the
and Thailand; oysters at US$ 2,140/MT from Indonesia; Philippines coming next contributing about 37%, and then
“Shrimp, prawns” at US$ 1,935/MT from Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand with more than 3%. Furthermore,
Thailand, Philippines and Malaysia; lobsters at US$ although skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) provided
1,495/MT mainly from Indonesia and Thailand; crabs at the highest production accounting for more than 34% of
US$ 1,240/MT from Indonesia, Philippines and Thailand; the total tuna production of the region, in terms of value
and sharks and rays at US$ 1,100/MT from Indonesia, bullet tuna (Auxis rochei) ranks first at US$ 1,245/MT
Malaysia, Philippines, and Thailand. (Table 9) followed by the southern bluefin tuna (Thunnus

Table 8. Tuna production of Southeast Asia by country and by species in 2009

Quantity (MT)
Common name Scientific name Brunei All
Indonesia Malaysia Philippines Singapore Thailand
Darussalam countries
Frigate tuna Auxis thazard 0.03 135,200 1,837* 152,338 ... ... 287,538.03
Bullet tuna Auxis rochei ... 5,310 ... ... ... ... 5,310.00
Kawakawa Euthynnus affinis 55 189,260 19,123* 49,973 ... 22,177 282,424.60
Skipjack tuna Katsuwonus pelamis 80 300,740 4,460 251,524 2 7,532 564,338.29
Long-tail tuna Thunnus tonggol 47 98,920 27,569* ... ... 14,106 140,634.31
Albacore tuna Thunnus alalunga ... 37,380 203 ... ... 24 37,607.00
Southern bluefin tuna Thunnus maccoyii ... 800 ... ... ... ... 800.00
Yellowfin tuna Thunnus albacares ... 103,390 1,403 152,437 ... 1,189 258,419.00
Bigeye tuna Thunnus obesus ... 54,660 1,837* 5,736 ... 2,462 64,283.00
Total 182 925,660 56,432* 612,008 2 47,490 1,641,354.23
Source: Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia (SEAFDEC, 2011)
* Updated figures provided by Fisheries Management Information Division, DoF Malaysia.

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 SEASOFIA: The Southeast Asian State of Fisheries and Aquaculture 2012

Table 9. Total tuna production of Southeast Asia by FAO Fishing Area and by species in 2009

Quantity (MT) Total (MT) Value Ave Value

Common name Scientific name All areas (US$ 1000) (US$/MT)
Fishing Area 57 Fishing Area 71
Frigate tuna Auxis thazard 55,170 232,368 287,538 237,449 825
Bullet tuna Auxis rochei 4,460 850 5,310 6,599 1,245
Kawakawa Euthynnus affinis 97,280 185,145 282,425 197,504 700
Skipjack tuna Katsuwonus pelamis 63,782 500,556 564,338 336,390 600
Long-tail tuna Thunnus tonggol 36,821 103,813 140,634 84,789 600
Albacore tuna Thunnus alalunga 9,467 28,140 37,607 20,260 540
Southern bluefin tuna Thunnus maccoyii 800 … 800 990 1,240
Yellowfin tuna Thunnus albacares 26,183 232,236 258,419 293,437 1,135
Bigeye tuna Thunnus obesus 20,217 44,066 64,283 40,622 630
Total 314,180 1,327,174 1,641,354 1,218,040 740
Source: Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia (SEAFDEC, 2011)

maccoyii) and yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) which commodities of the Southeast Asian region. The species
is mainly produced by the Philippines. Frigate tuna (Auxis have been considered as non-target species of artisanal
thazard) which ranks second in terms of tuna production small-scale capture fisheries. Generally, landings of sharks,
in the region contributed about 18% to the region’s tuna rays and skates comprise only a small percentage of the
production but in terms of average value this species ranks production from marine fisheries in the Southeast Asian
only fourth at US$ 825/MT. region. Based on available data, production of sharks and
rays by type of fishing gears indicated substantial amounts
In terms of FAO Fishing Area, the region’s tuna production of sharks and rays caught by purse seine, gill net, hook
in 2009 mostly came from FAO Fishing Area 57 (Indian and line, and trawl (SEAFDEC, 2006). In addition, small
Ocean, Western) and Area 71 (Pacific, Western Central) amount of sharks and rays was also caught by other gears
although production figures are mostly based on landings such as traps, seine net, lift-net and push/scoop net but their
but not on fishing areas. In 2009, the average value of the catches were not significant in terms of quantity. However,
total tuna production from Fishing Area 71 was about it is widely known that the region has the highest diversity
US$ 984 million accounting for 81% of the region’s of species of sharks and rays, and that several species had
total tuna production value while the average value of been proposed for listing in the Appendices of the CITES
production from Fishing Area 57 was about US$ 234 during the past decade. Therefore, the compilation of
million providing the remaining 19%. fishery statistics on sharks and rays has become necessary
in order to come up with a real picture of the resources
The species coming from Area 71 providing the highest in the region, but considering the dearth of information
production value is skipjack tuna followed by yellowfin and data on production of sharks and rays in the region,
tuna, frigate tuna, and kawakawa, while for Area 57 the information derived from relevant technical reports
species that provided the highest production value is especially those that emanate from various relevant R&D
kawakawa followed by frigate tuna and skipjack. activities on sharks and rays should also be availed of.

3.2 Sharks and Rays Based on the data from 2000 to 2009 reported in the
SEAFDEC Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia,
In contrast with the tuna species, sharks and rays may production of sharks and rays could range from 122,000
not be considered as among the major marine fishery to 184,000 MT/year while the total marine capture fishery

Table 10. Contribution of sharks and rays to the total marine capture fisheries production of the Southeast Asian
region from 2000 to 2009 (MT)
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Total marine capture 11,880,478 12,196,637 12,575,367 13,188,568 13,380,841 13,586,961 13,938,748 14,056,985 13,814,368 14,140,387
fishery production
Production of sharks 167,459 165,551 166,543 184,382 167,604 150,811 155,941 148,932 128,262 122,381
and rays
Contribution of
sharks and rays 1.41 1.36 1.33 1.40 1.25 1.11 1.12 1.06 0.93 0.86
(%)
Sources: Fishery Statistical Bulletin for the South China Sea Area (SEAFDEC, 2000-2009) and Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia (SEAFDEC 2010, 2011)

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 Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center

Table 11. Production of sharks of the Southeast Asian countries from 2000 to 2009 (MT)
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Brunei Darussalam … … … … … … … 24 29 15
Cambodia … … … … … … … … … …
Indonesia 68,366 65,860 56,906 58,100 50,967 43,306 55,944 57,462 43,625 40,950
Lao PDR ... … … … … … … … … …
Malaysia 7,948 8,663 8,226 8,696 8,299 9,165 7,878* 7,684 7,346* 7,252*
Myanmar … … … … … … … … … …
Philippines 2,071 2,681 2,682 3,021 2,977 2,440 2,765 2,638 2,380 2,635
Singapore 43 32 30 17 31 23 38 42 17 20
Thailand 11,039 11,146 13,918 14,409 10,155 7,751 6,082 5,000 2,834 2,826
Vietnam … … … … … … … … … …
Total 89,467 88,382 81,672 84,243 72,429 62,685 72,639 72,850 56,186 53,681
Sources: Fishery Statistical Bulletin for the South China Sea Area (SEAFDEC, 2000-2009) and Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia (SEAFDEC 2010, 2011)
* Updated figures provided by Fisheries Management Information Division, DoF Malaysia; but not used for the calculation of total production.

Table 12. Production of rays of the Southeast Asian countries from 2000 to 2009 (MT)
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Brunei Darussalam … … … … … … … 70 69 56
Cambodia … … … … … .. … … … …
Indonesia 45,260 44,451 49,492 59,459 57,977 56,731 54,584 51,077 47,609 44,660
Lao PDR … … … … … … … … … …
Malaysia 16,573 16,532 15,941 19,253 16,754 15,929 16,046* 14,079 15,642* 15,091*
Myanmar … … … … … … … … … …
Philippines 2,248 2,867 2,986 3,156 2,799 2,308 2,544 2,560 2,370 2,591
Singapore 261 187 162 140 154 164 195 180 117 143
Thailand 13,650 13,132 16,290 18,131 17,491 12,994 10,133 8,116 6,245 6,219
Vietnam … … … … … … … … … …
Total 77,992 77,169 84,871 100,139 95,175 88,126 83,302 76,082 72,076 68,700
Sources: Fishery Statistical Bulletin for the South China Sea Area (SEAFDEC, 2000-2009) and Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia (SEAFDEC 2010, 2011)
* Updated figures provided by Fisheries Management Information Division, DoF Malaysia; but not used for the calculation of total production.

production of Southeast Asia in 2009 was 14,140,000 MT. mainly due to limited ability of local officers in identifying
This means that less than 1.0% of the total production the species of sharks and rays.
in 2009 was contributed by sharks and rays (Table
10). Specifically, the landings contribute only 1.6% for In terms of value, Indonesia’s production of sharks in 2009
Malaysia (Ahmad, 2011), 2.2% for Indonesia (Faizah, was valued at US$ 12,979,000 or at an average value of
2011), and 0.7% for Thailand (Ratanawalee, 2011). about US$ 315/MT, while for rays the total value was US$
11,030,000 or an average value of about US$ 250/MT. As
For sharks, the highest producer is Indonesia followed by for Malaysia, the value of its production of rays was US$
Malaysia. Although Thailand was also a top producer of 23,164,000 or an average value of US$ 1,540/MT although
sharks in the early 2000s, its production started to decline the production value of sharks was not reported. Likewise
in 2004 (Table 11). Likewise for rays, the main producer for Thailand, the value of its production of rays was US$
is Indonesia followed by Malaysia with Thailand’s 4,736,000 or at an average value of about US$ 760/MT.
production declining since 2004 (Table 12). Production of
the Philippines for both species had also been considerably Despite the small contribution from sharks and rays to the
high. However, records have shown that the overall total fishery production of the region, these commodities
production of sharks and rays of the region had been provide significant incomes for traditional fishers and
slightly decreasing. Even if some countries in this region serve as cheap source of protein for poor people in remote
such as Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, and Philippines, areas as well as coastal communities. Many products for
have recorded considerable production volume of sharks human consumption could be derived from sharks and rays
and rays, only Indonesia was able to report the production such as meat (fresh, frozen, smoked, salted) and fins (for
of sharks and rays at genus, family and order level as the famous fishery product such as the shark fins). Other
shown in Table 13. The other countries reported only valuable products include oil (for cosmetics, squalene,
the production by major species groups, which could be pharmaceuticals, lubricants), skin (for food, leather goods,

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 SEASOFIA: The Southeast Asian State of Fisheries and Aquaculture 2012

Table 13. Production of sharks and rays by species and by fishing area of some Southeast Asian countries in 2009 (MT)
English Name Scientific Name Fishing Area Indonesia’s Malaysia’s Thailand’s Philippines’s
Production (MT) Production (MT) Production (MT) Production (MT)
Thresher shark Alopias spp. 57 6,230
Thresher shark Alopias spp. 71 2,430
Hammerhead sharks Sphyrna spp. 57 1,410
Hammerhead sharks Sphyrna spp. 71 2,060
Dogfish sharks Squalus spp. 57 2,150
Dogfish sharks Squalus spp. 71 2,500
Mackerel sharks Laminidae 57 140
Mackerel sharks Laminidae 71 530
Requiem sharks Carcharhinidae 57 2,550
Requiem sharks Carcharhinidae 71 20,950
Sawfishes Pristidae 57 10
Sharks nei Sharks 7,252* 2,826 2,635
Sting rays Dasyastis spp. 57 11,600
Sting rays Dasyastis spp. 71 24,270
Rays, mantas Rajiformes 57 - 4,663* 3,141
Rays, mantas Rajiformes 71 - 10,427* 3,078 2,591
Eagle rays Myliobatis spp. 57 1,100
Eagle rays Myliobatis spp. 71 2,500
Manta rays Mobula spp. 57 170
Manta rays Mobula spp. 71 5,110
Source: Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia (SEAFDEC, 2011)
* Updated figures provided by Fisheries Management Information Division, DoF Malaysia.

unsalted or preserved, salted and in brine but not dried or

smoked; shark liver oil, fresh or chilled, and frozen. The
total volume sharks and rays exported and the total value
of the export from the Southeast Asian countries from
1986 to 2006 are shown in Fig. 7.

IV. PRODUCTION FROM INLAND CAPTURE

FISHERIES OF SOUTHEAST ASIA

In the Southeast Asian region, inland fisheries are

generally characterized as small-scale, multi-species and
multi-gear, involving large numbers of small-scale and
subsistence fishers with large portion of the catch utilized
Figure 7. Export volume of sharks and rays by types of
directly for household consumption. In 2009, the total
products from Southeast Asia in 2006 production from inland fisheries in the region accounted
for approximately 8% of the region’s total fishery
sand paper, etc.), cartilage (pharmaceuticals), teeth and jaw production. Based on the production statistics reported
(souvenir items, accessories), and rostrum of sawfishes by the countries of the Southeast Asian region from 2000
(for religious relics, traditional medicines, souvenirs, to 2009 in terms of volume and values as shown Table
implements for cock fighting, etc.). Although the economic 14 and Table 15, respectively, seven countries, namely:
value of sharks and rays is also low compared with Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar,
other marine aquatic species, but over the years, human Philippines, and Thailand were able to report the values of
exploitation of sharks and rays species has substantially their respective production from inland capture fisheries.
increased worldwide, threatening the populations of the The remaining countries at this stage could not yet report
said species. their corresponding production values from inland capture
fisheries.
It should also be noted that, the products from sharks and
rays in the region are mostly intended for export and are Over the past ten years, the Southeast Asian production
prepared in several forms such as shark fins, dried, salted, from inland capture fisheries has been slightly increasing,

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 Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center

Table 14. Production volume from inland capture fisheries of the Southeast Asian countries from 2000 to 2009 (MT)
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Cambodia 245,600 360,000 360,300 308,750 250,00 444,000 559,642 420,000 430,600 390,000
Indonesia 318,334 310,240 304,989 308,693 330,880 297,370 293,921 310,457 497,740 494,630
Lao PDR … … … … ... 29,800 29,800 28,410 29,200 30,000
Malaysia 3,549 3,446 3,565 3,828 4,119 4,583 4,164 4,283 4,353 4,469
Myanmar 238,210 254,880 289,940 454,320 502,550 631,120 718,000 717,640 814,740 899,430
Philippines 152,121* 136,347 131,644 133,292 142,019 143,806 161,394* 168,277* 181,678* 188,722*
Thailand 201,500 202,500 198,700 198,400 199,600 198,800 214,000 225,600 228,600 245,500
Vietnam 170,00 243,583 226,958 208,623 … 138,800 152,325 133,600 144,800 144,800
Total 1,159,544 1,510,996 1,516,096 1,615,906 1,179,168 1,888,279 2,136,933 2,008,301 2,329,524 2,397,273
Sources: Fishery Statistical Bulletin for the South China Sea Area (SEAFDEC, 2000-2009) and Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia (SEAFDEC 2010, 2011)
* Updated figures provided by the Philippine Bureau of Agricultural Statistics,Department of Agriculture; but not used for the calculation of total production.

Table 15. Production value from inland capture fisheries of the Southeast Asian countries from 2000 to 2009 (US$ 1000)
Country 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Cambodia … … … … … … … … 255,500 334,845
Indonesia 155,472 189,590 237,888 257,779 268,990 323,827 264,372 368,247 521,019 616,640
Lao PDR … … … … … … … 215,708 240,334 93,168
Malaysia … … 6,316* 6,316* 7,632* 8,446* 8,470* 9,855* 11,556* 11,014*
Myanmar … … … … … … … … 788,325 1,349,145
Philippines 59,285 57,022 64,518 66,029 80,442 84,077 101,477 125,464 145,912 164,252**
Thailand 174,920 157,072 145,038 170,236 184,658 194,859 222,573 266,740 254,057 273,290
Total 389,677 403,684 453,861 500,658 541,901 611,950 596,877 985,172 2,215,437 2,834,477
Sources: Fishery Statistical Bulletin for the South China Sea Area (SEAFDEC, 2000-2009) and Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia (SEAFDEC 2010, 2011)
* Updated figures provided by Fisheries Management Information Division, DoF Malaysia; but not used for the calculation of total production.
** Updated figure provided by the Philippine Bureau of Agricultural Statistics,Department of Agriculture; but not used for the calculation of total production.

which could have been brought about by many factors that region’s total capture fishery production is 15% and to the
include improvement in the national statistics collection region’s total fishery production at about 8%.
systems and mechanisms. Nevertheless, it should be
considered that large portions of the catch from inland As for the inland capture fisheries production of Indonesia,
capture fisheries are directly utilized for household about 38% is contributed by Mystacoleucos padangensis
consumption without proper recording and reporting. At of the family Cyprinidae, about 13% by freshwater fishes
this point in time, it is therefore difficult to estimate the nei, 6% by striped snakehead (Chana striata), 4% by Nile
actual trend of the production from inland capture fisheries tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), another 4% by snakeskin
in the region based only on the current available statistics. gourami (Trichogaster pectoralis), and the rest by the
Thus, the contribution of inland capture fisheries to the various species of freshwater fishes, crustaceans and
total fisheries production of the Southeast Asian region mollusks. In terms of value, Indonesia’s production of the
could not be confirmed in view of the insufficient data giant freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) is
from the countries. However, among the Southeast Asian valued at US$ 5,745/MT although its volume of production
countries, Myanmar, Indonesia, and Cambodia are the top was only 7,310 MT in 2009. The second highest valued
producers from inland capture fisheries (Table 16). species is the striped snakehead at US$ 2,100/MT followed
by snakeskin gourami at US$ 1,365/MT, freshwater fishes
Nonetheless, it should be noted that the contribution of Lao nei at US$ 1,135/MT and Nile tilapia at US$ 1,075/MT.
PDR to the region’s total production from capture fisheries The value of its production of Mystacoleucos padangensis
is significantly high considering that all its production was US$ 430/MT.
from capture fisheries is derived from inland fisheries.
The production of Cambodia from inland capture fisheries In the case of Thailand, the main inland capture fishery
represents 84% of its total capture fishery production species produced was classified as freshwater fishes nei
and 76% of the country’s total fishery production. On contributing about 33% of the country’s total production
the other hand, the production of Myanmar from inland from inland fisheries followed by Nile tilapia at 20%,
capture fisheries represents 33% of its total capture silver barb (Barbonymus gonionotus) at 18%, striped
fishery production and 26% of the country’s total fishery snakehead at 8%, and the rest by the other freshwater
production. Overall, the contribution of the Southeast fishes, crustaceans and mollusks. While the average
Asian countries’ inland capture fisheries production to the value of freshwater fishes nei was US$ 730/MT, striped

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 SEASOFIA: The Southeast Asian State of Fisheries and Aquaculture 2012

Table 16. Contribution of inland capture fisheries to the respective Southeast Asian country’s total fishery production in 2009
Country Production from inland Total capture fishery % of inland capture Total fishery production % of inland capture
capture fisheries production fishery production to (capture and fishery production to
(MT) (MT) total capture fishery aquaculture) total fishery production
production (%) (MT) (%)
Brunei Darussalam … 1,958 - 2,418 -
Cambodia 390,000 465,000 83.9 515,000 75.7
Indonesia 494,630 5,284,040 9.4 10,064,140 4.9
Lao PDR 30,000 30,000 100.0 105,000 28.6
Malaysia 4,469 1,395,557 0.3 1,729,002 0.3
Myanmar 899,430 2,766,940 32.5 3,491,103 25.8
Philippines 188,722* 2,602,585* 7.25* 5,079,977* 3.7
Singapore … 2,121 - 5,687 -
Thailand 245,500 1,741,662 14.1 3,137,672 7.8
Vietnam 144,800 2,243,100 6.5 4,782,400 3.0
Total 2,397,273 16,537,660 14.5 28,917,096 8.3
Source: Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia (SEAFDEC, 2011)
* Updated figures provided by the Philippine Bureau of Agricultural Statistics,Department of Agriculture; but not used for the calculation of total production.

snakehead had the highest average value at US$ 2,025/MT from marine capture fisheries, while the demand for fish
followed by Nile tilapia at US$ 1,070/MT and silver barb food remains high and increases to certain extent with
at US$ 980/MT. No further analysis could be done on the the escalating world’s population. Aquaculture has the
values of the production from inland capture fisheries of potentials to fill the gap between supply and demand for
Cambodia and Myanmar because the volumes and values fish products. The global supplies from aquaculture during
of their respective production were not reported by species. the period from 2000 to 2009 had sprung at the rate of
Therefore, even if production from inland capture fisheries 1.46 million MT annually from 2000 to 2009. Asia is the
is not very high compared to the other fishery sub-sectors, largest producer, with its production (including that of
but for some countries in Southeast Asia especially Southeast Asia) accounting for about 91% of the global
Cambodia, Lao PDR and Myanmar, the contribution of total aquaculture production, out of which production from
their respective inland capture fishery production to the the Southeast Asian counties accounted for 17% of the
region’s total fishery production is considerably significant world’s total aquaculture production (Table 17).
as indicated in Table 16. Thus, the importance of inland
fisheries could not be undermined and its sustainable From 2000 to 2009, the total production from aquaculture
development should be appropriately addressed under in the Southeast Asian region grew at an average rate
the relevant national and regional fisheries-related of about 868,330 MT/year, while its contribution to the
mechanisms. total fishery production had steadily increased by almost
double from 22% to 43% (Table 18 and Fig. 8). Based on
V. AQUACULTURE PRODUCTION OF culture areas and species cultured, aquaculture is broadly
SOUTHEAST ASIA classified into mariculture, brackishwater culture and
freshwater culture. In 2009, mariculture contributed about
The over-exploitation of the fishery resources in the major 40% to the total aquaculture production of the region,
fishing areas of the world coupled with the deterioration of while 22% and 38% came from brackishwater culture and
the habitats resulted in the continuous decline of production freshwater culture, respectively.

Table 17. Aquaculture production by continent from 2000 to 2009 (MT)

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
World 35,527,690 37,871,216 39,827,801 41,927,958 41,932,297 44,302,706 47,380,956 49,919,261 52,537,253 55,125,167
Africa 451,363 489,358 568,516 619,604 637,646 727,332 842,978 916,008 1,061,773 1,103,492
Americas 1,457,011 1,765,456 1,873,018 1,975,716 2,162,782 2,192,047 2,405,572 2,385,009 2,527,746 2,609,930
Asia* 27,728,412 29,138,351 30,403,415 31,601,474 30,506,286 31,589,971 33,347,606 34,853,630 35,392,453 36,371,354
Southeast Asia** 3,696,068 4,257,005 4,806,000 5,439,809 6,308,557 7,512,534 8,426,187 9,237,586 11,063,934 12,379,436
Europe 2,056,224 2,092,225 2,042,630 2,159,636 2,171,691 2,121,195 2,185,861 2,352,715 2,313,510 2,484,585
Oceania 138,612 128,821 134,222 131,719 145,335 159,627 172,752 174,313 177,837 176,370
* Excludes Southeast Asia
** Sources: Fishery Statistical Bulletin for the South China Sea Area (SEAFDEC, 2000-2009) and Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia
(SEAFDEC 2010, 2011)
Source of other data: FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Information and Statistics Service

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 Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center

Table 18. Total fishery and aquaculture production by aquaculture sub-sector of the Southeast Asian countries
from 2000 to 2009 (MT)
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Total Fishery 16,937,296 17,621,843 18,930,761 20,274,399 21,147,665 22,987,784 24,501,878 25,302,872 27,207,826 28,917,096
Production
Total 3,696,068 4,257,005 4,806,000 5,439,809 6,308,557 7,512,534 8,426,187 9,237,586 11,063,934 12,379,436
Aquaculture
Production
• Mariculture 1,219,702 1,489,952 2,114,640 2,230,322 2,712,679 3,005,014 3,623,260 3,879,786 4,646,146 4,945,239
• Brackishwater 1,108,821 1,191,961 1,297,620 1,468,748 1,514,054 1,953,258 1,853,761 2,032,269 2,072,026 2,694,336
culture
• Freshwater culture 1,367,545 1,575,092 1,393,740 1,740,739 2,081,824 2,554,262 2,949,166 3,325,531 4,345,762 4,739,861
Sources: Fishery Statistical Bulletin for the South China Sea Area (SEAFDEC, 2000-2009) and Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia (SEAFDEC 2010, 2011)

Table 19. Aquaculture production by aquaculture sub-sector of the Southeast Asian region in 2009 (MT)
Quantity (MT) Value Ave. Value
Country Brackishwater Freshwater (US$ 1000) US$/MT
Mariculture Total
culture culture
Brunei 72 354 34 460 5,161 11,220
Darussalam
Cambodia 4,925 75 45,000 50,000 87,954 1,760
Indonesia 2,537,100 1,080,700 1,162,300 4,780,100 5,189,522 1,090
Lao PDR ... ... 75,000 75,000 111,801 1,490
Malaysia 111,524* 69,296* 152,630* 333,450* 700,910 2,100
Myanmar 50,464 2,926 670,773 724,163 853,165 1,180
Philippines 1,860,462 308,440 308,490 2,477,392 1,710,608** 700
Singapore 3,286 ... 280 3,566 8,793 2,500
Thailand 316,927 558,444 520,639 1,396,010 2,422,630 1,740
Vietnam 172,003 554,397 1,812,900 2,539,300 4,867,779 1,920
Total 4,945,239 2,694,336 4,739,861 12,379,436 15,968,676 1,290
Source: Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia (SEAFDEC, 2011)
* Updated figures provided by Fisheries Management Information Division, DoF Malaysia; but not used for the calculation of total production.
** Updated figure provided by the Philippine Bureau of Agricultural Statistics,Department of Agriculture; but not used for the calculation of total production.

the Philippines, but for production from brackishwater

culture, Thailand and Vietnam come next to Indonesia as
the highest producer. For the production from freshwater
culture, Vietnam emerges next to Indonesia followed by
Myanmar (Fig. 9).

Indonesia’s production from aquaculture in 2009 comes

mainly from aquatic plants nei which accounts for about
62% of the country’s aquaculture production, followed
by freshwater fishes nei (Osteichthyes) accounting for
20%, marine fishes nei (Osteichthyes) 8%, and marine
crustaceans about 7% while other invertebrates and
Figure 8. Contribution of aquaculture to the total fishery
freshwater crustaceans comprise the remaining 3%. In
production of the Southeast Asian region
Sources: Fishery Statistical Bulletin for the South China Sea Area (SEAFDEC,
the case of Vietnam, 41% of its aquaculture production
2000-2010) and Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia (SEAFDEC 2010, comes from Pangas catfish nei (Pangasius spp.) followed
2011)
by freshwater fishes nei (Osteichthyes) 36%, giant tiger
shrimp (Penaeus monodon) 12%, marine mollusks nei 7%
Among the Southeast Asian countries, Indonesia is the and the remaining 4% comprises other marine shrimps and
leading producer of aquaculture products in terms of freshwater crustaceans.
volume and value (Table 19) followed by Vietnam. The
Philippines comes third in terms of volume but Thailand For the Philippines, its main aquaculture product is
ranks third in terms of value. Specifically for mariculture seaweeds mainly the Zanzibar weeds (Eucheuma cottonii)
production, Indonesia is the top producer followed by which accounts for 59% of the country’s production

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 SEASOFIA: The Southeast Asian State of Fisheries and Aquaculture 2012

Figure 9. Percentage of aquaculture production of the Southeast Asian countries in 2009:

quantity in MT (left) and value in US$ 1000 (right)

from aquaculture followed by milkfish (Chanos chanos) In the case of Indonesia, its main production of aquatic
accounting for 14%, tilapia (mainly Oreochromis spp.) plants nei is valued at US$ 275/MT while the other
11%, aquatic plants nei 6%, other seaweeds mainly E. products such as freshwater fishes nei is valued at US$
denticulatum 5%, shrimps (P. monodon) and crabs (Scylla 1,515/MT, marine fishes nei at US$ 1,300/MT, marine
serrata) 3%, and oysters and giant mussels 2%. In the crustaceans at US$ 3,640/MT, and other invertebrates
case of Thailand, its main production from aquaculture and freshwater crustaceans at US$ 740/MT. For Vietnam,
is the whiteleg shrimp (Penaeus vannamei) which its main product which is the Pangas catfish is valued at
contributes 38% to the country’s aquaculture production US$ 1,500/MT. The other products such as freshwater
followed by green mussels accounting for 17%, tilapia fishes nei is valued at US$ 1,500/MT, giant tiger shrimp
(O. niloticus) 15%, catfish hybrid (Clarias gariepenus (P. monodon) at US$ 4,000/MT, other marine shrimps also
x C. macrocephalus) 10%, gourami and silver barb 7%, at US$ 4,000/MT, marine mollusks nei at US$ 1000/MT,
blood cockle 5%, others including oysters comprising and freshwater crustaceans at US$ 7,000/MT.
the remaining 8%. For Myanmar, its main aquaculture
product is roho labeo (Labeo rohita) which accounts 5.1 Mariculture
for 67% of the country’s production from aquaculture.
Other freshwater species also contribute 18% to the total Worldwide, mariculture production had grown from
aquaculture production while P. monodon accounts for 21.0 million MT in 2000 to 34.8 million MT in 2009,
6%, tilapia 5%, Pangasius spp. 2%, and other species accounting for nearly one-half of the global production
comprising the remaining 2% of the country’s total from aquaculture. In 2009, Asia (including the Southeast
aquaculture production. Asia) was the biggest producer of mariculture products at
about 31.1 million MT or about 89% of global mariculture
As for the values of aquaculture production, Brunei production, out of which the Southeast Asian countries
Darussalam has the highest average value at US$ 11,220/ contributed 14% of the global production. Indonesia has
MT, especially for the country’s main aquaculture been the leading producer of mariculture products of
commodity which is the blue shrimp (Penaeus stylirostris) which its production in 2009 contributed more than 51%
valued at US$ 11,430/MT. The county’s other products to the region’s total production from mariculture, followed
include the giant tiger shrimp (P. monodon) valued at by the Philippines at 38% and Thailand at 6%, and the
US$ 15,000/MT, Caranx spp. at US$14,000/MT, grouper other countries provided the remaining 5% (Table 20).
(Epinephelus spp.) at US$ 17,000/MT, snapper (Lutjanus In terms of value, Indonesia still led the countries with
spp.) at US$ 13,500/MT, and the African catfish (Clarias the value of its mariculture production contributing about
gariepinus) at US$ 6,350/MT. 58%, followed by the Philippines (18%), Myanmar (9%),
Vietnam (8%), and the remaining countries contributing
For the Philippines, its main aquaculture product which about 7% to the region’s total mariculture production
is the Zanzibar weed is valued at US$120/MT. Milkfish value (Table 21).
which is the second major product is valued at US$ 1,730/
MT while tilapia is valued at US$ 1,370/MT and the other The major species groups cultured in marine areas in the
seaweeds are valued US$ 225/MT. The county’s other region are the aquatic plants which accounted for about
products such as P. monodon is valued at US$8,200/MT, 87% of the total production from mariculture in 2009
Scylla serrata at US$ 5,700/MT, oysters at US$ 200/MT, (Table 22), followed by marine mollusks (11%), and 2%
and giant mussels at US$ 145/MT. from marine fish species and others (Fig. 10). Although
aquatic plants accounted for 87% of the total mariculture

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 Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center

Table 20. Production volume from mariculture of the Southeast Asian countries from 2000 to 2009 (MT)
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Brunei Darussalam 53 30 16 18 ... 37 500 ... 390 72
Cambodia 408 394 4,064 8,324 16,915 16,400 500 16,630 1,370 4,925
Indonesia 197,114 221,010 234,859 249,242 736,689 890,074 1,365,919 1,509,062 2,377,382 2,537,100
Lao PDR ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
Malaysia 84,962* 87,468* 94,671* 92,936* 84,699* 80,239* 71,374* 72,922* 96,159* 111,524*
Myanmar 23,038 68,854 134,784 25,709 ... 804 ... ... 48,303 50,464
Philippines 747,414 827,670 936,851 1,039,081 1,273,598 1,419,727 1,566,056 1,626,206 1,793,395** 1,860,462
Singapore 4,398 3,700 4,303 4,786 4,786 5,280 8,113 4,159 3,235 3,286
Thailand 149,810 246,602 384,094 361,400 400,400 364,061 317,457 309,497 ... 316,927
Vietnam 32,900 319,071 396,099 443,135 155,235 213,800 216,200 208,500 48,420 172,003
Total 1,246,957 1,785,154 2,205,608 2,237,934 2,691,311 3,009,034 3,571,441 3,818,848 4,646,146 4,945,239
Sources: Fishery Statistical Bulletin for the South China Sea Area (SEAFDEC, 2000-2009) and Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia (SEAFDEC 2010, 2011)
* Updated figures provided by Fisheries Management Information Division, DoF Malaysia; but not used for the calculation of total production.
** Updated figure provided by the Philippine Bureau of Agricultural Statistics,Department of Agriculture; but not used for the calculation of total production.

Table 21. Production value from mariculture of the Southeast Asian countries from 2000 to 2009 (US$ 1000)
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Brunei Darussalam ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 392 …
Cambodia ... ... ... ... 4,585 ... ... 5,300 3,890 19,700
Indonesia 134,182 73,047 122,985 180,007 167,787 353,019 220,568 432,802 983,185 1,297,568
Lao PDR ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... …
Malaysia 47,895* 48,158* 51,579* 75,526* 60,263* 67,828* 108,470* 131,304* 159,407* 189,275*
Myanmar ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 208,905
Philippines 75,410 77,623 86,379 96,373 164,013 171,539 216,342 270,984 500,275 383,899**
Singapore 5,952 5,382 4,079 5,258 6,187 7,147 7,381 7,980 8,082 7,551
Thailand 40,692 54,847 57,207 62,260 59,915 97,215 1,457,754 ... ... 71,837
Vietnam ... 880,737 1,024,056 1,255,758 155,235 622,600 ... 189,500 1,493,750 174,000
Total 273,284 1,109,600 1,315,130 1,619,311 559,585 1,271,964 1,919,809 929,804 2,994,548 2,224,666
Sources: Fishery Statistical Bulletin for the South China Sea Area (SEAFDEC, 2000-2009) and Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia (SEAFDEC 2010, 2011)
* Updated figures provided by Fisheries Management Information Division, DoF Malaysia; but not used for the calculation of total production.
** Updated figure provided by the Philippine Bureau of Agricultural Statistics,Department of Agriculture; but not used for the calculation of total production.

Table 22. Mariculture production in the Southeast Asia by species group from 2000 to 2009 (MT)
Major groups 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Marine fishes 21,971 21,580 29,037 38,504 42,216 70,520 71,099 93,653 245,967 64,279
Marine mollusks 291,122 358,311 495,371 470,724 661,716 672,108 617,095 590,202 588,563 553,401
Aquatic plants 910,635 1,017,136 1,147,212 1,257,452 1,987,178 2,266,406 2,883,247 3,134,993 3,811,616 4,277,095
Others 23,229 388,127 533,988 471,254 201 - - - - 50,464
Total 1,246,957 1,435,154 2,205,608 2,237,934 2,691,311 3,009,034 3,571,441 3,818,848 4,646,146 4,945,239
Sources: Fishery Statistical Bulletin for the South China Sea Area (SEAFDEC, 2000-2009) and Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia (SEAFDEC 2010, 2011)

production in terms of value however, their contribution

was only 45% to the total value of mariculture production.
While marine fishes contributed only 2% to the total
marine production in 2009, in terms of value this group
contributed 34% to the total value of mariculture products.
On the other hand, marine mollusks which contributed
11% to the total volume of mariculture production, its
contribution in terms of value was about 12%, while
the contribution of marine shrimps to the total value of
mariculture production was about 9%.

Figure 10. Production trend of aquatic plants, marine fishes

and mollusks from mariculture in Southeast Asia

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 SEASOFIA: The Southeast Asian State of Fisheries and Aquaculture 2012

Table 23. Mariculture production in Southeast Asia by country and by major species in 2009 (MT)
Brunei Cambodia Indonesia Malaysia Myanmar Philippines Singapore Thailand Vietnam Total
Darussalam
Aquatic plants nei ... ... 2,537,100 … ... 165,570 ... ... ... 2,702,670
Euchema cottonii ... ... ... … ... 1,462,203 ... ... ... 1,462,203
Euchema denticulatum ... ... ... … ... 112,222 ... ... ... 112,222
Marine mollusks nei ... ... ... … 1,447 ... ... 166,003 167,450
Perna viridis … … … … … 19,936 … 230,678 … 250,614
Anadara granosa … … … … … … … 67,854 … 67,854
Crassostrea spp. … … … … … 19,931 18,395 38,326
Marine shrimps 50,464 50,464
Others 72 4,925 … … … 79,153 3,286 6,000 93,436
Total 72 4,925 2,537,100 … 50,464 1,860,462 3,286 316,927 172,003 4,945,239
Source: Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia (SEAFDEC, 2011)

The mariculture production by country and by species

in 2009 (Table 23) indicated that Indonesia contributed
the largest amount of aquatic plants production but this
was not classified according to species. Only Philippines
and Thailand reported their mariculture production at
species level. Therefore, it appears that the species with
highest production was the Zanzibar weeds (Eucheuma
cottonii) reported only by the Philippines, followed by
the green mussel (Perna viridis) reported by Philippines
and Thailand, Eucheuma denticulatum reported by the
Philippines, and blood cockle (Anadara granosa) reported
by Thailand. It should be noted that Myanmar reported its Figure 11. Production of aquatic plants, marine fishes and
production of marine shrimps at 50,464 MT comprising crustaceans from brackishwater aquaculture of Southeast
the giant tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon) at 46,104 MT Asia
and Indian white shrimp (P. indicus) at 4,360 MT. The Philippines at US$2,900/MT, Malaysia at US$ 2,170/MT,
value of the country’s production of marine shrimps was and Indonesia at US$ 2,000/MT. Myanmar and Singapore
recorded at US$ 208,905,000 or at an average value of did not report the values of their respective brackishwater
US$ 4,140/MT. aquaculture production.

5.2 Brackishwater Culture Crustaceans such as the whiteleg shrimp, giant tiger shrimp
and other prawns including banana prawn provided the
The main brackishwater species cultured in the Southeast highest contribution to the total brackishwater aquaculture
Asian region include the crustaceans such as the whiteleg production in 2009, in terms of volume at 58% and value
shrimp (Penaeus vannamei) and giant tiger shrimp (P. at also about 58%. While the whiteleg shrimp contributed
monodon), fishes and aquatic plants. Production from 21% in volume its contribution in terms of value was 25%,
brackishwater aquaculture had increased by about 141% likewise for the giant tiger shrimp which contributed 15%
during the period from 2000 to 2009 (Table 24). Although in volume and 25% in value. However, the other prawns
such production was rather stable from 2000 to 2003, a including banana prawn contributed 22% in volume
sharp increase occured during 2004 and 2005 (Fig. 11), but only 8% in value. Milkfish (Chanos chanos) also
which could be mainly due to the development of culture contributed almost 10% in volume but only 9% in value.
technologies and increased production of the whiteleg Although the region’s production from brackishwater
shrimp by Thailand and Vietnam. aquaculture in 2009 (Table 26) is dominated by marine
fishes nei contributing about 15% of the total production,
In terms of average value of production from brackishwater analysis could not be made on its production trend
aquaculture (Table 25), Brunei Darussalam posted the considering that the data had not been classified into
highest at US$ 14,580/MT followed by Cambodia at species level. On the other hand, production of the whiteleg
US$ 10,050/MT. For the other countries such as Vietnam shrimp (Penaeus vannamei) which comes with the second
the average value of its brackishwater aquaculture highest production volume contributed more than 20% of
products was US$ 3,560/MT, Thailand at US$ 3,075/MT, the region’s total brackishwater culture production, with

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 Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center

Table 24. Production volume from brackishwater aquaculture of the Southeast Asian countries from 2000 to 2009 (MT)
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Brunei Darussalam 41 31 52 52 598 537 60 611 … 354
Cambodia 20 143 53 90 590 100 130 … … 75
Indonesia 430,020 510,744 473,128 501,977 480,046 643,975 629,609 629,797 691,432 1,080,700
Lao PDR … … … … … … … … …
Malaysia 16,119* 27,232* 25,143* 26,382* 31,011* 33,547* 35,547* 35,258* 51,119* 69,296*
Myanmar 4,964 5,473 6,550 18,421 250,407 60,000 48,303 … 2,926
Philippines 241,455 268,120 254,167 254,744 262,554 277,230 281,316 294,495 303,244** 308,440
Singapore 55 40 107 30 71 35 34 … … …
Thailand 317,263 287,928 276,008 341,878 377,388 414,926 508,150 535,834 805,300 558,444
Vietnam 96,433 … … … 339,555 287,200 309,000 500,500 501,600 554,397
Total 1,115,635 1,109,219 1,044,967 1,157,485 1,503,783 1,901,773 1,841,978 2,063,196 2,072,026 2,694,336
Sources: Fishery Statistical Bulletin for the South China Sea Area (SEAFDEC, 2000-2009) and Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia (SEAFDEC 2010, 2011)
* Updated figures provided by Fisheries Management Information Division, DoF Malaysia; but not used for the calculation of total production.
** Updated figure provided by the Philippine Bureau of Agricultural Statistics,Department of Agriculture; but not used for the calculation of total production.

Table 25. Production value from brackishwater aquaculture of the Southeast Asian countries from 2000 to 2009 (US$ 1000)
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Brunei Darussalam ... ... ... ... 2,695 ... ... 3,212 ... 5,161
Cambodia ... ... ... ... 767 ... ... ... 375 754
Indonesia 731,798 902,128 1,118,924 1,139,019 1,529,358 1,483,289 1,736,275 1,672,408 1,840,902 2,156,102
Lao PDR ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... …
Malaysia 125,236* 201,579* 167,105* 165,789* 173,158* 172,341* 162,295* 165,797* 209,481* 271,014*
Myanmar ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 193,212 641,278 …
Philippines 534,739 534,699 485,225 457,412 490,853 535,451 611,344 714,106 831,073 886,256**
Singapore 430 386 969 313 593 374 625 ... ... ...
Thailand 2,206,325 1,875,872 1,248,738 1,081,912 1,175,007 897,455 ... 1,523,423 1,602,685 1,717,645
Vietnam ... ... ... ... 1,146,005 1,463,200 ... 1,692,500 467,450 1,974,429
Total 3,631,332 3,547,229 3,055,403 2,904,025 4,566,961 4,616,652 2,602,799 6,038,269 5,717512 7,160,596
Sources: Fishery Statistical Bulletin for the South China Sea Area (SEAFDEC, 2000-2009) and Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia (SEAFDEC 2010, 2011)
* Updated figures provided by Fisheries Management Information Division, DoF Malaysia; but not used for the calculation of total production.
** Updated figure provided by the Philippine Bureau of Agricultural Statistics,Department of Agriculture; but not used for the calculation of total production.

Figure 12. Changes in production trends of whiteleg shrimps and giant tiger shrimps in Thailand (left) and Vietnam (right)

Thailand as the largest producer accounting for about 94% production with the Philippines as the leading producer of
of the species group’s total production (Fig. 12). Coming such species (Table 27).
next after the whiteleg shrimp is the giant tiger shrimp
(Penaeus monodon) providing 15% to the region’s total 5.3 Freshwater Aquaculture
with Vietnam as the highest producer providing about
74% of the species production. Milkfish (Chanos chanos) The deterioration of inland fishery habitats had resulted
is also an important commodity although it contributed in degrading inland fishery resources despite reports by
only about 10% to the region’s total brackishwater culture many Southeast Asian countries that inland capture fishery
production had been increasing. In order to increase fish

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 SEASOFIA: The Southeast Asian State of Fisheries and Aquaculture 2012

Table 26. Brackishwater culture production by major groups of species from 2000 to 2009 (MT)
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Marine fishes nei 76,385 34,467 110,147 109,570 111,743 139,447 64,790 172,224 174,413 672,371
Whiteleg shrimp … … … 132,365 … 745,948 571,000
Tiger prawn 511,867 450,522 439,532 406,519 478,865 604,511 427,467 429,295 522,326 383,696
Milkfish 408,827 421,119 425,892 430,903 448,910 473,924 439,706 498,437 … 260,610
Banana prawn … … … … 320,429 399,816 … 78,087 64,534
Other prawns 118,392 203,111 69,396 76,145 143,165 284,075 837,503 963,106 224,545 462,671
Aquatic plants … … … … … … 33,321 … … 171,868
Others 164 … … 1,984 671 39,191 134 326,707 107,586
Total 1,115,635 1,109,219 1,044,967 1,157,485 1,503,783 1,901,773 1,841,978 2,063,196 2,072,026 2,694,336
Sources: Fishery Statistical Bulletin for the South China Sea Area (SEAFDEC, 2000-2009) and Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia (SEAFDEC 2010, 2011)

Table 27. Brackishwater aquaculture production in Southeast Asia by country and by major species in 2009 (MT)
Brunei Cambodia Indonesia Malaysia Myanmar Philippines Singapore Thailand Vietnam Total
Darussalam
Penaeus vannamei … … … … … … … 535,000 36,000 571,000
Penaeus monodon 15 … … 16,351 … 47,830 … 3,500 316,000 383,696
Chanos chanos … … … … … 260,610 … … … 260,610
Aquatic Plants nei … … 171,868 … … … … … … 171,868
Penaeus spp. 275 75 402,043 52,927* 2,204 … … 453 59,700 527,205
Anadara granosa … .. … 64,938 … … … … … 64,938
Perna viridis … … … 10,596 … … … … … 10,596
Lates calcarifer 39 … … 14,229 … … … 15,656 … 29,924
Crassostrea spp. … … … 2,128 … … … … … 2,128
Marine fishes nei 25 … 506,789 19,650* 722 … … 3,835 142,697 672,371
Total 354 75 1,080,700 180,819* 2,926 308,440 - 558,444 554,397 2,694,336
Source: Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia (SEAFDEC, 2011)
* Updated figures provided by Fisheries Management Information Division, DoF Malaysia.

supply from inland areas, freshwater aquaculture has fishes without providing the details at species level
been widely promoted and practiced in many countries in (Table 30). Nevertheless, the information provided by
Southeast Asia. As a result, production from freshwater the countries in 2009 indicated that freshwater fishes nei
aquaculture in the region has demonstrated a steady accounted for 42% of the region’s total production from
growth over the past decade of approximately 411,000 freshwater aquaculture followed by the Pangas catfish
MT annually from 2000 to 2009 (Table 28). (23%), tilapia nei (12%), roho labeo (10%), catfishes
(5%), cyprinidae (4%), and others (4%). In terms of value,
Specifically in 2009, the volume of the region’s production freshwater fishes nei provided 47% followed by Pangas
from freshwater culture accounted for about 38% of catfish (25%), tilapia nei (10%), roho labeo (7%), catfishes
the region’s total aquaculture production. In terms of (4%), cyprinidae (4%), and others (4%).
value, this sub-sector accounts for 41% of the region’s
total aquaculture production value (Table 29), making Notwithstanding the information provided by the
freshwater aquaculture a very important fishery sub-sector. countries on miscellaneous freshwater fishes which are
Vietnam contributed the highest production in terms of mostly not classified into species level, Pangas catfish
volume and value followed by Indonesia, Myanmar, and (Pangasius spp.) contributed the highest production in
Thailand. 2009 accounting for about 23% of total freshwater culture
production in the region with Vietnam producing 95%. It
More than 30 major freshwater fish species are being is notable that the production of catfish of the region had
cultured in the Southeast Asian region, about one-half increased by more than 5 times over the ten-year period
of which are indigenous in the region while the rest are from 2000 to 2009. Tilapia comes next providing 11% of
either imported or domesticated for an extended period the region’s freshwater aquaculture production from the
(e.g. tilapia, roho labeo, African (including hybrid) Philippines and Thailand, and roho labeo (Labeo rohita)
catfish). For this reason, many countries reported on their at 10% of the region’s freshwater production contributed
production by major species groups such as freshwater mostly by Myanmar (Table 31).

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 Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center

Table 28. Production volume from freshwater aquaculture of the Southeast Asian countries from 2000 to 2009 (MT)
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Brunei Darussalam 19 38 90 89 110 129 … 63 ... 34
Cambodia 14,002 13,463 17,886 14,133 20,170 25,500 … 33,570 38,350 45,000
Indonesia 367,831 401,030 472,974 429,166 137,766 407,047 384,658 327,171 786,386 1,162,300
Lao PDR … … … … … … … … 64,300 75,000
Malaysia 50,689 43,456 46,403* 49,947* 55,557 62,006 61,653* 70,064 95,846* 152,631*
Myanmar 93,948 115,793 356,230 114,716 426,000 323,779 … 556,354 605,552 670,773
Philippines 112,033 123,666** 147,375** 160,678** 180,875 198,890 257,325 244,903** 311,059 308,294**
Singapore 160 702 602 616 549 602 1,471 345 283 280
Thailand 271,010 279,697 361,124 183,311 523,709 539,474 532,252 525,100 525,500 520,639
Vietnam 381,222 390,820 559,960 448,710 703,827 966,300 … 1,485,500 1,918,300 1,812,900
Total 1,290,914 1,368,663 1,979,491 1,679,020 2,048,563 2,523,727 1,255,362 3,292,292 4,345,762 4,739,861
Sources: Fishery Statistical Bulletin for the South China Sea Area (SEAFDEC, 2000-2009) and Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia (SEAFDEC 2010, 2011)
* Updated figures provided by Fisheries Management Information Division, DoF Malaysia; but not used for the calculation of total production.
** Updated figure provided by the Philippine Bureau of Agricultural Statistics,Department of Agriculture; but not used for the calculation of total production.

Table 29. Production value from freshwater aquaculture of the Southeast Asian countries from 2000 to 2009 (US$ 1000)
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Brunei Darussalam … … … … 398 … … … … ...
Cambodia … … … … 36,813 … … 52,738 57,525 67,500
Indonesia 217,067 347,392 440,725 443,349 269,851 332,412 384,658 342,329 1,398,411 1,735,852
Lao PDR .. … … … … … … … 91,141 111,801
Malaysia 80,263* 65,263* 62,368* 63,421* 67,105* 77,329* 79,781* 101,159* 139,556* 204,058*
Myanmar … … … … … … … 1,669,191 141,288 644,260
Philippines 118,147 106,139 114,794 132,546 162,960 185,546 257,325 349,629 387,286 418,956
Singapore 3,564 2,522 1,799 1,861 1,744 2,450 1,471 1,072 1,180 1,242
Thailand 209,990 206,769 .253,349 317,492 479,587 358,509 532,252 611,169 462,616 633,148
Vietnam … 280,191 316,039 379,767 1,055,741 859,850 … 2,662,750 2,656,500 2,719,350
Total 629,028 1,008,429 935,923 1,338,492 2,075,298 1,822,566 1,255,362 5,779,567 4,716,200 6,583,413
Sources: Fishery Statistical Bulletin for the South China Sea Area (SEAFDEC, 2000-2009) and Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia (SEAFDEC 2010, 2011)
* Updated figures provided by Fisheries Management Information Division, DoF Malaysia; but not used for the calculation of total production.

1,250,000 MT in 2008 but dropped to 1,050,000 MT in

2009 (Fig. 13).

VI. FISH TRADE

Fish is the most heavily traded food commodity and the

fastest growing agricultural commodity in international
markets. In addition to its contribution to national economy
and capability in generating income, trade in fish and
fishery products also plays an important role in improving
food security and ensuring the distribution of products to
meet the nutritional demands and requirements for food
Figure 13. Vietnam’s production of Pangas catfish fish worldwide. In 2008, the total export quantity of fish
and fishery products was about 23% of world’s fishery
In 2009, Vietnam reported the highest quantity and value of production while the total import accounted for about
inland culture production, more than one half of which was 24% of the total fishery production (Table 32). While the
derived from the culture of Pangasius spp. accounting for export of fish and fishery products of the Southeast Asian
about 58% of the country’s inland culture production. The countries in 2008 represented 17% of the region’s fishery
production from Pangasius spp. in Vietnam had drastically production, the region posted a positive trade balance of
grown from approximately 100,000 MT in 2000 to about 1,541,402 MT.

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 SEASOFIA: The Southeast Asian State of Fisheries and Aquaculture 2012

Table 30. Freshwater aquaculture production of the Southeast Asian region by species groups from 2000 to 2009 (MT)
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Carps, barbels and 342,185 409,066 447,496 629,864 551,173 300,195 495,534 428,692 680,758 210,735
other cyprinids
Tilapia and other 244,664 281,880 367,489 373,653 380,584 504,195 530,852 575,560 615,705 540,508
cichilds
Catfishes 235,689 148,962 171,717 252,733 278,865 667,154 756,841 1,160,620 1,674,598 1,334,894
Gouramis … 43,350 49,661 67,373 44,418 44,971 32,233 37,883 37,438
Misc. freshwater 125,393 200,486 122,278 38,387 96,465 921,116 1,006,699 922,542 620,456 1,994,409
fishes
Fresh. crustaceans 19,949 14,140 16,696 29,024 37,648 46,141 32,294 113,873 37,378 35,637
Sources: Fishery Statistical Bulletin for the South China Sea Area (SEAFDEC, 2000-2009) and Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia (SEAFDEC 2010, 2011)

Table 31. Freshwater aquaculture production in Southeast Asia by country and by major species in 2009 (MT)
Brunei Cambodia Indonesia Lao PDR Malaysia Myanmar Philippines Singapore Thailand Vietnam Total
Darussalam
Pangasius spp. … … … … 18,810 13,944 … … 22,243 1,050,000 1,104,997
Oreochromis … … … … 35,588 34,860 260,911 … 209,141 … 540,500
(=Tilapia) spp.
Labeo rohita … … … … … 488,046 … … 2,375 … 490,421
Clarias spp. … … … … 83,727 6,972 2,892 … 136,306 … 229,897
Barbonymus gonionotus … … … … 723 13,944 … … 57,600 … 72,267
Catla catla … … … … … 41,832 … … … … 41,832
Cyprinus carpio … … … … 994 20,916 15,691 … 4,026 … 41,627
Trichogaster spp. … … … … … … 175 … 36,047 … 36,222
Cyprinidae … … … … 3,688 50,199 … … 1,122 … 55,009
Misc. freshwater 34 45,000 1,162,300 75,000 915 60 28,821 280 51,779 762,900 2,127,089
fishes
Total 34 45,000 1,162,300 75,000 144,445 670,773 308,490 280 520,639 1,812,900 4,739,861
Source: Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia (SEAFDEC, 2011)

Table 32. World’s fishery production and trade 5,205 million annually (Table 34). In 2008, Europe
by continent in 2008 (MT)
exported the largest amount of fish and fishery products
Total Total Total Trade accounting for about 37% in terms of volume and 38%
Fishery Export of Import of Balance
Production Fish and Fish and (Export- in terms of value of the world’s total export of fish and
Fishery Fishery Import)
products products fishery products (Fig. 14). The Southeast Asian region on
World 142,326,046 32,338,756 33,536,329 -1,197,573
the other hand, exported more than 14% of global export
volume with value that represents 16% of the world’s
Africa 8,424,970 1,618,807 3,248,505 -1,629,698
export value (Table 34). From Asia, China is the largest
Americas 24,470,938 7,720,061 4,210,689 3,509,372
exporter contributing about 10% to the global export value
Asia* 65,340,506 5,924,837 9,139,516 -3,214,679 followed by Norway providing about 7%. From among
Southeast Asia** 27,260,013 4,651,467 3,110,065 1,541,402 the Southeast Asian countries, Thailand’s export value
Europe 15,415,869 11,867,828 13,430,337 -1,562,509 contributes 6% to the world’s total export value while
Oceania 1,413,750 555,756 397,217 158,539 Vietnam provides 4%.
* Excludes Southeast Asia
** Sources: Fishery Statistical Bulletin for the South China Sea Area In terms of import of fish and fishery products in 2008
(SEAFDEC, 2000-2009) and Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia
(SEAFDEC 2010, 2011) (Table 35), Europe also imported the largest quantity
Source of other data: FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Information and representing 40% of the world’s total import volume
Statistics Service
and 47% of the world’s import value. Asia (excluding
6.1 Global Trading of Fish and Fishery Southeast Asia) came next with the import volume
Products equivalent to 27% and 26% in terms of value (Table 36),
with Japan as the largest importing country with its import
From 2000 to 2008, the world exports of fish and fishery value accounting for 14% of the world’s import value. The
products increased in terms of volume by about 646,300 United States of America on the other hand, accounted for
MT/year (Table 33) and in terms of value by about US$ about 13% of the world’s total import (Table 37).

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 Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center

Table 33. World’s export volume of fish and fishery products by continent from 2000 to 2008 (MT)
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
World 26,522,457 27,692,567 27,579,545 28,229,117 29,778,194 31,125,973 31,487,742 31,824,120 32,338,756
Africa 1,429,938 1,448,437 1,495,826 1,443,456 1,362,495 1,438,138 1,577,060 1,569,254 1,618,807
Americas 7,439,299 7,575,941 6,719,867 6,796,415 7,573,772 8,271,059 7,676,682 7,477,837 7,720,061
Asia* 3,934,695 4,313,806 4,690,050 4,651,357 5,103,039 5,372,681 5,974,680 6,132,797 5,924,837
Southeast Asia** 2,537,650 2,794,576 3,130,183 3,487,477 3,726,312 3,905,249 4,347,417 4,391,013 4,651,467
Europe 10,666,929 11,053,966 10,979,693 11,268,697 11,384,394 11,504,192 11,301,402 11,657,352 11,867,828
Oceania 513,946 505,841 563,926 581,715 628,182 634,654 610,501 595,867 555,756
* Excludes Southeast Asia
** Sources: Fishery Statistical Bulletin for the South China Sea Area (SEAFDEC, 2000-2009) and Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia
(SEAFDEC 2010, 2011)
Source of other data: FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Information and Statistics Service

Table 34. World’s export value of fish and fishery products by continent from 2000 to 2008 (US$ 1000)
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
World 55,845,773 56,632,610 58,712,141 64,309,755 71,866,509 79,098,102 86,548,454 94,109,569 102,676,390
Africa 2,736,448 2,849,334 3,118,517 3,368,369 3,293,196 3,713,840 3,906,874 4,494,502 4,777,540
Americas 13,256,480 13,779,546 13,473,722 14,918,822 15,925,983 17,772,863 19,103,365 19,757,890 21,297,994
Asia* 10,369,245 10,342,455 10,916,377 11,585,136 14,075,457 15,390,484 16,672,254 17,675,673 19,000,022
Southeast Asia** 8,812,594 8,728,057 8,707,277 9,120,338 10,052,738 11,035,117 12,512,487 13,682,576 16,115,145
Europe 18,769,641 19,126,103 20,603,409 23,381,528 26,401,855 29,000,684 32,188,631 36,230,015 39,178,009
Oceania 1,901,365 1,807,115 1,892,839 1,935,562 2,117,280 2,185,114 2,164,843 2,268,913 2,307,680
* Excludes Southeast Asia
** Sources: Fishery Statistical Bulletin for the South China Sea Area (SEAFDEC, 2000-2009) and Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia
(SEAFDEC 2010, 2011)
Source of other data: FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Information and Statistics Service

Table 35. World’s import volume of fish and fishery products by continent from 2000 to 2008 (MT)
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
World 26,514,155 27,946,942 28,088,132 28,574,573 30,289,223 31,925,268 33,379,144 34,045,034 33,536,329
Africa 1,593,854 1,864,311 1,731,138 1,861,829 2,289,675 2,431,128 3,845,105 3,850,588 3,248,505
Americas 3,284,576 3,347,550 3,347,352 3,596,394 3,821,087 3,852,586 4,042,879 4,195,907 4,210,689
Asia* 8,115,616 8,339,821 8,664,947 8,110,971 9,006,740 9,492,860 9,127,798 9,051,252 9,139,516
Southeast Asia** 1,857,630 2,020,229 2,237,657 2,180,413 2,446,107 2,866,375 2,972,007 2,961,865 3,110,065
Europe 11,314,999 12,034,262 11,758,543 12,471,731 12,340,682 12,909,988 13,002,845 13,597,405 13,430,337
Oceania 347,480 340,769 348,495 353,235 384,932 372,331 388,510 388,017 397,217
* Excludes Southeast Asia
** Sources: Fishery Statistical Bulletin for the South China Sea Area (SEAFDEC, 2000-2009) and Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia
(SEAFDEC 2010, 2011)
Source of other data: FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Information and Statistics Service

Table 36. World’s import value of fish and fishery products by continent from 2000 to 2008 (US$ 1000)
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
World 61,016,653 60,603,270 62,504,836 68,429,660 76,761,850 82,872,583 91,311,234 99,420,542 108,599,363
Africa 957,275 1,261,522 1,230,671 1,459,686 1,671,522 2,013,573 2,410,767 2,842,462 3,036,319
Americas 13,091,323 12,885,820 12,544,833 14,302,537 15,053,196 15,405,417 17,262,495 18,319,122 19,627,040
Asia* 22,275,946 20,277,573 21,116,032 20,314,354 23,808,717 24,773,774 25,293,048 25,757,485 28,700,820
Southeast Asia** 1,965,852 2,145,850 2,297,541 2,443,603 2,958,752 3,277,086 3,493,875 3,865,759 4,822,005
Europe 22,050,883 23,352,325 24,593,131 29,082,728 32,363,763 36,351,038 41,709,655 47,307,259 51,018,055
Oceania 675,374 680,180 722,628 826,752 905,900 1,051,695 1,141,394 1,328,455 1,395,124
* Excludes Southeast Asia
** Sources: Fishery Statistical Bulletin for the South China Sea Area (SEAFDEC, 2000-2009) and Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia
(SEAFDEC 2010, 2011)
Source of other data: FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Information and Statistics Service

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 SEASOFIA: The Southeast Asian State of Fisheries and Aquaculture 2012

Table 37. World’s top ten exporters and importers of fish

and fishery products in 2008
Exporters Export Value (US$ millions)
1. China 10,114
2. Norway 6,937
3. Thailand 6,532
4. Denmark 4,601
5. Vietnam 4,550
6. United States of America 4,463
7. Chile 3,931
8. Canada 3,706
9. Spain 3,465
10. Netherlands 3,394
Importers Import Value (US$ millions)
1. Japan 14,947
2. United States of America 14,135
3. Spain 7,101
4. France 5,836
5. Italy 5,453
6. China 5,143
7. Germany 4,502
8. United Kingdom 4,220
9. Denmark 3,111 Figure 14. Export volume of fish and fishery products (top)
and percentage of export quantity by continent in 2008
10. Korea 2,928
(above)
Source: The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2010

6.2 Southeast Asian Export-Import of Fish are imported and re-exported as well. As in the case of
and Fishery Products Singapore, although its import volume was minimal but
the total export volume very much exceeded the country’s
For the Southeast Asian region, Thailand is the largest fishery production, since the country imported most
exporter of fish and fishery products in 2008, which products that are meant for re-export.
was about 55% of the country’s total fishery production,
followed by Vietnam the volume of which was about 23% In terms of export value (Table 40), Brunei Darussalam
of its fishery production (Table 38 and Table 39). Although posted the highest average value per metric tons of
the region’s export of fish and fishery products originates exported products at US$ 10,900/MT followed by
mainly from capture and culture fisheries, some products Singapore at US$ 5,415/MT, Vietnam at US$ 4,315/

Table 38. Trading of fish and fishery products by the Southeast Asian countries in 2008 (MT)
Country Total Fishery Total Export of Fish and Total Import of Fish and Trade Balance
Production Fishery products Fishery products (Export-Import)
Brunei Darussalam 2,747 220 4,882 -4,662
Cambodia 536,320 42,610 2,176 40,434
Indonesia 9,054,873 868,442 198,980 669,462
Lao PDR 93,500 17 3,884 -3,867
Malaysia 1,639,017 302,235* 383,334* -81,099*
Myanmar 3,147,605 351,652 2,416 349,236
Philippines 4,964,703 228,075 210,215 17,860
Singapore 5,141 62,541 225,703 -163,162
Thailand 3,204,200 1,755,255 1,533,690 221,565
Vietnam 4,559,720 1,056,124 253,315 802,809
Total 27,207,826 4,651,467 3,110,065 1,541,402
Source: Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia (SEAFDEC, 2010)
* Updated figures provided by Fisheries Management Information Division, DoF Malaysia.

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 Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center

Table 39. Export volume of fish and fishery products by the Southeast Asian countries from 2000 to 2008 (MT)
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Brunei Darussalam 285 149 92 144 113 156 736 320 220
Cambodia 43,636 38,454 52,752 56,957 47,272 50,334 48,868 43,985 42,610
Indonesia 490,416 457,913 539,384 830,383 881,677 825,076 885,179 814,303 868,442
Lao PDR 4 30 7 24 11 - 1 33 17
Malaysia 144,590* 161,339* 198,892* 241,780* 283,385* 289,971* 270,774* 318,403* 302,235*
Myanmar 116,609 144,623 201,667 212,999 205,463 278,675 271,071 259,054 351,652
Philippines 215,531 171,361 171,279 188,789 180,648 153,885 171,726 185,918 228,075
Singapore 110,693 91,932 74,428 72,465 78,590 83,229 81,308 69,889 62,541
Thailand 1,162,099 1,250,204 1,280,563 1,440,364 1,436,475 1,570,762 1,743,974 1,823,612 1,755,255
Vietnam 302,942 513,681 606,684 525,090 625,368 668,126 888,664 890,418 1,056,124
Total 2,537,650 2,794,576 3,130,183 3,487,477 3,726,312 3,905,249 4,347,417 4,391,013 4,651,467
Sources: Fishery Statistical Bulletin for the South China Sea Area (SEAFDEC, 2000-2009) and Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia (SEAFDEC 2010)
* Updated figures provided by Fisheries Management Information Division, DoF Malaysia; but not used for the calculation of total production.

Table 40. Export value of fish and fishery products by the Southeast Asian countries from 2000 to 2008 (US$ 1000)
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Brunei Darussalam 296 334 459 706 683 1,053 5,305 3,238 2,398
Cambodia 37,691 31,308 32,071 34,744 40,304 51,207 43,995 31,970 31,937
Indonesia 1,610,291 1,560,078 1,516,537 1,579,783 1,736,184 1,845,883 2,019,803 2,170,876 2,600,968
Lao PDR 29 78 27 26 25 21 8 56 40
Malaysia 355,136* 358,931* 384,878* 442,643* 592,787* 641,350* 646,426* 756,515* 769,846*
Myanmar 183,707 218,291 251,534 317,382 318,514 460,089 362,951 358,065 560,568
Philippines 455,984 420,184 453,030 464,463 454,384 384,766 418,364 498,069 671,194
Singapore 455,407 379,215 313,707 320,344 399,887 404,259 382,742 369,982 388,655
Thailand 4,384,437 4,075,341 3,713,299 3,943,194 4,079,407 4,502,821 5,275,349 5,721,525 6,547,742
Vietnam 1,484,283 1,823,102 2,044,630 2,203,499 2,450,112 2,765,365 3,379,955 3,790,167 4,559,252
Total 8,812,594 8,728,057 8,707,277 9,120,338 10,052,738 11,035,117 12,512,487 13,682,576 16,115,145
Sources: Fishery Statistical Bulletin for the South China Sea Area (SEAFDEC, 2000-2009) and Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia (SEAFDEC 2010)
* Updated figures provided by Fisheries Management Information Division, DoF Malaysia; but not used for the calculation of total production.

MT and Thailand at US$ 3,730/MT. On the other hand,

Cambodia posted the lowest average value per metric ton
of exported products at US$ 750/MT.

Moreover, from 2000 to 2008, the largest exported

commodity is the “fishes” group which accounts for 65%
of total export of the region, followed by crustaceans
contributing 21% to the total export (Table 41 and Fig. 15).
Specifically in the case of Vietnam, its important export
products are frozen shrimps, processed Pangas catfish
which are mainly exported to Japan, Taiwan, South Korea,
Hong Kong, the United States and the European Union.
For Thailand, its major export fishery products included
shrimps and canned seafood which are exported to the
United States, Japan, Canada, and Singapore.

Furthermore, the import quantity of the Southeast Asian

region which increased at the rate of about 139,160 MT
annually (Table 42), posted a positive trade balance of
about 1,541,400 MT in 2008. Although Thailand is the
largest importing country, it still posted a positive trade
Figure 15. Major groups of commodities exported by
balance of 221,565 MT (Fig. 16). On the other hand,
the Southeast Asian countries in 2008

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 SEASOFIA: The Southeast Asian State of Fisheries and Aquaculture 2012

Table 41. Fish and fishery products exported by Southeast Asia (MT)
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Crustaceans 588,337 684,492 711,793 758,504 818,594 899,674 1,000,908 995,896 983,362

Frozen 417,571 460,098 489,987 512,425 561,982 603,595 666,398 672,100 643,444

Not Frozen 37,001 86,362 80,415 97,085 85,118 106,808 91,361 76,613 75,665

Prepared or preserved 133,765 138,032 141,391 148,994 171,494 189,271 243,149 247,183 264,253
Fish 1,562,969 1,605,154 1,862,742 2,230,473 2,302,817 2,407,896 2,663,082 2,666,187 3,004,456

Fillets, frozen 65,350 87,945 96,744 106,809 163,351 212,908 338,899 297,407 439,987

Meat and fillets fresh or chilled 5,307 7,745 11,833 14,755 5,417 8,037 8,529 31,468 22,213

Meat, whether or not minced, frozen 95,249 128,938 154,204 151,017 140,360 179,521 186,536 198,329 232,794

Prepared or preserved 492,547 567,552 623,194 730,870 732,202 835,383 890,473 905,002 995,289

Dried, salted and smoked 55,366 75,334 80,973 90,029 86,933 126,248 126,801 128,578 123,271

Fresh or chilled, excluding fillets and meat 308,179 310,920 321,933 323,722 321,483 303,516 312,636 335,363 308,280

Frozen, excluding fillets and meat 502,559 386,383 530,208 770,498 803,973 694,053 753,017 732,779 839,921

Live 38,412 40,337 43,653 42,773 49,098 48,230 46,191 37,261 42,701
Mollusks and other aquatic invertebrates 257,980 382,804 384,252 338,164 376,146 392,684 400,131 431,767 408,510
Live, fresh or chilled 17,319 80,811 61,582 71,834 52,703 48,770 23,151 24,841 31,848

Other than live, fresh or chilled 213,050 271,118 289,131 231,276 269,597 293,587 322,156 350,205 323,223

Prepared or preserved 27,611 30,875 33,539 35,054 53,846 50,327 54,824 56,721 53,439
Other products 128,364 122,126 171,396 160,336 228,756 204,995 283,296 297,164 255,139
Total 2,537,650 2,794,576 3,130,183 3,487,477 3,726,313 3,905,249 4,347,417 4,391,014 4,651,467
Sources: Fishery Statistical Bulletin for the South China Sea Area (SEAFDEC, 2000-2009) and Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia (SEAFDEC 2010)

Malaysia which ranked second as the largest importing region’s total fishery production. The Philippines which
country posted a negative trade balance of about 388,270 ranked as the region’s second highest producer contributed
MT (Fig. 17). Brunei Darussalam which had the least an average of about 18% while Vietnam’s contribution to
fishery production posted a negative balance of trade of the region’s total fishery production ranged from more
4,662 MT while Singapore which is the second country than 11% in 2000 to about 17% in 2009 with an average
with the least fishery production also posted a high of about 15% annually. This scenario reflects the important
negative trade balance of 163,162 MT. role that Indonesia’s fishery sector has played in the
region’s economies.
During the period from 2000 to 2008, the value of the
products imported by the Southeast Asian countries On the other hand, the trend of the fishery production of
increased by about US$ 317,350 annually (Table 43). Myanmar has been increasing fast especially starting in
In terms of average value per metric tons of imported 2008. While the country has contributed only about 8%
products, Singapore had the highest value at US$ 4,060/ to the region’s total fishery production in 2000, by 2009
MT followed by Brunei Darussalam at US$ 2,510/MT. it accounted for at least 12% with an average contribution
As for Thailand which is the largest importer among the of 10% to the region’s fishery production from 2000 to
Southeast Asian countries, the value of its import was US$ 2009. Meanwhile, Thailand seems to be losing its grip on
1,595/MT while the value of the Philippine import was its fishery production as its contribution to the region’s
the lowest at about US$ 840/MT. overall total had been decreasing from 22% in 2000 to only
about 11% in 2009 decreasing at an average of more than
VII. SUMMARY 1% annually over the ten-year period. The region’s fishery
production comes from three major sources, namely:
Since the early 2000s, the Southeast Asian region has been marine capture fisheries, inland capture fisheries and
responsible for the substantial and consistently increasing aquaculture. During the ten-year period from 2000 to 2009,
volume of the world’s total fishery production, with the marine capture fisheries had contributed substantially
region contributing about 13% in 2000 to about 20% in to the region’s total fishery production followed by
2009 or at an average of more than 16% annually. Among aquaculture and inland capture fisheries.
the Southeast Asian countries, Indonesia has maintained
its position as the leading fish producer with its volume However, the contribution from marine capture fisheries
contributing an average of more than 30% annually to the has been decreasing from 70% in 2000 to only about 49%

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 Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center

Table 42. Import volume of fish and fishery products by the Southeast Asian countries from 2000 to 2008 (MT)
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Brunei Darussalam 6,624 8,335 6,573 7,201 6,812 6,385 7,697 5,382 4,882
Cambodia 3,174 1,074 1,267 2,218 3,071 3,094 3,084 3,862 2,176
Indonesia 171,349 151,957 110,035 92,649 126,826 128,431 165,195 126,003 198,980
Lao PDR 2,510 3,142 2,725 3,026 3,943 3,594 3,028 3,190 3,884
Malaysia 323,199* 349,265* 353,794* 375,870* 423,092* 399,379* 435,616* 438,898* 383,334*
Myanmar 1,525 565 464 1,053 1,650 1,846 1,393 1,699 2,416
Philippines 248,407 180,992 217,069 152,389 134,375 182,765 179,640 202,163 210,215
Singapore 183,934 174,391 179,616 215,305 227,340 253,552 244,646 239,686 225,703
Thailand 813,789 977,656 1,006,347 1,078,966 1,240,567 1,445,348 1,470,636 1,407,414 1,533,690
Vietnam 7,960 42,488 46,062 80,758 105,712 165,588 200,663 228,718 253,315
Total 1,857,630 2,020,229 2,237,657 2,180,413 2,446,107 2,866,375 2,972,007 2,961,865 3,110,065
Sources: Fishery Statistical Bulletin for the South China Sea Area (SEAFDEC, 2000-2009) and Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia (SEAFDEC 2010)
* Updated figures provided by Fisheries Management Information Division, DoF Malaysia; but not used for the calculation of total production.

Table 43. Import value of fish and fishery products by the Southeast Asian countries from 2000 to 2008 (US$ 1000)
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Brunei Darussalam 15,239 13,379 13,136 11,847 14,415 15,766 25,646 15,907 12,260
Cambodia 2,724 467 586 3,090 3,225 3,714 4,341 5,086 2,443
Indonesia 101,644 93,730 79,095 75,903 143,669 106,330 142,742 118,966 202,029
Lao PDR 2,069 2,170 1,727 2,333 3,331 3,310 3,084 3,675 4,409
Malaysia 307,448* 335,180* 343,871* 375,631* 542,341* 533,921* 587,028* 648,196* 591,607*
Myanmar 1,894 605 642 1,704 2,791 3,213 2,598 2,931 5,231
Philippines 111,596 71,362 92,524 86,405 73,892 102,798 101,105 132,765 176,560
Singapore 560,405 494,362 513,415 598,724 705,335 776,580 757,639 818,064 916,118
Thailand 826,699 1,072,925 1,079,930 1,134,471 1,255,346 1,457,936 1,573,958 1,750,024 2,447,759
Vietnam 36,242 60,145 116,141 151,622 218,636 276,576 302,425 373,470 461,125
Total 1,965,852 2,145,850 2,297,541 2,443,603 2,958,752 3,277,086 3,493,875 3,865,759 4,822,005
Sources: Fishery Statistical Bulletin for the South China Sea Area (SEAFDEC, 2000-2009) and Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia (SEAFDEC 2010)
* Updated figures provided by Fisheries Management Information Division, DoF Malaysia; but not used for the calculation of total production.

in 2009 decreasing by an average of more than 2% every be established. It should be noted that Indonesia maintains
year. This situation would need special attention in order its position as the highest producer of fish and fishery
that marine capture fisheries could continue to provide products not only from marine capture fisheries but also
a sizeable amount of fishery production to enhance the from aquaculture and inland capture fisheries as well.
region’s economies. On the other hand, the contribution
from aquaculture to the region’s total fishery production Specifically in 2009, a big portion of Indonesia’s
had been increasing from 22% in 2000 to 43% in 2009 or at production from marine capture fisheries comprised the
an average rate of about 2.3% annually. Although the trend mackerels which accounted for 26% of the country’s total
of aquaculture production is increasing with large volume production from marine capture fisheries, especially the
being contributed to the region’s total fishery production, short mackerel (Rastrelliger brachysoma) followed by
there are still major concerns that need to be addressed in tunas providing 19% comprising mostly the skipjack tuna
order that aquaculture would remain sustainable. (Katsuwonus pelamis) and frigate tuna (Auxis thazard). For
Vietnam, its main production comes from miscellaneous
The region’s inland capture fishery sub-sector appears marine fishes which had not been classified by species.
to have potentials for further development especially if In the case of the Philippines, the main production also
the sub-sector is given more attention. The sub-sector’s comes from mackerels especially the Indian mackerel
contribution to the region’s total fishery production from (Rastrelliger karnagurta), accounting for 29% of the
2000 to 2009 indicated steady trend of about 8% annually country’s production from marine capture fisheries and
even if the real trend could not be established due to lack tunas comprising mainly the skipjack and yellowfin
of data from many countries. Following such situation, tuna (Thunnus albacares), providing about 25%. From
there is a need to improve data collection especially from the current trend, it can be seen that the pelagic fishery
inland capture fisheries in order that the actual contribution resources are very important for the region’s marine
of inland capture fisheries to the region’s economies could capture fisheries.

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 SEASOFIA: The Southeast Asian State of Fisheries and Aquaculture 2012

Figure 16. Thailand’s import of fish and fish products in 2008 (left) and countries of origin (right)
Source: Thailand’s Trade Statistics for Imports (http://www.ats.agr.gc.ca/ase/5677-eng.htm)

Figure 17. Malaysia’s import of fish and fish products in 2008 (left) and countries of origin (right)
Source: Malaysian External Trade Statistics (http://www.ats.agr.gc.ca/ase/5688-eng.htm)

In the case of aquaculture, production comes from minimal at 354 MT, this comprised mainly the Pacific
three main sources, namely: mariculture or marine blue shrimp (Penaeus stylirostris) accounting for 77% of
culture, brackishwater culture, and freshwater culture. the country’s production from brackishwater aquaculture
Indonesia’s main products from mariculture are aquatic which is valued at about US$ 14,580/MT. This trend
plants which had not been classified by species while that indicates the importance of Penaeus spp. to the region’s
of the Philippines are the Zanzibar weeds (Eucheuma brackishwater aquaculture industry.
cottonii) accounting for 79% of the country’s production
from mariculture. This trend tends to suggest the In freshwater aquaculture, Vietnam’s main production
importance of marine aquatic plants and seaweeds in the comes from Pangasius spp. accounting for 58% of the
region’s mariculture industry. For brackishwater culture, country’s total production from freshwater aquaculture
Indonesia’s main products are miscellaneous marine fishes and the remaining 42% is provided by miscellaneous
followed by Penaeus spp.although such species have not freshwater species which have not been classified
been specifically classified. by species. For Indonesia, its production indicates
miscellaneous freshwater species which have not also
On the other hand, Thailand’s production from been classified by species. Myanmar ranks third in terms
brackishwater aquaculture comes mainly from Penaeus of freshwater aquaculture production which comes mainly
vannamei contributing 96% of the country’s production from roho labeo (Labeo rohita) accounting for 73% of the
from brackishwater aquaculture, while Vietnam’s main country’s total production from freshwater aquaculture.
production came from Penaeus monodon providing 57% to Therefore, the economically important species for
the country’s production from brackishwater aquauculture. freshwater aquaculture in the Southeast Asian region seem
It should be noted that although the production from to vary depending on the countries’ technical capability.
brackishwater aquaculture of Brunei Darussalam is

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 SEASOFIA: The Southeast Asian State of Fisheries and Aquaculture 2012

PART II
Issues and Challenges in Sustainable Fisheries Development
of the Southeast Asian Region

1. MARINE FISHERY RESOURCES

For example, it has been reported in regional statistics that
The Southeast Asian region abounds with marine fishery in 2008, small pelagic fish production accounts for more
resources which could include multi-species of fishes, than 28% of the total fishery production from the South
crustaceans, mollusks, aquatic plants, and invertebrates. China Sea Area excluding the production of Cambodia and
The most economically important species being exploited Vietnam, and more than 20% of the total fishery production
from the region’s pelagic fishery resources as well as from in the Eastern Indian Ocean excluding production of
demersal, high sea, and deep sea resources include among Myanmar (SEAFDEC, 2010). Its contribution is even
others, tunas, mackerels, round scads, anchovies, and more significant in Brunei Darussalam, Malaysia and the
sardines. The production trend of various marine aquatic Philippines although the respective countries’ production
species presented in this publication is based on available showed fluctuating increment trends during the past
data from various sources such as those from the respective ten years until 2008. Moreover, in some countries such
country’s national fishery statistical reports, the SEAFDEC as Indonesia and the Philippines which are the leading
Fishery Statistical Bulletin for the South China Sea Area producers in terms of quantity followed by Malaysia
until 2007, and the SEAFDEC Fishery Statistical Bulletin and Thailand, small pelagic fish production has been
of Southeast Asia from 2008 to 2009. Information from considerably significant to the respective countries’
these sources are being supplemented with data from economies (SEAFDEC/MFRDMD, 2003).
the SEAFDEC programs on Information Collection of
Some Small Pelagic Species in the South China Sea and Considering the escalating figures in human population and
Information Collection of the Highly Migratory Species in the corresponding demand for fish and fishery products,
the Southeast Asian Region Focusing on Tunas, and other there is a need to improve fishery production to supply
technical publications. Nevertheless, the main production such demand, and one option could be to develop fisheries
data used in the foregoing sections are mostly based on the aimed to increase production from under-exploited
reports from the respective domestic fisheries under the resources (Siriraksophon, 2006). It has been reported that
jurisdiction of the countries in the Southeast Asian region. under-exploited resources or those that are known to exist
but have not been harvested to full potential, because of
1.1 Important Pelagic Fishery Resources operational and economic constraints.

Small pelagic fishes such as scads, mackerels, anchovies, Moreover, it has also been known that under-exploited
and sardines are among the most economically important stocks exist in the Eastern Indian Ocean and the Western
commodities for many countries in the Southeast Asian Central Pacific Ocean. These stocks mainly represent the
region. These highly migratory fish species are commonly pelagic species such as tunas, scads, mackerels, among
being thought of as moving across the Exclusive Economic others, although there is little scientific evidence to support
Zones ﴾EEZs) of more than one country and thus, are also the existence and extent of availability of these stocks
known as shared stocks. The abundance of these possibly (SEAFDEC/TD, 2006).
shared stocks show strong inter-annual fluctuations that
are also subjected to the impacts of climatic change. The 1.1.1 Tunas
high fluctuations in stock abundance and the variability
of their migratory behavior pose a great challenge in The most exploited tuna species in the Southeast Asian
identifying not only the unit stocks but also the shared region include the neritic or coastal tuna as well as
stocks (SEAFDEC/MFRDMD, 2000; SEAFDEC/ oceanic tuna species which comprise the bullet tuna,
MFRDMD, 2003). Accurate identification of specific frigate tuna, eastern little tuna, long-tail tuna, skipjack
shared stocks is also difficult because of inadequate quality tuna, albacore tuna, yellowfin tuna, and bigeye tuna.
or unavailability of relevant fishery statistical data and The fishing gears used to exploit the tuna species vary
information. Considering the significant contribution of from country to country, however the main type of gears
small pelagic species to the marine fishery production of are purse seine, long line, pole and line, trawl, hand
the region, any delay in developing regional approach to line, and gillnet. In Southeast Asia, the main countries
manage these stocks will further expose these species to catching tuna include Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand,
possible exploitation which at present, may probably be Malaysia, and Vietnam (SEAFDEC, 2010). Although
already at unsustainable levels. Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia and Myanmar also catch

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 Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center

tuna but their production data are minimal compared with trend rapidly increased starting in 2002 until after 2007.
those of the aforementioned five major tuna producing The fishing gears used in the Philippines include mainly
countries, but in view of inadequate statistics and landing the purse seine, ring-net, hand line, and hook and line.
data, tuna production of Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia Although tunas are also caught in the coastal areas of
and Myanmar have not been included in the foregoing the Philippines, the country’s important fishing grounds
analysis. The trend of the overall total tuna production of for tuna are Sulu Sea and Mindanao Sea. For Thailand
Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand and Malaysia from 1997 and Malaysia, only the production of neritic tuna such
to 2007 had been increasing from 997,320 MT in 1997 as long-tail tuna, bullet tuna and eastern little tuna had
to 1.6 million MT in 2007 representing about 5% annual been reported during the earlier period. The total tuna
increase or increasing by about 1.6 times during the last production of these two countries did not change much
ten-year period (Fig. 18 and Fig. 19). during the 10-year period from 1997 to 2007, where the
total catch of Thailand in 2007 was about 119,032 MT and
For Indonesia, the total production increased from 515,158 53,021 MT for Malaysia.
MT in 1997 to 838,377 MT in 2007, but the catch dropped
in 2001-2003 before increasing again. The tuna species The main fishing gears used in both countries are purse
are caught by small purse seine, long line, pole and line, seine and gillnet. Specifically in 2005, the tuna production
and hand line from fishing grounds that cover various sea of Thailand included about 74% eastern little tuna and
areas such as West Sumatera, South Java, Malacca Strait, 84% long-tail tuna, which had been reported to have come
East Sumatera, North Java, Bali-Nusatenggara, South/ from waters of neighboring countries as shown in Fig. 20.
West Kalimantan, East Kalimantan, South Sulawesi, North
Sulawesi, and Maluku-Papua. In terms of species composition, tuna caught in each
country seems to vary depending on the sea areas and
On the other hand, production of tuna from the Philippines fishing grounds (Table 8, Part I). Overall, the highest
increased from 312,506 MT in 1997 to 618,500 MT in percentage of about 28% is represented by skipjack
2007 by almost twice in 10 years. Although the trend tuna and 19% each for frigate tuna and little tuna, while
of the country’s production also dropped in 2001, such yellowfin tuna and long-tail tuna accounted for about
14% and 12%, respectively of the total production. On
the other hand, bigeye and albacore tuna provided less
than 5% (Fig. 21).

Specifically, the catches landed in Palawan in Western

Philippines increased from 38,740 MT in 2001 to 145,832
MT in 2006, an increase of almost 4 times within a
period of five years. For the Mindanao Sea in Southern
Philippines, the catches also increased from 6,050 MT in
2001 to a high of 183,000 MT in 2006 increasing by about
30 times, which could be because of the expansion of
both hand line fisheries targeting the bigeye and yellowfin
tunas, and purse seine fisheries targeting the young bigeye,
Figure 18. Production of major tuna species of the Southeast yellowfin and skipjack tunas in the Western Pacific Ocean.
Asian region

Figure 20. Tuna production of Thailand in 2005: from the

Figure 19. Trend of tuna production from four main tuna- Gulf of Thailand, Andaman Sea, and outside Thai waters
producing countries of Southeast Asia

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 SEASOFIA: The Southeast Asian State of Fisheries and Aquaculture 2012

The results of a study conducted by SEAFDEC, especially In 2008 and 2009, the production of tuna from Indonesia
on the catch distribution of tuna in the Southeast Asian was dominated by the skipjack tuna followed by frigate
region between 2001 and 2006 (Fig. 22), indicated that tuna and yellowfin tuna. For Malaysia, the most dominant
tuna fisheries in the Philippines had been developing very species was the long-tail tuna, and for the Philippines
fast especially in the Sulu and Mindanao Seas in 2006 skipjack tuna provided the highest production followed
compared to that of 2001. Specifically through various by yellowfin, frigate and bullet tunas (Table 44). In terms
surveys, SEAFDEC Training Department (TD) established of the value of tuna production of Indonesia in 2009
the distribution characteristics and stock of transboundary compared with that of 2008, the trend seems to indicate
tuna resources in the Eastern Indian Ocean (SEAFDEC/ very drastic change which needs to be reconciled.
TD, 2002; SEAFDEC/TD, 2003; SEAFDEC/TD, 2006).
1.1.2 Round Scads

The three species of scads known to be found in the

Southeast Asian region are the Decapterus russselli, D.
maruadsi, and D. macrosoma. With round scads as the
most common species in the region, these are mostly
caught in their immature stage since mature fishes are rare
in many areas as these are believed to migrate to deeper
waters for spawning. Round scads have also been known to
spawn in the central part of the Gulf of Thailand, and there
is also an evidence of considerable migrations although
no tagging activities have been conducted to confirm this
presumption. Thus, stocks of Decapterus spp. are known
to be migrating in many fishing areas and thus, are shared
with possible considerable uncertainty of their limits,
specifically from the Gulf of Thailand to Sunda Shelf, in
Malacca Strait, Eastern South China Sea, and in the Gulf
of Tonkin. However, it is also possible that one or more
stocks are not shared especially those found in the waters
of Indonesia.

The main fishing gear used to catch round scads is purse

seine but the use of luring light techniques is common
in Thailand as well as the use of payao, a type of fish
aggregating device (FAD) is commonly used in the
Philippines. Round scads are also caught by trawl net but
it has been recorded that lift-net is used in the east coast
Figure 21. Species composition of tuna from four major of west Malaysia.
tuna-producing countries of Southeast Asia

Figure 22. Relative distribution of tuna catches in Southeast Asia in 2001 (left) and 2006 (right)

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 Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center

Table 44. Production of major tuna species in the Southeast Asian region in 2008 and 2009
Quantity (MT) Value (US$ 1,000)
Country FAO Common Name Scientific Name
2008 2009 2008 2009
Indonesia Frigate tuna Auxis thazard 134,744 135,200 10,835,815 51,159
Bullet tuna Auxis rochei 3,604 5,310 334,017 6,599
Skipjack tuna Katsuwonus pelamis 296,769 300,740 25,980,578 49,400
Long-tail tuna Thunnus tonggol 95,229 98,920 11,981,397 28,260
Albacore tuna Thunnus alalunga 36,538 37,380 6,133,317 19,910
Southern bluefin tuna Thunnus maccoyii 891 800 168,037 990
Yellowfin tuna Thunnus albacares 102,765 103,390 14,045,401 38,581
Bigeye tuna Thunnus obesus 53,979 54,660 6,133,188 20,110
Malaysia Skipjack tuna Katsuwonus pelamis 329* 4,460 390* 6,090
Long-tail tuna Thunnus tonggol 41,493* 27,569* 53,942 43,209*
Albacore tuna Thunnus alalunga 359 203 661* 297
Yellowfin tuna Thunnus albacares 1,459 1,403 3,812 2,662
Bigeye tuna Thunnus obesus 1,620 1,837* 4,466 3,771*
Philippines Frigate/bullet tunas Auxis thazard/A. rochei 156,341 - 188,821 -
Skipjack tuna Katsuwonus pelamis 222,010 251,524 296,506 264,186
Yellowfin tuna Thunnus albacares 168,411 152,437 292,107 249,592
Bigeye tuna Thunnus obesus 35,140 5,736 57,510 12,201
Source: Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia (SEAFDEC, 2011)
* Updated figures provided by Fisheries Management Information Division, DoF Malaysia.

The total production of round scads based on the national

statistics provided by four countries, namely: Indonesia,
Malaysia, Philippines and Thailand from 1995 to 2004
indicated gradual increases from 640,000 MT to 792,000
MT, but the trend of the total production varied from 2005
to 2008 with the total production estimated as 785,000
MT in 2008. Considering the distribution of round scads
which also indicated abundance in the Gulf of Tonkin of
Vietnam, certain volume of catch data should have been
reported by the concerned countries but this has not been
the case as shown in the statistical reports. This means that
Figure 23. Round scads production in selected Southeast
the total production of round scads in the Southeast Asian Asian countries (1995-2009)
waters could be higher than what is reported elsewhere.
Sea from the Gulf of Tonkin, Gulf of Thailand and west
Nevertheless, in the major producing countries of round coast of Borneo, and in Palawan and west coast of Luzon
scads such as Indonesia and the Philippines, their total in the Philippines. The exploitation rate of D. macrosoma
catch varied from 250,000 MT in 1995 to about 320,000 in the South China Sea varies from 0.42 to 0.90 depending
MT in 2008 (Fig. 23). In the case of Thailand and on the specific fishing grounds (Fig. 24). For D. maruadsi,
Malaysia, production also varied from 55,000 MT to the exploitation rate also varied from 0.26 to 0.90 while the
100,000 MT but the catch of Thailand gradually decreased exploitation rate of both D. macrosoma and D. maruadsi is
from 100,000 MT in 2004 to 60,000 MT in 2008 while high especially in the Gulf of Tonkin and in the southern
that of Malaysia had been consistent at about 95,000 MT part of the east coast of Vietnam where the exploitation
during the same period. rate could be higher than 0.8.

Based on the results of collaborative studies on round As also reflected in the statistical data, although the
scads in the South China Sea conducted by SEAFDEC/ production of round scads in the region had slightly
MFRDMD from 2002 to 2006, Decapterus macrosoma are increased from 2008 to 2009, the value of these species
widely distributed in the coastal areas of the South China had abruptly been reduced by millions of US$ (Table 45).

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 SEASOFIA: The Southeast Asian State of Fisheries and Aquaculture 2012

Figure 24. Exploitation rate of D. macrosoma (left) and D. maruadsi (right) in the South China Sea (2002-2005)

Table 45. Production of major scad species in the Southeast Asian region in 2008 and 2009
Quantity (MT) Value (US$ 1,000)
Country FAO Common Name Scientific Name
2008 2009 2008 2009
Indonesia Scads Decapterus spp. 327,367 330,690 20,053,082 34,560
Bigeye scad Selar crumenophthalmus 7,927 9,270 535,519 1,290
Yellowstripe scad Selaroides leptolepis 150,830 153,490 12,102,171 43,890
Malaysia Indian scad Decapterus russelli 96,946 92,016* 100,773 110,850*
Bigeye scad Selar crumenophthalmus 55,638* 47,158* 72,502* 74,333*
Yellowstripe scad Selaroides leptolepis 20,224* 18,217* 22,566* 21,998*
Philippines Scads Decapterus spp. 297,892 251,072 315,179 262,969
Bigeye scad Selar crumenophthalmus 97,149 107,335 124,488 130,356
Vietnam Indian scad Decapterus russelli - 27,829 - 33,444
Source: Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia (SEAFDEC, 2011)
* Updated figures provided by Fisheries Management Information Division, DoF Malaysia.

1.1.3 Mackerels total production. However, in the Eastern Indian Ocean

mackerels are more dominant contributing 26% to the
In addition to scads, mackerels are also among the total landings of the small pelagic species, while scads
most important small pelagic fishes in Southeast Asia contributed only 12% (Table 47). A comparison of the
contributing about 39% to the small pelagic production production trends of Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand
or 10% to the total capture production in 2008. Its indicates that scads are more predominantly caught in the
contribution is more significant in Malaysia, Brunei South China Sea than in the Eastern Indian Ocean except
Darussalam and the Philippines as shown in Table 46. for Thailand. However, mackerels which are less dominant
However, the production data show fluctuating increment in the South China Sea of Indonesia and Malaysia are more
trends for the past ten years until 2008 especially in some dominant in the Gulf of Thailand than in the Andaman Sea
countries that provided their respective production data of Thailand, suggesting that the species which is dominant
(Fig. 25). Indonesia and the Philippines are the lead in the Gulf of Thailand could be different from those in
producers in terms of quantity followed by Malaysia and other parts of the South China Sea.
Thailand. Due to negligible figures in terms of production,
the data from Brunei Darussalam and Singapore are not Nevertheless, the stocks of scads and mackerels in the
included in the analysis. adjacent EEZs of Thailand and Malaysia in the Eastern
Indian Ocean and in the South China Sea Area are most
Distribution of Scads and Mackerels by Ecosystem likely shared. Therefore, once the stocks in one of the EEZs
are over-exploited these could be replenished through
In 2008, scads were reported to be more dominant than recruitment of the species that originate from the other
mackerels in the South China Sea where production of EEZ. However, over-exploitation of the same stock in both
scads contributed 25% to the total small pelagic production EEZs could lead to stock decline which could possibly
or 7% to the total production while mackerels contributed result in total collapse of the stocks.
15% to the total small pelagic production or 4% of the

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 Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center

Table 46. Percent contribution of scads and mackerels to total fish production of Southeast Asia in 2008
Brunei Cambodia Indonesia Malaysia Myanmar Philippines Singapore Thailand Vietnam Average
Darussalam
% to total catch 17 … 12 19 … 19 3 5 … 10
% to small pelagic 46 … 37 58 … 43 31 18 … 39
Source: Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia (SEAFDEC, 2011)

Table 47. Contribution of scads and mackerels to the total

catch and total small pelagic fish production in the South
China Sea and Eastern Indian Ocean in 2008
Scads Mackerels
Ecosystem Country Small Small
Total Total
pelagic pelagic
catch catch
catch catch
South China Brunei 11 29 6 17
Sea Darussalam
Cambodia ? ? ? ?
Indonesia 8 27 5 16

Figure 25. Production trends of scads and mackerels in Malaysia 8 26 4 13

selected Southeast Asian countries Philippines 13 29 6 14
Singapore 3 38 ? ?
Status of Scads in Malaysia and Thailand
Thailand 0.4 1 5 16
Scads in the Gulf of Thailand are caught almost 100% Vietnam ? ? ? ?
by purse seine, while those from the South China Sea Average 7 25 4 15
and landed in Malaysia are mostly caught by purse seine Eastern Indian Indonesia 3 10 6 18
(89%) and 11% by trawl, drift/gill net, lift-net, and hook Ocean
Malaysia 6 16 21 59
and line (Fig. 26). Although purse seine is the main fishing
gear exploiting scads, the landings of scads by purse seine Myanmar ? ? ? ?

from these two waters clearly indicate an overall declining Thailand 3 12 2 8

trend since 2002 (Fig. 27). For Malaysia, scads from the Average 2 12 5 26
Straits of Malacca and the Andaman Sea are also exploited Source: Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia (SEAFDEC, 2011)
mainly by purse seine as shown in Fig. 26.
While the landings of scads by purse seine in the South
China Sea are still increasing which is very prominent
in the Straits of Malacca (Fig. 27), the same landing
trends have also been observed in Malaysia and Thailand
generally indicating that purse seines operating in the
South China Sea especially in the EEZs of both countries
probably exploit the same stock of scads. Since declining
landing trends indicate that the stock is already over-
exploited, therefore the stock of scads in the Eastern
Malaysia-South China Sea Thailand - Gulf of Thailand Indian Ocean may probably have already reached an
over-exploitation level. As reported in 2008, there were
about 2,336 units of purse seiners operating in the EEZs
of these two countries. Therefore, it would be necessary
to enforce suitable management measures solely for purse
seine fishery operations in view of their direct impact on
the stocks of scads considering that purse seine is the only
gear exploiting the scads.

Status of Mackerels in Malaysia and Thailand

Malaysia - Strait of Melacca Thailand - Andaman Sea

Mackerels are caught by various types of gears in the

Figure 26. Landings of scads from the South China Sea South China Sea although purse seine, trawl and drift/
(above) and Eastern Indian Ocean (below) waters of Malaysia
gill net are the main gears catching these species, and the
and Thailand in 2007
(Source: Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia 2008 (SEAFDEC, 2010)) contribution of mackerels to the landings in Malaysia as

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 SEASOFIA: The Southeast Asian State of Fisheries and Aquaculture 2012

fisheries in the Gulf of Thailand contributed about 46%

to the total catch in 2008, trawls contributed 51%, and
drift/gill nets 3% (Fig. 28). In general, landings using
these three main gears in Malaysia indicated fluctuating
and declining trends, although a declining trend is more
obvious in the Gulf of Thailand (Fig. 28). Such situation
implies that the mackerel stocks in the South China Sea
are already over exploited. Nonetheless, the question on
whether these are the same stocks or whether the scads
and mackerel stocks are shared among the countries in the
region, still remain unanswered.

Records in 2008 indicated that mackerels in the eastern

side of the Straits of Malacca are caught by purse seines
(43%), drift/gill nets (37%) and trawls (20%). On the
other hand, only purse seines and trawls catch substantial
amounts of mackerels in the Andaman Sea in 2007, the
percentage of which is almost equal to the total production,
but landings from the drift/gill nets are almost not
significant. Nevertheless, landings by the three main gears
in the Straits of Malacca are still increasing by about three
times more in terms of quantity than in the Andaman Sea
(Fig. 29). Although, purse seine landings in the Andaman
Sea indicate a continuous declining trend but the trawl
Figure 27. Landing trends of scads caught by purse seines
landings show the opposite trend. As a whole, both
in the South China Sea (above) and Eastern Indian Ocean landings have been declining since 2005 which suggest
(below) waters of Malaysia and Thailand in 2007 that exploitation could be involved in these two distinct
(Source: Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia 2008 (SEAFDEC, 2010))
fish stocks since the landing trends in Malaysia follows an
well as in Thailand varies. In Malaysia, the catch from opposite trend compared with that of Thailand.
purse seines accounted for about 45% of the total catch
in 2008, while that from drift/gill nets was 31% and from Mackerel stocks are exploited by three main fisheries,
trawls 18% (Fig. 28). On the other hand, purse seine namely: purse seine, trawl and drift/gill net. The fishing

Malaysia - South China Sea Thailand - Gulf of Thailand

Figure 28. Landing compositions (2009) and production trends (1999-2009) of mackerels by main gear types
of Malaysia and Thailand in the South China Sea areas
(Source: SEAFDEC, 2010)

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 Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center

Malaysia - Straits of Malacca Thailand - Andaman Sea

Figure 29. Landing compositions (2009) and production trends (1999-2009) of mackerels by main gear types
of Malaysia and Thailand in the Andaman Sea
(Source: SEAFDEC, 2010)

grounds of purse seiners and trawlers are more offshore the analysis and identification of the possible shared
than those of the drift/gill netters. This requires an analysis stocks in the region. This information combined with
of the landing data by species since distribution of the other scientific findings through tagging experiments
species could be varied. Results of a study conducted and molecular analysis could help confirm the existence
by the SEAFDEC/MFRDMD showed that the Indian and extent of the shared stocks. This is important since
mackerel (Rastrelliger kanagurta) comprised about 25% effective management of shared stocks requires measures
of the total catch of purse seines in the South China Sea to be undertaken for the whole coverage area even if this
off Malaysia, while the Indo-Pacific mackerel (Rastrelliger is beyond the countries’ national waters. Just like scads,
brachysoma) contributes only about 2% (Raja Bidin and the production of mackerels also increased from 2008 to
Ku Kassim, 2007). In the Andaman Sea, purse seines using 2009 but the value of the production had deeply decreased
FADs and light purse seines are reported to be catching from 2008 to 2009 (Table 48).
more Indian mackerels than the Indo-Pacific mackerels
which are caught mainly by Thai purse seines. Likewise, 1.1.4 Anchovies
trawlers using high opening trawl nets catch mainly the
Indo-Pacific mackerels. Thirteen species of anchovies under the genus Stolephorus
are found in the Southeast Asian region but only two,
Identification of Shared Stocks of Scads and Mackerels namely: Stolephorus heterolobus and S. indicus are the
most common. Stocks of Stolephorus spp. are believed
Based on the ten-year fishery statistical data provided to typically form a number of local stocks close to the
and published yearly in the SEAFDEC Fishery Statistical inshore waters although not always, and are also believed
Bulletin of Southeast Asia, the landing trends by group of to have no regular migration patterns although moving
fishes could be derived but not for the scads and mackerels about within a fairly well defined area. Nonetheless, the
group since production has not been reported at species anchovies in the vicinity of the Southeast Asian waters are
level. Moreover, since fish distribution is shown by believed to form a transboundary shared stock. Although
ecosystem rather than by national boundaries, analysis there could be several other stocks being shared in the
should also be done by ecosystem for the whole of South region, very little information is available to confirm such
China Sea or Eastern Indian Ocean of the Southeast Asian situation.
region. In order to do this, countries in the region should
provide the required data at certain level that could be used Anchovies like other species feed mainly on planktonic
to describe the status of the fish stocks. crustaceans and breed throughout the year with a peak
during the first part of northeast monsoon in Manila Bay
The availability of comprehensive statistical data at (October to January), and in the Gulf of Thailand from
species level for the whole coverage area will help in February-April and July to December. Anchovies are

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 SEASOFIA: The Southeast Asian State of Fisheries and Aquaculture 2012

Table 48. Production of major mackerel species in the Southeast Asian region in 2008 and 2009
Quantity (MT) Value (US$ 1,000)
Country FAO Common Name Scientific Name
2008 2009 2008 2009
Indonesia Narrow-barred Spanish Scomberomorus commerson 126,985 128,250 20,635,834 42,571
mackerel
Indo-Pacific king Scomberomorus guttatus 24,505 26,360 5,029,161 34,850
mackerel
Queenfishes Scomberoides spp. 13,412 14,520 1,224,639 5,150
Blue mackerel Scomber australasticus 455 510 19,285 140
Short mackerel Rastrelliger brachysoma 249,438 251,510 24,607,984 91,360
Indian mackerel Rastrelliger kanagurta 16,849 18,170 1,432,386 1,210
Malaysia Seerfishes Scomberomorus spp. 14,630* 12,633* 53,826* 46,471*
Queenfishes Scomberoides spp. 3,322 2,772* 4,100 3,509*
Indian mackerels nei Rastrelliger spp. 170,321* 185,490* 213,153* 295,038*
Philippines Narrow-barred Spanish Scomberomorus commerson 19,005 17,192 39,573 34,497
mackerel
Seerfishes Scomberomorus spp. 7,334 - - -
Queenfishes Scomberoides spp. - 6,959 - -
Chub mackerel Scomber japunicus 1,255 1,866 - -
Short mackerel Rastrelliger brachysoma 50,986 49,478 62,005 56,642
Indian mackerel Rastrelliger kanagurta 91,272 87,449 112,728 100,215
Source: Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia (SEAFDEC, 2011)
* Updated figures provided by Fisheries Management Information Division, DoF Malaysia.

was observed in 2001 especially in Indonesia and the

Philippines (Fig. 30).

The production of anchovies from Malaysian waters has

not differed during the period from 1995 to 2007, which
was around 20,000 MT (Fig. 30). Similar trend was also
noted in the Philippines where the catch was about 70,000
MT except in 2001. In addition, the catch of anchovies
in Indonesia and Thailand fluctuated where the average
catch was about 170,000 MT for Indonesia and 150,000
Figure 30. Production status and trends of anchovies in
MT for Thailand. Although the data in 2008 and 2009
selected Southeast Asian countries (1995-2009) were insufficient for stock assessment, the data seemed to
indicate increasing trend in terms of volume but decreasing
mainly caught by anchovy purse seine operating in day in terms of value (Table 49).
time as well as in the night time with the use of luring
lights, bamboo stake traps, luring light lift-net, set bag net, 1.1.5 Sardines
push net, and incidentally also by trawl fishing operations.
The total production of anchovies from 1995 to 2007 based Sardines are pelagic schooling fish species feeding on
on the statistics from five countries such as Indonesia, phytoplankton and zooplankton. There are six species
Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand varied of sardines specifically found in Thailand and in many
from 410,000 MT to 454,000 MT. The peak of the catch countries of the region. However, the three common

Table 49. Production of anchovies in the Southeast Asian region in 2008 and 2009
Quantity (MT) Value (US$ 1,000)
Country FAO Common Name Scientific Name
2008 2009 2008 2009
Indonesia Stolephorus anchovies Stolephorus spp. 199,675 207,450 21,013,687 84,201
Malaysia Stolephorus anchovies Stolephorus spp. 19,600* 20,732 24,433* 23,841
Philippines Stolephorus anchovies Stolephorus spp. 73,235 81,842 65,922 71,467
Source: Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia (SEAFDEC, 2011)
* Updated figures provided by Fisheries Management Information Division, DoF Malaysia.

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 Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center

Table 50. Production of sardines in the Southeast Asian region in 2008 and 2009
Quantity (MT) Value (US$ 1,000)
Country FAO Common Name Scientific Name
2008 2009 2008 2009
Indonesia Spotted sardinella Amblygaster sirm 5,618 6,050 72,258 120
Goldstripe sardinella Sardinella gibbosa 174,356 175,800 10,645,067 22,110
Bali sardinella Sardinella lemuru 139,350 139,010 5,345,563 36,790
Malaysia Diadromous clupeoids Clupeoidei 850 1,025 4,382 3,657
nei
Philippines Sardinella nei Sardinella spp. 369,199 467,853 208,562 232,967
Source: Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia (SEAFDEC, 2011)

Figure 31. Production status and trends of sardines in Figure 32. Decline in production trends of sardines in the
selected Southeast Asian countries (1995-2009) Gulf of Thailand and Andaman Sea (1995-2009)

species are: Sardinella gibbosa, S. frimbriata, and S. that of the Andaman Sea. Nonetheless, the total catch
albella. Sardines are normally scattering in the coastal and also seemed to be declining in the Gulf of Thailand and
offshore areas at water depths ranging from 30 to 70 m. The Andaman Sea from 162,000 MT in 1996 to 82,000 MT
peak of the spawning season of sardines is in March-April in 2007, and from 53,000 MT to 16,000 MT, respectively,
and July-August in the Gulf of Thailand. The main fishing and the overall production of sardines in selected Southeast
gear used is purse seine with and without luring lights, Asian countries from 2008 to 2009 seems to have increased
encircling gill net, lift-net, set net, and bamboo stake trap. as shown in Table 50.
For countries like Indonesia, Philippines and Malaysia,
sardines are also among the important small pelagic 1.2 Deep Sea Fishery Resources
species and are usually utilized for several products such
as canned, dried, smoked, boiled, fermented (fish sauces), Although almost 50% of the Southeast Asian waters
cured, made into fishmeal, and also marketed fresh. comprised continental shelf but there are also continental
slopes and deep basins down to nearly 1,000 to 5,000
However, the total production of the main sardine meters deep which form the largest habitats of various
producing countries in the region seemed to have fishery resources especially around Indonesia, Philippines,
fluctuated from 1995 to 2007, with the total catch varying and some parts of Andaman Sea (Sukramongkol, 2011).
within the range from 730,000 MT and 846,000 MT, with Within the depth of 100 meters, the fishery resources
peaks noted in 1996 and 2006. By country, the total catch are intensively exploited by trawl fisheries especially
of sardines was stable at about 50,000 MT in Malaysia, the shallow-water fish species which have been well
while for Indonesia and the Philippines the catches documented (Siriraksophon, 2006; Yasook, 2008;
fluctuated but seemed to follow slight increasing trends SEAFDEC/TD, 2009). Attempts to assess the status of
during the period from 1995 to 2007 with the sardine catch the demersal resources at the unexploited range of 200-
of the Philippines increasing from 264,000 MT in 1995 350 meter depths have been undertaken since late 70s by
to 313,000 MT in 2007. In addition, the sardine catch of the Norwegian research vessel, Dr. Fridtjof Nansen in
Indonesia also increased from 280,000 MT in 1995 to association with FAO (Nishida and Sivasubramaniam,
380,000 MT in 2007 (Fig. 31). 1986). However, information and biological knowledge
on the deep sea fauna in the EEZs of the Southeast Asian
Specifically for Thailand, sardines production gradually countries are still inadequate especially the demersal
declined from 220,000 MT in 1996 to about 100,000 MT resources in the continental shelf and slope beyond
in 2007 (Fig. 32), where most of catch came from the 100-meter depth. Currently, comprehensive knowledge
Gulf of Thailand which was about three times more than on deep sea fishery resources could only be made

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 SEASOFIA: The Southeast Asian State of Fisheries and Aquaculture 2012

available from results of research explorations under jurisdictions, the implication of the extent of management
some collaborative programs, e.g. “Census of Marine requirements for deep sea fisheries in the EEZs should be
Life” survey project in Philippine Waters in 2005-2008, carefully studied by the concerned countries.
the “OFCF-AMFR Deep-Sea Joint Exploration” survey in
the West Coast of Sumatra and Java of Indonesia between 1.3 Species Under International Concern
2004 and 2005, “BIOSHELF Scientific Corporation
Program” between Denmark and Phuket Marine Biological Driven by the world’s escalating population growth and
Center at the Andaman Sea of Thailand between 1996 and rising global demand for fishery products, fishing capacity
2000 (Aungtonya et al., 2000; OFCF and AMFR, 2006; has also been increasing over the years. As a result,
SEAFDEC, 2008; SEAFDEC, 2009b; SEAFDEC, 2010b). approximately 47% of the main fishery stocks or species
groups are fully exploited and are therefore providing
A number of explorations conducted since 2004 in many catches that have reached or are very close to their
areas off the Philippines and Indonesian waters where maximum sustainable limits. Over time, the international
the sea depth ranged between 200 and 1000 meters community has launched various initiatives aimed at
provided general knowledge about the high diversity and improving the conservation status of commercially-
abundance of fishery resources in these areas. Specifically, exploited aquatic species under the domain of both
results of the surveys revealed that these areas serve binding international and soft laws for the protection of
as habitats of commercially useful species such as the various commercially-exploited aquatic species. Several
red roughy (Haplostethus crassispinus), black roughy regional fishery bodies (RFBs) and arrangements also
(Haplostethus rubelloterus), Alfonsino (Beryx splendens), play important role in the conservation and management
and blackthroat seaperch (Deoderlrieinia berycoides) in of the fishery of commercially-exploited aquatic species
the West Coast of Sumatra and Java of Indonesia, and such as tunas, sharks and billfishes in far-flung sea areas
significant catches of pandalid shrimps (e.g. Heterocarpus covering the coastal states and high sea areas. In order
woodmasoni, H. hayashii, H. dorsalis) which were to regulate the trade and secure the sustainability of the
recorded in the continental shelf and slope off the West fishery of endangered aquatic species, the Convention
Coast of the Philippine waters (OFCF and AMFR, 2006; on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
SEAFDEC, 2008). Results from the said joint explorations Fauna and Flora (CITES) as an international agreement
indicated that the fishery resources at the various parts of among governments adopted in 1963, ensures that the
Indonesia and the Philippines are still under-exploited. international trade of specimens of wild animals and plants
does not threaten their survival. Through the efforts of
However, the ecosystems and resources are likely becoming CITES, varying degrees of protection have been accorded
vulnerable, particularly taking into consideration the low- to more than 30,000 species of animals and plants that are
productivity species and sensitive deep sea habitats. Such traded as live specimens, fur coats or dried herbs as the
status could also be affected by the countries’ current case may be.
efforts and plans to expand their respective fishery
operations towards the deep water areas. Responding For marine species, several commercially-exploited
to the increased human demand of fishery resources, aquatic species have already been listed in the CITES
attempts have been made by many countries to undertake Appendices such as the African blind barb fish and
commercial deep sea fishery operations starting in 2008. black corals (Appendix II in 1981), giant clams and hard
Commercial deep sea fishing practices such as gillnet, corals (Appendix II in 1985), queen conch (Appendix
trawl, bottom longline, multiple hook and line, and traps II in 1992), sturgeons and paddlefish (Appendix II in
had been undertaken in Indonesia and the Philippines 1998), coelacanths (Appendix I in 2000), basking shark,
(SEAFDEC, 2010b). However, the possible impacts of whale shark, and seahorses (Appendix II in 2002),
deep sea fishing are unknown because such practices humphead wrasse (Napoleon fish), great white shark,
are not yet well studied while there are still no specific and Mediterranean date mussel (Appendix II in 2004),
regulations related to deep sea fishing practices that would sawfishes (Appendices I and II in 2007), and European
ensure sustainable utilization of the deep sea resources eel (Appendix II in 2007). Recently, the Atlantic bluefin
in the Southeast Asian region. In addition, there is also tuna, red and pink corals, and eight shark species were
limited knowledge on appropriate technologies for the proposed to be listed in the CITES Appendices during
utilization and exploitation of deep sea fishery resources. the last COP15-CITES in 2010. The Southeast Asian
The FAO International Guidelines for the Management of countries have noted the issues carefully because such
Deep-sea Fisheries in the High Seas had been developed aquatic species are economically-exploited in the region
and adopted in 2008. Such Guidelines should therefore and thus, are economically important considering their
be taken into consideration by the countries intending close relationship with the region’s traditional fisheries
to develop their respective deep sea fisheries. Since the particularly the small-scale fisheries. However, due
Guidelines include deep sea fisheries within national to insufficient information from stock assessment and

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 Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center

scientific evidence, the countries in the Southeast Asian (18 families). As for rays, Indonesia also have the highest
region required more time to undertake the necessary number with 104 species from 17 families followed by
measures to react on the proposal for listing such species in Malaysia with 79 species (15 families), and Thailand 64
the CITES Appendices. The countries are now developing species and 13 families (Table 51).
conservation measures and working towards sustainable
fishery management of such species considering that their Only a few species of sharks and rays are dominant
possible listing in the CITES Appendices could directly or but the dominant species are vary among the countries
indirectly affect the national economies and livelihoods of with oceanic species are rarely caught, except for
small-scale fishers in the Southeast Asian region. Indonesia. In general the most dominant sharks species
caught are spot-tail shark, Carcharhinus sorrah; silky
The issues on the sustainable fishery management of shark, Carcharhinus falciformes; blacktip reef shark,
economically-exploited aquatic species have been Carcharhinus melanopterus; bull shark Carcharhinus
discussed at SEAFDEC Meetings for many years. leucas; milk shark, Rhizoprionodon acutus; scalloped
Specifically, while considering the importance of the issue hammerhead shark, Sphyrna lewini; grey bambooshark,
on sharks and the possible listing of shark species in the Chiloscyllium griseum; and brownbanded bambooshark,
CITES Appendices, the 43rd Meeting of the SEAFDEC Chiloscyllium punctatum. As for rays, the most dominant
Council in 2011 requested SEAFDEC to support species in general are blue-spotted maskray, Neotrygon
the Member Countries by coming up with scientific kuhlii; whitespotted whipray, Himantura gerrardi; scaly
information and evidence to support the development of whipray, Himantura imbricata; pale-edged stingray,
common position of the Member Countries. In this regard, Dasyatis zugei; leopard stingray, Himantura uarnak;
SEAFDEC also recognized that policy recommendations whitenose whipray, Himantura uarnacoides; and dwarf
and management plan on the improvement of data whipray, Himantura walga. The fresh water sharks and rays
collection of commercially-exploited species in the species such as the Borneo river shark, Glyphis fowlerae;
Southeast Asian region would be crucial in order to come giant freshwater stingray, Himantura polylepis; white-edge
up with the required information that would support the freshwater whipray, Himantura signifer, Mekong stingray,
assessment of the stocks of such species. Dasyatis laosensis and roughback whipray, Himantura
kittiponggi are rarely found and endemic within certain
1.3.1 Sharks and Rays area and are threatened to overfishing. Sawfishes species
such as Pristis microdon; knifetooth sawfish, Anoxypristis
Sharks and rays, (Subclass Elasmobranchii) biodiversity cuspidata; green sawfish, Pristis zijsron and smalltooth
in Malaysia, Indonesia and Thailand is the richest in the wide sawfish, Pristis pectinata are now very rarely seen
Southeast Asian Region, with at least 252 species from 44 and listed as endangered species in all countries.
families comprising 129 species of sharks under 7 orders
and 27 families and 123 species of rays from 6 orders and Most ray species especially those are localized within
17 families. The species inhabit the waters of these three estuarine and coastal waters are no longer appeared due to
countries from fresh water environment to deep ocean. heavily fishing pressure. Freshwater ray species especially
Indonesia recorded the highest biodiversity of sharks with Himantura polylepis is now becoming endangered in
at least 110 species from 26 families, followed by Thailand all countries. Endemic species especially confined in
with 63 species (20 families) and Malaysia with 62 species freshwater rivers such as Himantura signifier, Dasyatis

Table 51. Number of sharks and rays in Malaysia, Indonesia and Thailand compared with that of the world’s total number
Number of Number of Total number of species Total number of species Percentage compared to number
Group
Order Family (Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand)* (World)** of species in the world
Sharks 7 27 129 479 26.9
Rays 6 17 123 604 20.4
Total 13 44 252 1083 23.2
Sources:
*SEAFDEC/MFRDMD study
**Compagno (2002); Compagno and Last (2002)

Table 52. Number of species and families of sharks and rays in Malaysia, Indonesia and Thailand
Sharks Rays Total (Sharks & Rays)
Country
Total family Total species Total family Total species Total family Total species
Malaysia 18 62 15 79 33 141
Indonesia 26 110 17 104 43 214
Thailand 20 63 13 64 33 127
Sources: Fahmi, 2010; Vidthayanon, 2020; and Yano et.al, 2005

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 SEASOFIA: The Southeast Asian State of Fisheries and Aquaculture 2012

laosensis and Himantura kittipongi are also affected by the

pressure from fisheries activity and other human-induced
sources of habitat degradation.

Even though the number of sharks and rays species

recorded in Malaysia, Indonesia and Thailand is more
than 250 species, the status of its biomass is still unknown
(Ahmad and A.P.K.Lim, 2011). With new species
continuously discovered, the number could increase in
the future.

Specifically, deep water species are mostly unknown due

to limited research activity, while fishers from Indonesia
Fig 33: Overall habitat preferred (in percent) by species of
reported to have caught deep water sharks using long line. sharks and rays in Malaysia, Indonesia and Thailand
The total number of sharks and rays in these countries is
about 23% of total number recorded in the world which is mostly adapted to a benthic life style and dominant in
now more than 1080 species of which sharks account for continental/insular shelves (SHL). Only some species are
about 27 % and rays about 20% (Table 52). pelagic compared to sharks which are dominant in more
categories especially within continental/insular shelves
The abundance of Chondrichthys fauna in the Southeast (SHL), shelf to slope (SHS) and continental/insular slopes
Asian Region and it adjacent area is due to the region’s (SLO). In general a total of 58 species of sharks (45%) and
geographical location covering many seas such as South 92 species of rays (75%) inhabit the continental/insular
China Sea, Gulf of Thailand, Sulu Sea, Philippine Sea, shelves (SHL): 26 species of sharks (20%) and 8 species of
Celebes Sea, Flores Sea, Makassar Strait, Karimata Strait, rays (7%) in shelf to slope (SHS); and 20 species of sharks
Java Sea, Malacca Strait, Andaman Sea, Indian Ocean (16%) and 7 species of rays (6%) in continental/insular
and western part of Pacific Ocean. Moreover, the coastal slopes (SLO). The other categories such as freshwater
waters of many countries in the region also comprise a (FWO), wide range (WRH), slope to oceanic (SOC), shelf
rich ecosystem characterized by the existence of areas to semi-oceanic (SSO) and oceanic (OCE) are inhabited
with extensive coral reefs and seasonal up-welling, as by only 1-5 species except for shelf to oceanic (SHO)
well as nutrient from land that are suitable for breeding, with 8 species of sharks and rays respectively (Figure 33).
spawning, nursing and growing of wide diversity of fish
species including sharks and rays. Various issues on sharks had been raised by the ASEAN
and SEAFDEC during the 13th Meeting of the Fisheries
Diverse sharks and rays faunas occupy a variety of Consultative Group of the ASEAN-SEAFDEC Strategic
habitats from freshwater river to oceanic realms beyond Partnership in 2010, where SEAFDEC was asked to support
the continental shelves. According to Compagno (2002) the Member Countries in coming up with information/
and Last and Compagno (2002), the habitats occupied scientific evidence to support the development of regional
by sharks and rays could be categorized into: marine common position to address the global issues on sharks.
continental and insular shelves (from freshwater lakes and Specifically, the Meeting identified the priority areas that
rivers to 200 m depth, the continental and insular slopes should be undertaken by SEAFDEC, which included
below 200 m and extending to 2000 m depth, and oceanic the improvement of data collection on sharks at the
realm beyond the continental shelves and above the slopes national level and the implementation of human resource
and ocean floor. Many species overlap two or more of these development activities on species identification of major
categories of habitats which could be classified as shelf shark species in the region. Such issues and challenges in
to slope (SHS), slope to oceanic (SOC), shelf to oceanic conserving and managing shark and ray resources were
(SHO), shelf to semi-oceanic (SSO) and wide range of followed-up recently at the Special Meeting on Sharks
habitats (WRH). Others habitats are euryhaline freshwater/ Information Collection in Southeast Asia organized by
shelves (SHF) confined in oceanic (OCE), continental/ SEAFDEC in September 2011 in Thailand (Box1).
insular shelves (SHL) and continental/insular slopes
(SLO). Compagno and Cook (1995) placed freshwater During the Meeting, it was recognized that most of the
elasmobranch for those species confined in freshwater as countries in this region have developed their respective
obligate freshwater (FWO). national management plans for sharks (NPOA-Sharks)
and are in the process of implementing such plans. The
The habitats preferred by species of sharks and rays major types of management measures related to sharks
species in Malaysia, Indonesia and Thailand (Compagno, and rays conservation include: establishment of shark/ray
2002; Last and Compagno, 2002) indicated that rays are no-take zones in national Marine Parks or marine protected

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 Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center

Box 1. Recommendations from the Special Meeting on Even though the Southeast Asian region has rich shark and
Sharks Information Collection in Southeast Asia, ray resources compared with the other parts of the world,
Bangkok, Thailand, 15-17 September 2011 information on population status of sharks and rays and
Issues, problems and concerns relevant to sharks collection their fisheries is still insufficient. The limited information
and utilization in the Southeast Asian region were identified, on catch, landings and trade as well as on the biology
including the inadequacies in stock assessment of sharks and
rays as well as insufficiencies in terms of knowledge and skills of sharks and rays species in Southeast Asia requires
in species identification especially for the look-alike species of that information collection should be improved through
sharks and rays. appropriate national and regional programs.
For effective management of sharks and rays in the Southeast
Asian region, the Meeting recommended that: 1.3.2 Tunas
• appropriate methodologies should be developed including
the conduct of genetic studies for species identification of
dominant species based on dried fins and landed fins;
The major tuna species caught and landed in the Southeast
• R&D aimed at identifying and/or developing appropriate Asia through long line, purse seine, pole and line, hand
models/methodologies for stock assessment of selected line, and other gears such as troll line and drift gill net, are
dominant species of sharks and rays should be undertaken;
• effective management tools and fishing techniques should
the yellowfin tuna, bigeye tuna, skipjack tuna and albacore
be identified that could lead to the reduction of by-catch (SEAFDEC/TD, 2002; SEAFDEC/TD, 2004). Hand line is
from fisheries including endangered species of sharks and the most common fishing gear used specifically by small-
rays; and scale fishers using fishing vessels under 5 GT. Skipjack
• collaboration among the SEAFDEC Member Countries for
the improvement of data collection and stock assessment comprises most of the tuna catch and its potential is
especially at sub-regional or regional level should be estimated to be still moderate which means that the stocks
strengthened. could be exploited (See also details on Tuna Species in
Specifically, the key issues and constraints on the conservation 3.1 (Part I) and 1.1.1 (Part II)).
of sharks and rays confronting the region included:
• Most sharks and rays on the continental shelf are An increasing production trend of tunas including neritic
incidentally caught by bottom trawl fisheries, although
small numbers of small-scale fisheries also operate bottom and oceanic tunas since 1997 was observed in the Western
long line targeting stingrays. Moreover, most sharks and Central Pacific Ocean (WCPO) sub-area, while production
rays in offshore/oceanic areas are also caught as by-catch is likely stable in the South China Sea (SCS) and Indian
using pelagic long line and drift gillnet.
• Insufficient information on stock structure, abundance,
Ocean (IO) sub-areas. Tuna catch landing in the three
life history and reproductive rate of dominant/important sub-areas by major tuna species was approximately
commercial species of sharks and rays both for marine and 550,000 MT/year, where the highest quantity landed was
freshwater areas.
• Current national statistical data collection does not record
represented by skipjack followed by bigeye and yellowfin
landing of sharks and rays by species, while catches from tunas. Among the four major tuna species caught in
outside the territory (EEZs) are also merged into the Southeast Asia, skipjack tuna are caught mainly in the
national data. WCPO sub-area. However, landing of skipjack tuna of the
• Inadequate efforts on the assessment of the status of the
habitats of sharks and rays. region has decreased by approximately 150,000 MT from
• Insufficient knowledge on species identification (limitations 1997 to 2007. In the IO sub-area, data on skipjack landing
in the identification of shark/ray species from the color of shows likely stable level at approximately 50,000 MT/year.
fresh and preserved specimens), especially the look-alike
species of sharks and rays. Moreover, landing of yellowfin tuna seems likely stable
• Inadequate national policy, program and related activity to in SCS and IO sub-areas at the level of about 20,000 MT/
support effective management of sharks and rays. year, and an increase from 50,000 to 125,000 MT during
• Limited public awareness on sharing of data/information
among fishers, local communities, and other key 1997 to 2007 in the WCPO sub-area. For bigeye tuna,
stakeholders to support of the fishery management landing data shows similar trend with that of yellowfin
including management of sharks and rays. tuna in the three sub-areas.
• Inadequate understanding on fishing gears and their
practices, especially for the improvement of management
measures for sustainable utilization of sharks and rays. Based on statistics data for Southeast Asia in 2009
• Limited investments and/or collaboration in research and (with data provided by Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia,
management of sharks and rays.
Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand), the
total tuna production of Southeast Asia in quantity was
areas/periods; and prohibition of the use of specific gears approximately 1,640,000 MT. Indonesia as the leading
in specific management areas. Moreover, it was also tuna producer provided 925,660 MT or 56% of the region’s
recommended that information collection on sharks and total tuna production, followed by the Philippines with
rays in the region should be improved and training on 612,008 MT contributing 37%, Malaysia with 56,432
shark species identification should be conducted, while the MT accounting for about 3.5%, and Thailand with 47,490
need to set up routine or long-term information collection MT providing about 3% of the total production. The total
on selected sharks and rays species which are commonly production volume of tuna species contributed 12% to
found in the region was also raised. the total marine fishery production of the Southeast Asian
region.

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 SEASOFIA: The Southeast Asian State of Fisheries and Aquaculture 2012

In the over all, the national data collection system is Box 2. Recommendations from the Special Meeting on
constrained by limited number of enumerators especially Improvement of Tuna Information and Data Collection in
in remote areas, inadequate understanding on the part of Southeast Asia, Songkhla, Thailand, 7-9 September 2011
fishers on the importance of collecting fishery data and Aimed at improving the methods of collecting data and
statistics, and large amount of time and effort needed to information by identifying the gaps in the collection of
the data taking into consideration the importance of tuna
compile the necessary fishery statistical data considering fisheries in the region especially to the small-scale fishers, the
the huge number of fishers spread all over the countries Meeting identified four common issues and concerns in the
(e.g. Indonesia has recorded more than 2 million fishers in improvement of collecting tuna data and information:
• inadequate budget and human resources for data
2009 with more than 600,000 fishing vessels). The major collection;
challenges in tuna data collection are therefore hinged on • non-systematic coordination among data collecting/
the number of fishing boats and landing size, and size of reporting agencies, private sector and NGOs;
• insufficient efforts on tuna stock assessment in Southeast
the countries’ management areas as well as the number Asia and database system still scanty; and
of fishers to be managed coupled with inadequate capable • national data collection system needs improvement for
personnel in the field (Box 2). the compilation of good quality data (e.g. from logbooks,
observer program, transshipment reports, tuna cannery
records, fishing grounds).
In 2010, the tuna catch from the EEZ of the Philippine
waters was 574,836 MT, of which commercial tuna Specially noted on the major gaps and constraints in collecting
fisheries accounted for about 65% while the remaining information on tuna catch data in Southeast Asia were:
• The difficulty of identifying the species of tunas especially
35% was contributed by the country’s municipal tuna in landing sites, considering that most of the catches are
fisheries. The country’s commercial tuna fisheries make small sizes including yellowfin and bigeye tuna. It was
use of a variety of fishing gears that include purse seine, therefore recommended that a special training should be
conducted on the identification of tuna species especially
ring net and hand line while the municipal fisheries employ the juvenile stages of the species, to be able to assess
much larger variety of gears with line gears accounting for the tuna stocks. As for the appropriate method of stock
about 60% of the municipal catch. The major tuna species assessment, it was suggested that existing models that
are now being used could be adapted but should take into
caught are the yellowfin tuna, skipjack, eastern little tuna account the available validated data on total catch, fishing
or kawakawa, and frigate tuna (Auxis thazard). Earlier, effort, fishing grounds, oceanographic conditions, among
bigeye tuna (<60 cm) which is also caught had been others.
• Insufficient number of staff in terms of number and
classified as small size yellowfin tuna. In 2005 however, capability for data collection, inadequate financial
efforts were made to separately classify the catch of bigeye resources to fund any tuna survey, and the absence of
from the yellowfin tuna. As a member of the WCPFC, the appropriate and cost effective data collection systems.
Philippines submit tuna catch by species based on data SEAFDEC was therefore requested to undertake various
from the country’s waters. activities in response to the need of improving the collection of
tuna information and data, which include:
In the Southeast Asian region, the production of neritic • consultation with countries on possible continuation of the
development of regional tuna fisheries database;
tuna has gained more economic importance because of • improvement of the quality and timeliness of data through
the high price of tuna offered by tuna canneries especially capacity building programs, such as data collection onboard
in Thailand. The tuna catch of Thailand from the Gulf of tuna fishing vessels (e.g. logbooks, observers onboard),
from landing sites (catch unloading, species identification),
Thailand and landed in Thailand comprises three major and from cannery (accuracy in species identification);
species of neritic tuna such as frigate, little and long-tail • conduct of study on reduction of juvenile tuna catch from
tunas that are mainly caught by tuna purse seine. The purse seine, pole and line, FADs, and by-catch in tuna
fisheries;
catch data also indicates that the most abundant species • translation of existing relevant information materials (e.g.
is long-tail tuna followed by kawakawa. guidebooks, posters, brochures) issued by countries into
English language for dissemination to the other countries in
the region; and
For the tuna catch from the Andaman Sea landed in • consultation with experts on stock assessment in order
Thailand, the main tuna species mainly caught by light to come up with appropriate plan of activity to support
luring purse seine are the frigate tuna, kawakawa, bullet, the countries in the improvement of their respective
information collection systems.
and long-tail tunas, the most abundant of which is bullet
tuna followed by frigate and kawakawa. Considering that
Thailand is the main supplier of canned tuna in the world 1.3.3 Sea Turtles
market, the demand for tuna by canneries in Thailand
has been increasing and could have some impacts on the Six of seven species of living sea turtles in the world
country’s tuna fisheries. It is therefore encouraged that were confirmed to nest or inhabit the Southeast Asian
studies on tuna stocks should be urgently conducted to waters. These are the leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea),
identify the problems, concerns and status of tuna fisheries green turtle (Chelonia mydas), olive ridley (Lepidochelys
especially in the case of Thailand. olivacea), hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), loggerhead
(Caretta caretta), and the flatback turtle (Natator

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 Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center

depressus) which can be found only in eastern Indonesian cause the decline of sea turtle population include natural
waters (Table 53). The flatback turtle is restricted to threats and human-induced activities.
Australian territories for nesting, but it forages within
Indonesian waters (Limpus, 2002), where green turtles are In nature, sea turtles face a host of life and death obstacles
the most dominant species in the Southeast Asian Region. during their survival. Predators such as raccoons, crabs
and ants raid eggs and hatchlings still in the nest. The
Sea turtles are important marine animals as traditional hatchlings emerging from nests form bite-sized meals for
living resources in the Asian region. For centuries, people birds, crabs and a host of predators in the ocean. Upon
in this region have exploited this resource and some still reaching adulthood, sea turtles are relatively immune to
do until the present. Sea turtles have also been cheap predation except for occasional attacks by sharks. Such
source of protein for poor people especially those living natural threats are not the only reasons for the plummeting
in the coastal areas. During recent decades the demand for sea turtle populations towards extinction. Human activities
its eggs, meat and carcasses had significantly increased have also been recognized as major threats contributing the
considering that sea turtles provide many products for global declining population of sea turtles. Human-induced
human consumption such as meat and eggs, as well as for activities could include accidental catch by fisheries, illegal
commercial purposes such as the carcasses (for souvenirs, trading of sea turtle shells, failure to control and collect
accessories) and oil (for traditional medicines), and as marine debris that causes ingestion and entanglement,
important part in religious ceremonies in some countries use of artificial lightings in nesting beaches, coastal
of this region. armoring, beach nourishment and dredging, pollution in
marine areas, insufficient education and public awareness
In order to conserve, manage and exploit this resource programs, inadequate skills on hatchery management, and
sustainably, countries in the Southeast Asian region economic exploitation of turtles, as well as the impacts of
(except Lao PDR and Singapore) have established their climate change.
own national programs on the conservation, management
and enhancement of sea turtles. These include enforcement Each year hundreds of thousands of adult and immature
of gazetted laws and regulations, strengthening of sea turtles are accidentally captured in fisheries around
the enforcement agencies, establishment of sea turtle the world ranging from highly mechanized operations
sanctuaries, setting-up of hatcheries, conduct of national to small-scale fisheries. Global estimates of the annual
and regional tagging programs, tracking of the migration capture, injury and mortality are overwhelming: about
routes using satellite technology, implementation of public 150,000 turtles of all species killed in shrimp trawls,
awareness activities through education and campaigns, and more than 200,000 loggerheads and 50,000 leatherbacks
conduct of relevant R&D activities. captured, injured or killed by long lines, and large numbers
of all species drowned in gill nets. Although the extent of
It has been reported that each year thousands of hatchling gill net mortality is not really known, sea turtle capture
turtles emerge from their nests in the shores of the is significant in study areas while incidence of drowning
Southeast Asian countries (SEAFDEC/MFRDMD, 2004). of sea turtles in gill nets could be comparable with that of
Sadly, only an estimated one in 1,000 to 10,000 will trawl and long line mortality. However, deaths in gill nets
survive to adult turtles. The natural obstacles confronting are particularly hard to quantify because the nets are set
the young and adult sea turtles are staggering but the by uncounted numbers of local fishers in tropical waters
most increasing threats are caused by humans that drive around the world. Other fisheries that accidentally take
the turtle populations to extinction. Today, all sea turtles turtles include dredges, trawls, pound nets, pot fisheries,
found in Southeast Asian waters are federally listed as and hand lines.
threatened and endangered. The most common issues that

Table 53. Sea Turtles which are confirmed to nest in Southeast Asian countries
Leatherback
Country Green Turtles Hawksbill Turtles Loggerhead Turtles Olive Ridley Turtles Flatback Turtles
Turtles
Brunei Darussalam √ √ √
Cambodia √ √ √
Indonesia √ √ √ √ √ √
Malaysia √ √ √ √
Myanmar √ √ √ √ √
Philippines √ √ √ √ √
Thailand √ √ √ √ √
Vietnam √ √ √ √
Source: Ahmad et.al, 2004

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 SEASOFIA: The Southeast Asian State of Fisheries and Aquaculture 2012

It has therefore become a challenge to ensure that fishers even starve and eventually die from ingestion. Moreover,
develop new methodologies and gears to reduce turtle turtles are also affected to an unknown but potentially
by-catch which do not necessarily prevent them from significant degree of risk from entanglement in various
making a living. By modifying gears and techniques forms of marine debris such as discarded or lost fishing
to protect endangered sea turtles and other non-target gear including steel and monofilament lines, synthetic and
species, fishers can improve their efficiency and help in natural ropes, plastic onion sacks, and discarded plastic
safeguarding the marine ecosystems. For example, the netting materials.
Turtle Excluder Devices (TEDs) had been designed to
release turtles trapped beneath the surface in shrimp trawls Nesting turtles depend on dark and quite beaches to deposit
as well as reduce the capture of unwanted fishes, shorten their eggs successfully. Turtles these days are at risk and in
sorting time on deck and minimize fuel consumption. In danger, in part, because they must compete with tourists,
addition, TEDs exclude logs and other debris, thus, help businesses and coastal residents for the use of beaches.
in extending net use. In long line fleets, the use of large Many man-made coastal development activities use a lot
circle hooks and fish as bait instead of squid reduces sea of artificial lightings on beaches discouraging the female
turtle capture while improving swordfish catch. sea turtles from nesting. As a result, turtles opt for less-
than-optimal nesting spots, which could affect the chances
Hawksbill turtles are recognized for their beautiful gold of producing viable eggs. In addition, near-shore lightings
and brown shells, and thus have been hunted for centuries could make sea turtle hatchlings getting disoriented after
to create jewelry and other luxury souvenir items. As a coming out from the eggs and wander towards the inland
result, these turtles are now critically endangered and areas where more often than not the hatchlings die of
scientists estimate that hawksbill population declined by dehydration, predation and being run over by vehicles on
90 percent during the past 100 years. busy coastal streets.

To improve their survival, CITES has declared it illegal In many countries, nesting beaches of sea turtles
to trade turtle shells, however, the demand for shells everywhere have been substantially altered by urbanization
continues until today in the black market contributing to and development. Coastal areas are considered prime real
the continued declining population of sea turtles. In many estate properties for development and as a result, many
countries, tourists continue to purchase products derived of the world’s beaches have been heavily developed.
from sea turtles thus, unwittingly support the international Moreover, coastal property owners build armoring
trade of these endangered species because of inadequate structures such as seawalls and rock revetments to help
information on conservation of sea turtles. Presently protect their land and properties from erosion. In fact, most
however, buying, selling or importing sea turtle products governing bodies often address problems on erosion by
have been strictly prohibited by law in many countries constructing state-funded coastal armoring projects that
around the world. Although the illegal trading of sea turtle include the excavation of inlets and construction of jetties
products is primarily focused on the hawksbills, other sea along the coast altering the natural course of the sand.
turtle species are also killed for their skin to be transformed
into leather goods while some beauty products are also Man-made structures in coastal areas also prevent sea
known to contain sea turtle oil. turtles from continuing their innate life cycles and directly
threaten their existence by reducing their suitable nesting
Reports claimed that more than 100 million marine animals habitats and displacing turtles into less-than-optimal
are killed each year due to ingestion of and entanglement nesting areas. Although armoring is intended to decrease
with marine debris especially plastic materials strewn by sand erosion and, therefore protect the beaches, studies
humans, more than 80% of which comes from land and have suggested that areas protected by armoring are more
washed into the waterways. The debris travels through likely to create severe erosion by interrupting natural
storm drains into streams and rivers or from landfills into sand shifts. This means that while property owners are
the seas. As a result, thousands of sea turtles accidentally protecting their habitats using coastal structures, sea turtles
swallow these plastic materials which are usually are losing theirs.
mistaken for food. Specifically, leatherbacks are unable
to distinguish between floating jellyfish which is a main Beach nourishment consists of pumping, trucking or
component of their diet or floating plastic materials. The otherwise depositing sand on beaches to replace what
most recognizable debris includes plastic bags, balloons, has been lost to erosion. While beach nourishment is
bottles, degraded buoys, plastic packaging, and food often preferable to armoring, it can negatively impact the
wrappers. Being small, most plastic materials are difficult habitats of sea turtles especially when the sand becomes
to see, in fact, some could be invisible to the naked eye. too compact for turtles to nest or in cases where the
If sea turtles ingest these particles, they become sick or imported sand is completely different from the original

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 Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center

beach sediments, thereby potentially affecting nest-site Table 54. Estimated number of sea turtles recorded in the
selection, digging behavior, incubation temperature, and Southeast Asian countries
moisture contents of nests. Duration of
Country Number of Individuals
Monitoring Study
When re-nourishment takes place during the nesting Brunei Darussalam 53 (major sp.; Olive Ridley) 2005-2009
season, nests can also be buried far beneath the surface Cambodia 43 (major sp.; Green) 2007-2009
or run over by heavy machinery. Dredging can also Indonesia 737 (major sp.; Green) 2007-2009
cause direct threats to sea turtles and their nearshore
Malaysia
marine habitats. As recorded, hopper dredges have been
directly responsible for the incidental capture and death • Peninsular Malaysia 1,272 (major sp.; Green) 1999-2008
of hundreds of sea turtles. • Sabah Sarawak 26,386 (major sp.; Green) 1999-2009
• Sarawak 7,668 (major sp.; Green) 1999-2008
Pollution has serious impacts on both sea turtles and Myanmar 643 (major sp.; Green) 2001-2009
their food, and as suggested in recent research studies,
Philippines 4,249 (major sp.; Green) 1999-2009
a new disease now killing many sea turtles known as (Morong-Bataan,
fibropapillomas could be linked to pollution in the oceans Bagac-Bataan, and
Turtle Islands Wildlife
and in near-shore waters. When pollution contaminates and Sanctuary (TIWS))
kills aquatic plants and animals, it also destroys the feeding Thailand 195 (major sp.; Green) 1994-2009
habitats for sea turtles. Oil spills and urban runoffs such Vietnam 3,370 (major sp.; Green) 1998-2009
as chemicals and fertilizers contribute to water pollution,
Source: SEAFDEC/MFRDMD (unpublished report)
where an estimated 36% of all marine pollution from oil
comes from cities through drains and rivers. Sea turtles eggs or partially regulated with little restriction to harvest
are affected by pollution in more ways than one. For the eggs. To date, consumption and selling the turtle
example, turtles do not have to directly ingest a tar ball but eggs is still common in many Southeast Asian countries.
the small marine animals on the lower levels in the food It is therefore necessary that turtle eggs harvested for
chain, like zooplanktons, absorb these chemicals which consumption and commercial purposes should be totally
are then accumulated in their bodies, making the toxins banned in all Southeast Asian countries to ensure the
much more concentrated than in the surrounding waters. stability of the population of sea turtles in the future.
The zooplanktons are then consumed by larger animals Furthermore, illegal poaching of sea turtles in their
including sea turtles, and thus, the concentration levels foraging habitats is also major issue in the region. Every
of chemicals and pollutants would continue to increase. year, several cases of sea turtle poaching had been reported
especially in sea turtle foraging habitats of Sabah and
Awareness building of the direct stakeholders such as Sarawak waters off Malaysia. Regional agreement and
fishers, village folks, tourist operators, and chalet and hotel cooperation are indeed substantially important in order
operators is still insufficient. The inadequate knowledge to address the turtle exploitation issues and prevent turtle
and awareness on the biology, conservation, protection eggs harvesting.
and other practices relevant to sea turtles have often lead
to certain negative attitude towards the plight of turtles, Since sea turtles use both marine and terrestrial habits
indiscriminate manhandling of turtles and destruction of during their life cycles, the effects of climate change are
their habitats. The stakeholders’ inadequate knowledge in likely to have devastating impacts on these endangered
biological sciences and improper handling of incubation species. Climate change impacts on the sea turtle nesting
techniques for sea turtles could also cause low hatching beaches which are their reproductive habitats. Sea turtles
rates of incubated eggs and in some cases producing easily recollect their nesting areas from memory which
unbalanced sex ratio of the hatchlings. The unbalance “imprints with magnetic map” the sandy beach where
sex ratio in turtle hatchlings attributes to the imbalance their eggs are deposited, giving them the unique ability
proportion of adult male and female population of sea of returning to that same site decades later to repeat their
turtles. As a result, more infertile eggs are produced by ancient nesting ritual. However, with melting polar ice
turtle nesters during the nesting season which eventually caps and rising sea levels, these beaches are beginning
leads to the declining population of sea turtles in the future. to disappear. The direct impacts of sea level rise include
losing beaches, ecologically-productive wetlands and
Turtles are exploited for their eggs and meat. The persistent barrier islands as well as increase in nesting beach
practice of excessive egg harvesting contributes to the temperatures. Considering that the gender of sea turtles
dramatic decline in the nesting population of all species. is determined by the temperature at which the eggs
During the past few decades, coastlines have been regarded incubate, increasing nest temperatures had been predicted
as common property. This implies that harvesting of turtle by scientists to have influenced the production of more
eggs is open to all leading to unregulated harvesting of female than male hatchlings, creating a significant threat

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 SEASOFIA: The Southeast Asian State of Fisheries and Aquaculture 2012

Figure 34. Migration routes of green turtles in the Southeast

Asian waters determined through satellite telemetry studies
(left) and location of 11 genetically distinct breeding stocks or
management units of green sea turtles in Southeast Asia (above)

to genetic diversity.

Climate change which increases water temperatures also

changes ocean currents that are critical to migrating turtles,
especially for hatchlings that are mostly transported by
Sargassum seaweeds traveling with the water currents.
Warmer ocean temperatures are also likely to negatively
impact on the food resources for sea turtles and virtually all
marine species. Coral reefs, which comprise the important
food source for sea turtles, are also in great danger from
the impacts of climate change.

SEAFDEC Initiatives in Conservation and Management

of Sea Turtles
Figure 35. Possible foraging habitats of sea turtles in the
Southeast Asian waters based on results of satellite telemetry
SEAFDEC has played important role in the conservation studies
and management of sea turtles in the Southeast Asian
region (Mohd Isa et al., 2008). The first regional program 1.3.4 Sea Cucumbers
on conservation of sea turtles in Southeast Asia was
started during the First ASEAN Symposium - Workshop Sea cucumbers, especially those belonging to families
on Marine Turtle Conservation in Manila, Philippines in Holothuriidae and Stichopodidae, form important parts
1993. Thus, starting in 1996, SEAFDEC/MFRDMD and of the multi-species invertebrate group, the products of
SEAFDEC Training Department ﴾TD) in collaboration which support international market demands. Based on
with the ASEAN Member Countries conducted a series of the statistics of sea cucumber production of the Southeast
programs in addressing the need to conserve the region’s Asian countries from 2000 to 2009, total production is
sea turtles species. Starting in 1998, more R&D programs highly fluctuating and ranges from about 4,000 to 29,700
were also implemented with funding support from the MT annually. While the total marine capture fishery
Japanese Trust Fund as shown in Appendix 1. From the production of the region in 2009 was reported to be
results of the studies, the number of sea turtles recorded in 14.1 million MT, about 0.033% of the total production
the Southeast Asian countries had been estimated ﴾Table was provided by sea cucumbers (Table 55). Indonesia
54), of which the green turtles have been recorded with and Philippines are the Southeast Asian countries that
the most number of species. reported considerable amount of sea cucumber production,
however, only the total production figures were reported
Based on the results of research studies conducted by without further classification to species level (SEAFDEC,
SEAFDEC/MFRDMD in the Southeast Asian region, the 2009). Some countries such as Malaysia, Myanmar,
migratory routes of and the genetically distinct breeding Thailand, and Vietnam, are also known to have certain
stocks or management units of green turtles are shown in levels of sea cucumber production, but their reports do
Fig. 34 while the possible foraging habitats of sea turtles not reflect such production and are grouped instead under
are mapped and shown in Fig. 35. the “invertebrate group” or “miscellaneous marine aquatic
group”, probably because the volume of production is not

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Table 55. Production of sea cucumbers in some Southeast Asian countries (MT)
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Brunei Darussalam … … … … … … … 3 0.90 0.12
Cambodia … … … 3 … … … … … …
Indonesia 4,690 3,517 9,116 3,014 6,930 7,178 29,733 4,273 3,623.00 3,750
Philippines … 965 … 979 1,006 761 851 777.00 934
Sources: Fishery Statistical Bulletin for the South China Sea Area (SEAFDEC, 2000-2009) and Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia (SEAFDEC 2010)

Table 56. Destination countries and value (in US$) of sea Moreover, sea cucumbers are generally harvested by local
cucumber products exported from Indonesia, Philippines fishers using simple or traditional methods that vary and
and Thailand in 2007
range from picking by hand during low tide, snorkeling at
Destination the depth of up to 10 meters, punching by a metal spear as
Indonesia Philippines Thailand
Country
well as using trawl nets (Labe et. al., 2007). The species
Hong Kong 497,682 2,976,398 2,494,676
are mostly utilized for local consumption while some are
Singapore 256,367 642,446 548,122
exported to Hong Kong markets where fishers are able to
Taiwan 30,000 10,132 1,627,500 obtain high market prices (Table 56).
Malaysia 274,872 73,450 -
USA 13,831 87,651 548,122 The Regional Study also recognized that there is very
limited information on sea cucumbers in terms of statistical
Vietnam 288,085 - 819,800
records, inadequate information on research works, and
China - 115,171 -
insufficient and/or limited biological data and knowledge
Japan - 12,025 - on species identification. Despite these constraints,
North Korea* - - 561,439 consideration is being given to this species group by
South Korea - 1,015,263 - the Southeast Asian countries especially in view of the
Source: Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia (SEAFDEC, 2011) declining and diminishing sea cucumber resources, and the
emerging global concerns that focused on the conservation
much and collection of sea cucumber is by nature scattered and management of sea cucumbers. In fact, such concerns
making data collection for statistical purposes difficult to had become one of the most popular issues being
undertake. discussed in the international community, particularly at
the CoP-CITES and several fora of FAO, and it has been
As a result therefore, sea cucumbers contributed very small anticipated that the listing of sea cucumber species in
quantity to the total marine capture fishery production CITES Appendices could be brought up for discussion
of the region. While there could be weaknesses in data during the forthcoming CoP16-CITES in 2013. Therefore,
collection of sea cucumber production in most of the it has become necessary for the Southeast Asian countries
countries, the situation makes the understanding of the to take a serious look into the issues and collect relevant
production status and trends of the species difficult to scientific/technical information on economically important
reckon with, particularly from official statistics figures sea cucumber species, e.g. production, utilization, trade,
collected by the countries. Other sources of information as well as the conservation and management measures
including research results and data collected through ad that have been put in place, in order to come up with
hoc schemes should therefore be gathered and incorporated a common position of the Southeast Asian countries
in the over-all production in order to obtain a better picture demonstrating that sea cucumber fisheries of the region are
of the status and trends of sea cucumber production from being undertaken in sustainable and responsible manner
the Southeast Asian region. (Labe et al., 2007).

In an attempt to address such concern, SEAFDEC in 1.3.5 Seahorses

collaboration with eight Southeast Asian countries,
namely: Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Seahorses comprise the genus Hippocampus of family
Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam Syngnathidae, consisting of 35 genera of pipefishes,
conducted the Regional Study on Sea Cucumber Fisheries, pipehorses and seadragons, and falling within the order
Utilization and Trade in Southeast Asia in 2007-2008 by Gasterosteiformes (Vincent, 1996). Currently, 47 seahorse
collecting secondary data and information available in the species have been identified in the world (Lourie et al.,
respective countries. Results of the study showed that there 1999 and 2004; CITES Species Database, 2011) although
are approximately 135 species of sea cucumbers found in species identification still remains challenging with some
the region (SEAFDEC, 2009). of the taxonomy unresolved (Koldewey and Martin-Smith,

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 SEASOFIA: The Southeast Asian State of Fisheries and Aquaculture 2012

2010). Seahorses occupy both temperate and tropical Utilization and Trade of Seahorses
coastal waters from about 50° North to 50° South, and are
usually found among corals, macro-algae, mangrove roots Direct exploitation, incidental catches by non-selective
and sea grasses, with some living in open sandy or muddy fishing gear, and habitat loss and degradation have put
bottoms (Lourie et al., 2004). Among the 47 species, nine considerable pressures on seahorse population in many
species are confirmed to be distributed in the Southeast regions of the world (Vincent and Koldewey, 2006).
Asian region with one species still not confirmed (Table Specifically, seahorses in the Indo-Pacific region may be
57). Twenty nine and 22 species are traded in the world the most immediately at risk because of their proximity
as live individuals and non-live individuals, respectively. to major markets for the traditional Chinese medicines
Culture technology has been developed for 18 species (Vincent, 1996). All species of the seahorse genus
where 13 species are being commercially cultured, one Hippocampus are already listed in the Appendix II of
species could be cultured but its commercial status is CITES in 2002, denoting the potential threats caused by
unknown, and four species have been researched on, the unregulated international trade of these species.
results of which have been published in various literatures
and journals (Koldewey and Martin-Smith, 2010). The number of seahorses exported (Fig. 36) largely
increased in 2003 for non-live commodities and in 2004
Seahorses have very unique characteristics such as male for live commodities. However, not all seahorses traded
pregnancy and faithful monogamy as well as lengthy originate from the wild. Captive-bred seahorses accounted
parental care. In addition, the peculiar body-shape and for 25-84% (mean 57%) of the total volume traded in
swimming style are also probably ascribed to the high 2004-2008 (Koldewey and Martin-Smith, 2010).
popularity of seahorses not only as aquarium species but
also as curio items. Moreover, the demand for sea horses Seahorses are exported as live and non-live commodities
is high especially as ingredients for traditional Chinese in the world and from Southeast Asia. From 1997 to 2009,
medicines (Vincent, 1996). The specialized life history the average percentage of seahorses traded from Southeast
traits of seahorses including male pregnancy, lengthy Asia was 54% for live seahorses and 82% for non-live
parental care, small size of brood, strict monogamy in seahorses. Since the number of the non-live seahorses
most species, low mobility, small home ranges, and sparse is extremely larger than those of the live seahorses, this
distribution make seahorse populations very susceptible indicates that majority of seahorses traded in the world
particularly to anthropogenic disturbance (Koldewey and could have originated from the Southeast Asian region.
Martin-Smith, 2010). During the recent years, Vietnam had been the largest
exporter of live seahorses while Thailand leads in the

Table 57. Seahorses Hippocampus spp. identified in Southeast Asia

Culture Distribution in Southeast Asia

FAO Common Name Scientific Name Type Traded Techniques Confirmed Suspected
1 Barbour’s seahorse H. barbouri L, N C ID, MY, PH
2 Bargiban’s seahorse H. bargibanti N ID, PH MY
3 Tiger-tail seahorse H. comes L, N C ID, MY, PH, SG, TH, VN
4 Denise’s pygmy seahorse H. denise L ID, MY, PH
5 Seahorse H. histrix L, N ID, MY, PH, VN BI, MM, SG, TH
Spiny seahorse
Thorny seahorse
6 Great seahorse H. kelloggi L, N ID, MY, PH, TH, VN BI, MM, SG
Kellog’s seahorse
Offshore seahorse
7 Black seahorse H. kuda L, N C KH, ID, MY, PH, SG, TH, VN BI, MM
Colored seahorse
Oceanic seahorse
Spotted seahorse
Yellow seahorse
8 Japanese seahorse H. mahnikei L, N (C) TH, VN
9 Hedgehog seahorse H. spinosissimus L, N C KH, ID, MY, MM, PH, SG, BI
TH, VN
10 Flat-faced seahorse H. trimaculatus L, N C KH, ID, MY, MM, PH, SG, BI
Long-nose seahorse TH, VN
Low-crowned seahorse
Three-spot seahorse
Note: In the column of “Type Traded”, ‘L’ and ‘N’ denote ‘live seahorse’ and ‘non-live seahorse’; “Cult. Techechniques” distinguished as follows: C=commercial
operation, (C)=unknown about the commercial availability, and R=research published only; *: BI=Burunei Darussalam, ID=Indonesia, KH=Cambodia,
MM=Myanmar, MY=Malaysia, PH=Philippines, SG=Singapore, TH=Thailand, and VN=Vietnum.
Source: Lourie et al. 1999 and 2004; Koldewey and Martin-Smith 2010

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 Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center

Figure 36. Export of seahorses from the Southeast Asian countries

Figure 37. Percentages of seahorses (live and non-live) exported from Southeast Asian region by countries: BI=Brunei
Darussalam, ID=Indonesia, KH=Cambodia, MM=Myanmar, MY=Malaysia, PH=Philippines, SG=Singapore, TH=Thailand, and
VN=Vietnam
Sources: CITES trade statistics derived from the CITES Trade Database, UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, United Kingdom

export of non-live seahorses (Fig. 37). The dotted lines wild-caught animals, provide economic opportunities for
show the average values between 1997 and 2009. The data fishers in developing countries and supply future increases
were obtained from CITES trade statistics derived from in global demand (Koldewey and Martin-Smith, 2010).
the CITES Trade Database, UNEP World Conservation Commercial development and considerable expansion
Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK. To calculate the of seahorse aquaculture occurred in the 1990s (Woods,
individual number of live seahorses, the weight data shown 2000a; Woods 2000b).
in the database were converted to individual numbers
using estimated body sizes by species as 80% of the Thereafter, a number of studies on culture technologies
maximum height as established by Lourie et al. (2004) have been published. SEAFDEC/AQD also initiated
and the average condition factor (CF=BW(g)/MH(cm) seahorse breeding studies in 1996 and obtained certain
x102=0.371) obtained for Hippocampus barbouri, H. level of progress especially on the culture techniques
comes and H. kuda broodstocks kept at the facilities including findings such as year-round breeding in mating
of SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department (AQD) in the pairs of H. kuda, the relationship of parturition frequency
Philippines. with seawater temperature and daylight period, tolerance
to various salinities, and effects of illumination on growth
Culture Technologies for Seahorses in sea cages (Hilomen-Garcia et al., 2003; Okuzawa et al.,
2008; Garcia and Hilomen-Garcia, 2009). Nevertheless,
Commercial aquaculture of seahorses has been repeatedly considerable technical difficulties remain unresolved
considered as possible solution to replace the collection of especially in breeding and rearing of many seahorse

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 SEASOFIA: The Southeast Asian State of Fisheries and Aquaculture 2012

species because of difficulties in feeding and outbreak encounter the risk of extinction unless immediate actions
of disease (Vincent and Kodlewey, 2006; Koldewey and to stop overfishing and appropriately control the volume
Martin-Smith, 2010). of trade are implemented by the countries of origin and
trading countries. For example, catch of seahorses should
More recently, however, AQD found that survival and be limited to 10 cm or less in body height which is the
growth of newborn seahorses are significantly improved minimum size prescribed by the Animal Committee of
in UV-treated water while mass mortality is effectively CITES (Foster and Vincent, 2004) while the export/
prevented by treating food organisms in formalin transport of live seahorses should be governed by
(Buen-Ursua et al., 2011). Such findings indicate that specific guidelines (Vincent and Koldewey, 2006). Direct
using disease-free copepods collected from the wild exploitation as well as habitat loss and degradation should
as feed through formalin treatment would advance the be avoided by establishing and strengthening domestic
development of cost-effective aquaculture for the mass legislations in order to protect seahorse populations in
production of seahorses in Southeast Asia. The goal is not many countries from over-exploitation (Vincent and
to promote new trade or increase existing trade in seahorses Koldewey, 2006).
as this might encourage the exploitation of seahorses from
the wild (Buen-Ursua, personal communication cited by Although culture of seahorses does not target the
Malaya Business Insight, 2011). traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) markets and has not
achieved commercial viability, production of cultured
Other than the issues of vulnerability to diseases and seahorses through development of sustainable aquaculture
finding the correct diet in captive breeding, genetic technology should be enhanced in order to protect the
diversity and genetic purity of native species of restocked wild stocks of seahorses. In addition, since the ratio of
seahorses, disease transmission to wild populations as well wild-caught to cultured seahorses in the live aquarium
as risk of community disruptions should be considered in trade is unknown (Vincent and Koldewey 2006), cultured
carrying out seahorse releasing programs (Vincent and seahorses could replace the wild seahorses to supply TCM
Koldewey, 2006; Buen-Ursua, personal communication and tonic products, live aquarium fishes, and curio items
cited by Malaya Business Insight, 2011). The genes of and souvenirs, thus, preventing further demands of wild
seahorses bred in one place might not be compatible with seahorses. As emphasized by Vincent and Koldewey
native seahorses, raising the risk that mixing them could (2006), culture technologies for seahorses should be in
compromise the genes of local seahorses. Stocks bred in line with the aim of minimizing negative environmental
hatcheries whose genetic composition is incompatible with impacts and maximizing local socio-economic benefits,
the native population should not be released. and through the compliance with the precepts of the
Convention on Biological Diversity.
Thus, the characterization of the genetic makeup of
seahorses bred in hatcheries and those found in the wild is 2. INLAND FISHERY RESOURCES
very essential (Buen-Ursua, personal communication cited
by Malaya Business Insight, 2011). As regards disease In 2009, the total fisheries production of the region was
issues, thorough screening procedures are also necessary reported to be 28,917,096 MT of which 2,397,273 MT
in any program that transfers captive seahorses into the came from the inland fisheries sub-sector accounting
wild (Vincent and Koldewey, 2006) as sudden influx of for approximately 8% of the total fishery production
new individuals into a small area could result in changes (SEAFDEC, 2011). Despite the low figures as reported, the
in the social structure of the wild population which could importance of inland fisheries could not be neglected due
result in increased competition for food, shelter, and mates to its contribution to food security and poverty alleviation
(Vincent and Koldewey, 2006). Appropriate measures are for peoples, particularly those from the low income
therefore very important to avoid such risks, which could group whose livelihood is very much dependent on the
include development of tagging and/or marking techniques availability of natural resources. However, by the nature
to monitor the release animals and to establish the impact of inland fisheries being small-scale, multi-species, multi-
of the stocking practices (Vincent and Koldewey, 2006). gears, involving large number of fishers which are mostly
part-time fishers, while the major parts of the fishery
Future Perspectives and Recommendations production are meant for household consumption, all these
factors result in difficulties in the collection and accurate
Global interest in aquaculture of seahorses and other reporting of routine inland fishery data and statistics. Thus,
syngnathids has increased dramatically over the past the importance of inland fisheries is hence overlooked
decade (Vincent and Koldewey, 2006). As predicted from by planners and policy makers, giving this sub-sector
the global trade situation, the global resource level of low priority compared to the other development sectors
wild seahorses would continue to decrease particularly that share the same water resources. The result could
in Southeast Asia. It is likely that the situation in the be manifold impacts to fishers and other fishery-related
future would worsen and wild stocks of seahorses would activities in the region while the accumulated impacts

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 Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center

over time could be much greater than one can imagine, of fishery operations into rural farming livelihoods, offer
particularly to those whose livelihoods are dependent on buffer against shortfalls in agricultural production, and
inland fishery activities. make available alternative sources of food and income.

Adding to the above-mentioned situation is the deterioration 2.1.2 Data/Information Collection on Inland
of natural inland fishery resources and habitats as well Fisheries
as the declining catch caused by irresponsible fishing
operations, insufficient fishery management schemes, and One important reason why the importance of inland
the impacts from non-fishery activities. As a matter of fact, fisheries is being undermined by non-fishery sectors,
aquaculture practices have been introduced and promoted planners and policy makers is the lack of reliable data
in several areas to increase fish production from inland and information on inland fishery production. In view
waters. However, such introduction should be properly of its very nature, inland fisheries are usually not well-
managed otherwise it could lead to negative impacts to the monitored, under-estimated and under-presented in many
ecosystems and inland natural resources. In most cases, the reports and statistics. Since major parts of the production
beneficiaries from aquaculture operations may not only be are intended for household consumption, reliable
those who lose their benefits from inland capture fisheries statistics could not be systematically gathered using
in terms of food security and livelihood. The promotion of the conventional statistical collection methodologies.
aquaculture activities that aim to substitute inland capture The discrepancy between officially reported catches
production therefore undermines the culture value of fish where available and the estimates based on independent
eating traditions and other traditional knowledge which scientifically-based surveys focusing on collection of
had been passed from generations to generations, and thus, actual data, seems to suggest that the total reported
the importance of inland fisheries should be recognized by production from inland waters is usually under-estimated
the present and future planners and policy makers (Mohd by at least 2.5 to 3.6 times (Coates, 2002). This also
Isa et al., 2011). suggests that the contribution of inland fishes to the total
fish supplies is significantly higher than the volume that
2.1 Status, Issues and Concerns is estimated and reported.

2.1.1 Inland Fisheries for Food Security and Considering the complexity of inland fisheries and the
Poverty Alleviation difficulties in obtaining reliable statistics on inland
fisheries, alternative methodologies such as indicator or
The inland fishery sector is known to significantly sampling survey or fish consumption survey could be
contribute to food supplies and healthy diets of millions undertaken to come up with information that reflects the
of people all over the world. Production from inland importance and role of inland fishery production in the
fisheries is particularly important for poverty alleviation, countries’ economies. Moreover, such approach could
food security and enhanced nutritional well-being of also provide the necessary conversion factors which when
many people in rural communities, particularly in the combined with routine fishery statistics or information
developing countries as well as in the low-income food- from national census would generate more accurate
deficit countries. In the Asian region, fish contributes to information on inland fishery production of the region.
approximately 23% of the animal protein intakes and In addition, local and indigenous knowledge on inland
human diets (FAO, 2003). In certain parts of the region, fisheries especially those associated with the abundance
for example in the Lower Mekong Basin, the importance and distribution of species, fishing gears and methods,
of inland fishery products such as fish and other aquatic fish preservation and processing techniques could also
animals, e.g. snails, mollusks, shrimps, crabs, snakes, be important source of information, and thus, should be
and other reptiles as well as water birds, is even more gathered to support the sustainable management of the
prominent. region’s inland fisheries.

The average basin-wide consumption of fish and other The need to improve the national statistical systems and
aquatic animals is estimated at 56 kg/capita/yr (Hortle and capacity to collect data and information on inland fishery
Bush, 2003), while in high-yielding fishing areas such as statistics is therefore well recognized. Therefore, under
the rural communities of the floodplains around the Great the current circumstance, it is necessary that data collected
Tonle Sap Lake in Cambodia, fish consumption could even using the existing fishery statistical systems and outcomes
be higher. Moreover, inland fisheries also provide direct from the currently available research studies should be
employment to rural populations in terms of production synthesized and packaged, after which such information
and indirect employment through processing and trading should be presented to policy makers and planners to
of fishery products. More importantly, inland fisheries raise their awareness and enable them to have better
also provide significant opportunities for the integration understanding on the importance of inland fisheries in the
food security of the region.

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 SEASOFIA: The Southeast Asian State of Fisheries and Aquaculture 2012

2.1.3 Impacts of Water Barrier Construction on extreme pulse discharges, maintaining the water flow at
Inland Fisheries ecologically acceptable level. In addition, the development
of several models of fish passes should be explored and
One of the development projects that could generate initiated in order to facilitate the migration of aquatic
significant impacts to inland ecosystems and fishery species through various water barriers. Nevertheless, the
activities is the construction of water barriers such as dams, effectiveness of fish passes which could be influenced by
weirs, barrages, among others. In the Southeast Asian several factors including the dam’s height, fish pass design,
region, a number of dams and barriers had been constructed entrance location, water flow as well as other biological
for the main purpose of providing continuous supply of aspects of the aquatic species such as fish size, swimming
water for irrigation, hydro-power electricity generation, abilities, migratory behavior, and population size, should
domestic use, and flood control. The construction and be appropriately considered in designing and operating fish
operation of mainstream dams and other water barriers passes to ensure its effectiveness in mitigating the impacts
obstruct upstream and downstream migration of fishes, from dams to the natural populations of aquatic organisms.
often resulting in the diminishing, disappearance or even
extinction of many riverine fish species. The operation of 2.1.4 Inland Fisheries vs. Aquaculture
dams also results in drastic changes of the hydrological
patterns of streams, creating negative impacts to the The deterioration of inland fishery habitats as a consequence
natural population of migratory aquatic species as the of the aforementioned concerns results in the decline of the
release of water from dams does not usually consider the inland fishery resources, despite the seemingly increasing
biological needs of aquatic organisms, but by the demand inland capture fishery production as claimed and reported
for hydroelectric power. by most of the countries in the Southeast Asian region.
Nevertheless, as an attempt to increase fish supply from
The operation of dams also reduces water flow during inland areas, aquaculture of freshwater aquatic species has
natural flood periods and increases flow during dry periods, been promoted and widely practiced in many countries.
resulting in changes of seasonal flood and continuity of
the river and habitat systems. As the connection between The major cultured freshwater fish species that contribute
rivers and floodplains or backwater habitats is essential in to the total fishery production in the region include
the life history of many riverine fishes that take advantage Pangasius spp., Oreochromis spp., Labeo rohita, and
of seasonal floods and utilize the inundated areas for Clarias spp. Although aquaculture practices could
spawning and feeding, the loss or failure of such connection contribute to the increase in inland fishery production, it
can impact on the species biodiversity which could even could also generate impacts to inland fishery resources
lead to extinction of certain species. In addition to changes including the nutrient and chemical loads that cause
of water flow patterns, the construction and operation of eutrophication or mortality of aquatic animals in natural
large hydro-power electricity dams could also impact on water bodies. Meanwhile, the collection of wild seeds
the physical characteristics of the water such as drop of for aquaculture purposes could impact the natural fishery
upstream water temperature and dissolved oxygen, water resources and the introduction of non-indigenous species
stratification, sedimentation, accumulation of organic and could lead to changes in species diversify and genetic
inorganic substances including toxic substances. When diversity of certain areas. Moreover, the use of trash fish
upstream water is discharged, the impacts from such or fishmeal-based diets for aquaculture competes with the
physical phenomena could also affect the living organisms use of low-value fish for human consumption. Therefore,
in the long distance downstream waters. it has become imperative that these issues and concerns
should be taken into consideration in the development and
Therefore, in order to mitigate the impacts from large promotion of inland aquaculture.
dams, careful consideration should be given in the design
and operation of dams. For example, extracting water 2.2 Challenges and Future Direction
from depths where water quality parameters such as water
temperature and oxygen concentration of the discharged In several regional consultation processes, one of
water are similar to those in the downstream of the dams. the priority areas raised that need special attention is
Moreover, the operation of dams and discharge of water maintaining the connectivity of the habitats in order
should be synchronized with the biological rhythms to ensure the sustainability of inland fisheries. The
and requirements of the aquatic species inhabiting the construction of water alteration structures such as weirs,
dams. This would require close coordination among the dams, roads, could create barriers to upstream and
concerned agencies especially those involved in electricity downstream migration of aquatic species, resulting in
generation, irrigation, and fisheries, while the construction possible diminishing, disappearance or even extinction of
of special and supplemental ‘balancing reservoirs’ species that migrate in upstream and downstream waters.
or ‘water regulating dams’ could help in preventing

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It is therefore important to conduct studies that aim to appropriately value the inland aquatic resources. Routine
investigate and mitigate the impacts of water barrier and non-routine data and information as well as data
construction and operation to the population of important collected through non-conventional methods such as fish
aquatic species in the ecosystems. Conservation and consumption survey, and local knowledge should also be
improvement of habitats favorable for the aquatic fully utilized for this purpose.
species such as establishment of fish conservation
areas or fishery refugia, artificial habitat improvement, Responsible fishing technologies and practices should
deployment of materials and shelters to create nursery also be promoted, with due consideration given to the
and feeding grounds for juvenile and broodstock, could sustainable utilization of the resources especially the
also be undertaken to enhance the populations of various highly abundant but short life-cycle species, and top
aquatic species. In addition to habitat conservation and predator species. To effectively harvest these species
rehabilitation, stock enhancement activities could be without creating impacts to the other non-targeted species,
practiced to improve fish yield particularly for areas where selective fishing gears and practices should be developed
the fishery resources had deteriorated and fallen below the and investigated as to their effectiveness and efficiency.
ecosystems’ carrying capacity. In an ideal case, stocking In this regard, consideration must be given to relevant
should consider the use of indigenous species or low ecological and biological parameters, and traditional
trophic species, with seeds produced specifically for the knowledge of local fishers in harvesting and utilization
purpose of stock enhancement. of the species. In order to reduce pressure to the inland
fishery resources and enhance the livelihoods of fishers
In using seeds produced from aquaculture for stock and the fishing communities, alternative fishery-related
enhancement, caution should be made as this approach livelihoods could also be introduced such as production
could create negative impacts on the biodiversity of of value-added products from the catch, promotion of
the ecosystem. Specifically in closed ecosystems such eco-tourism and recreational fishing, and aquaculture
as lakes and reservoirs, the impacts from stocking of including rice-fish culture.
hatchery-bred seeds are localized and thus, may not be
very substantial. However, the release of hatchery-bred In addition, participatory approach should be considered
seeds into natural open habitats could result in irreversible and promoted for the effective management of inland
damage to the broad ecosystems, which could include fisheries. This could include the concepts of co-
loss of biodiversity where exotic species could dominate management, community-based fisheries management,
over the native species or loss of genetic diversity of the and rights-based fisheries as appropriate as well as
species. In general, releasing hatchery-bred seeds should the Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries (EAF). Where
be undertaken in a precautionary manner. Since the nature appropriate, such schemes as granting of fishing rights,
of inland fisheries and ecosystems are very diverse and application of fishery licensing and registration, could also
could be different from place to place, different approaches be promoted to replace open access with limited access to
should be considered in coming up with appropriate fisheries to ensure the effectiveness of the management
conservation and management measures for particular measures.
areas, taking into account the resources as well as the
relevant social and economic dimensions. In addition, Activities that aim to enhance the awareness of fishers
appropriate indicators should also be identified and used and other resource users of the inland water ecosystems
to evaluate the success of stock release and enhancement should also be undertaken, focusing on the need to
programs. conserve and manage the resources, adopt responsible
practices. Moreover, efforts should be exerted to enhance
Furthermore, considering the wide-range of stakeholders the involvement and participation of fishers in community
in the fishery and non-fishery sectors involved in the activities related to the resource conservation and
utilization of inland fishery resources and the ecosystems, management as well as in MCS activities, and ensure
integrated water resources management approach as the long-term sustainable utilization of the inland fishery
well as enhanced coordination and communication resources.
among the various agencies sharing the same water
resources should be promoted. This could prevent if 3. UTILIZATION OF FISHERY RESOURCES
not minimize the impacts of one to the other sector,
while the importance of inland fisheries should be made Fishing activities, fish utilization and post-harvest
known and publicized particularly for policy makers and technology in the Southeast Asian region are extremely
relevant management authorities in order to appropriately varied. While fishing activities could range from
mainstream the requirements of inland fisheries into the commercial to small-scale and from marine to inland
overall development plan of the countries. Data collection waters, and using modern and traditional capture
on inland fisheries should be enhanced in order to techniques, fish utilization and post-harvest technology

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depend much on the capability of a certain country, its between 30 and 45%) are converted into traditional
development and on how and where the fish species are products, and another varying percentage is used for direct
caught and processed. For marine capture fisheries in the feeds for livestock or high-value species aquaculture or
region, most of the fish caught is landed, and for most part, indirect feeds by converting fish to fishmeal or fish oil.
discards are negligible. This pattern of catch retention is These traditional labor-intensive fish-processing methods
different from other areas of the world which could be provide livelihood support to large numbers of people in
due to technological changes as well as economic and coastal or inland water areas in many developing countries.
marketing pressures particular to the Southeast Asian For this reason, such methods are structured to promote
region. High value fish is well looked after in this region rural development and poverty alleviation and are likely to
but low-value fish is not. Although all the fish landed is continue to be important components in rural economies
utilized but some volumes of low-value fish catch may (Kato, 2009).
contain juvenile fish of high-value species. In addition,
some high-value fishes could be reduced to low-value Improvements in processing, packaging, and distribution
fishes because of poor handling onboard the fishing have facilitated the movement of fish products from local
vessels. consumption to international markets (Yeap and Chung,
2011). The role of fish trade varies among the countries
Significant improvements in post-harvest technology of and represents a significant source of foreign currency
fish as food have taken place over the past decades, which earnings, in addition to the sectors’ role in employment,
is notable in major fish producing and exporting countries. income generation and food security. However, it has
Improved facilities include cold storages and ice plants as become imperative for the countries to address the issues
well as infrastructures for fish handling distribution and related to the requirements of consumers and importing
marketing, and techniques for improved fish handling countries in trading of fish and fishery products, which
onboard to maintain the quality of the catch while at sea. are getting more and more stringent. In the last decades,
Modern fish processing factories have been established in changes in global dietary patterns had become very
many countries mainly for processing high-value and high- notable with a shift towards more protein. This is brought
quality fish and crustaceans including tuna and shrimps as about by rising living standards, population growth, rapid
frozen, filleted or canned products, with increasing volume urbanization, increased trade and transformations in food
destined for export. Concurrently, many new fish products distribution. People in urban areas tend to eat out more
have been developed mainly for export although certain frequently, and large quantities of fast and convenient
quantities are available in local supermarkets in urban foods are purchased. Supermarkets are also emerging as
centers such as fish balls, fish cakes, imitation crab sticks, major force, particularly in developing countries offering
breaded squid rings, breaded fish or shrimp, fish crackers, consumers a wide choice of safe food with reduced
and other products (Goh and Yeap, 2007; Goh et al., 2008). seasonal fluctuation and availability. Supermarkets are
not only targeting the higher-income consumers but also
In the last two decades, the utilization and processing of lower- and middle-income clients. There is also a greater
fish products have significantly diversified, particularly focus on marketing with producers and retailers attempting
into high-value fresh and processed products, fuelled by to anticipate market expectations in terms of quality, safety
the changing consumer tastes and advances in technology, standards, variety, and value addition, especially for the
packaging, logistics and transport. Improved processing more affluent markets. It is in this aspect that consumers
technology generates higher yields and results in a more increasingly require high standards of food freshness,
lucrative products derived from the available raw materials diversity, convenience and safety, including quality
from fish for human consumption. Nonetheless, some of assurances such as traceability, packaging requirements
these developments have also been driven by the demand and processing controls.
in domestic retail industry or by a shift in cultured species.
Improved processing technologies are also important in the 3.1 Status, Issues and Concerns
utilization of fish wastes generated by the fish-processing
industry. 3.1.1 Onboard Post-harvest Technologies

Most of these improvements have revolved around high- Poor handling of catch onboard fishing vessels results
value or “luxury” fish and an industrialized fishery or in poor quality raw materials, particularly for low-value
larger aquaculture enterprises, and account for a small fishes. Currently, there are new requirements for exporting
portion of fish used for food in the region. Food fish, fish and fishery products that need to be complied with,
especially in rural areas, may come from small-scale particularly to the EU such as the requirements for
fisheries, aquaculture and inland fisheries. In the Southeast traceability of the products to ensure that fishes are not
Asian region, over 50% of fish is consumed fresh and/or caught by IUU fishing, as well as fulfill the requirements for
processed into high-value products, 8% to 65% (mostly food/fish safety. In addition, it has also become imperative

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for countries to address the issue of by-catch management the other hand, industrial vessels with better-trained crew
and reduction of discards. As noted earlier, most fish caught and proper equipment on-board should be better in terms
are utilized in the region but unfortunately, many fisheries of ensuring high quality catch, but the economic gains
in the region also capture ecologically important species of doing so must outweigh the gains of landing fish on
and juveniles of economically valuable species. Many low-value markets. As long as the low-value fish market
studies have been conducted to minimize post-harvest is vibrant, fishers will not exert much effort to improve
losses but issues other than the actual quantity of catch the overall quality of their landed catch. Thus, as far as
should also be considered as equally important, especially the quality of low-value fish destined for reduction is
the socio-economic impacts of utilizing by-catch instead concerned, the very low quality of raw materials would
of decreasing its capture. Furthermore, the quality and result in low quality of the fishmeal produced.
utilization of the catch should be improved, especially
the small fishes caught by trawl that turn into mush when 3.1.2 Onshore Post-harvest Technologies
landed and which could only be useful as aquafeeds, and
small fishes caught by gillnet, by converting such small Advanced post-harvest technologies have always existed
fishes into high-value traditional products. in many places and countries, particularly for export
oriented products and products destined for urban markets.
In fact, due to supply pressure and the expansion of Nevertheless, for small-scale fisheries, trading in inland
aquaculture, low-value fishes although giving low fish and fishery products has always been constrained
economic returns per fish could provide higher returns by lack of infrastructures especially in terms of hygienic
per volume landed, since low-value fish has a ready landing centers, roads, electric power supply, and
market in aquaculture areas and can be sold easily in potable water as well as facilities needed to establish and
many localities at higher prices. As reported, the money operate cold chains including ice plants, cold rooms, and
derived from low-value fishes is one of the main reasons refrigerated trucks, that often results in high post-harvest
why many fishing vessels continue to be economically losses, especially in the aspect of quality.
viable and remain stable in the fishing industry. Even if
the fishery catch comes from short-lived highly productive Small-scale fisheries contribute more than one-half of the
species, such fisheries could still be sustainable, except world’s marine and inland fish catch, and nearly all of this
when the catches contain large amount of juveniles of is used for direct human consumption. This sub-sector
economically important species. However, given the employs more than 90% of the world’s fishers and supports
many conflicting uses of low-value fish, it is difficult to about 3 times the number of fishers in jobs associated
envisage an appropriate management system that could with fish processing, distribution and marketing, and
optimize the utilization of low-value fish supply for human almost one-half of such workers are women. Moreover,
consumption and livestock/aquaculture uses without on the average, each jobholder provides three dependant-
giving due consideration to the catch of juvenile fish. or family member-ancillary workers. FAO studies have
indicated that fish landed for food provides 1.5 man-
Nonetheless, considerable amount of fish that could be years/MT of landed weight. Nonetheless, in spite of
marketed as higher value fish are landed as lower value the contributions of fisheries to the economy, poverty
fish because of poor handling on-board fishing vessels. As remains widespread for millions of fishing people, thus the
reported in Vietnam, such volume could come to about reasons which are complex must be tackled in many fronts
20-60% from offshore trawlers because of poor storage including strengthening the capacity of those working in
onboard the vessels. It is obvious that with high demand various jobs related to post-harvest and marketing.
and good economic gain from low-value fish, many
fishers could forgo the importance of and need for careful Inland fisheries could be special case because being
handling and chilling onboard fishing vessels. extremely small-scale, inland fisheries are usually very
individual labor intensive providing small incomes.
Even if it would be theoretically possible to improve the However, due to the large numbers of people involved,
products, lack of chilling equipment and necessary onshore this sub-sector provides significant contribution to rural
infrastructures limit the small-scale and artisanal fishing food security and income generation, and diverse set of
vessels from accessing the high-value urban or export livelihood benefits related to food security and poverty
markets. Hence, it is not always easy for the vessels to land alleviation especially to the poorest households in the rural
high quality products for the human consumption market sector. Inland fishery activities employ labor-intensive
without improving the infrastructures and such approach harvesting, processing and distribution technologies
would entail substantial costs. However, with proper conducted full-time or part-time, mostly supplying fish
handling on-board fishing vessels, landing and supply and fishery products to local and domestic markets as
of quality fish to local markets would still be possible, well as for subsistence home consumption. It has been
especially where fishing grounds are close to ports. On recorded that there are more people involved in inland

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fisheries than marine fisheries, of which more than 50% are of guidelines for handling live fish, conduct of baseline
women. Since inland fishers catch less fish per individual studies on post-harvest losses, continued work on the
than the marine fishers, inland fishery sector is therefore development of value-added products particularly for
a predominantly component of a mixed livelihoods low-value fish using low-cost methods as appropriate,
strategy. As a result, most of the catch goes for domestic investigating the quality and safety of freshwater fish,
consumption and most of the processing is done in small- conduct of training programs on post-harvest technology
scale or medium-scale units, where handling and hygienic which could be used by extension workers, and conduct
practices are often inadequate. Owing to the remoteness of training for both government and industry officers
and isolated nature of many inland fishing communities and workers on critical aspects of handling, processing,
and the high abundance of fish on a seasonal basis, large distribution and marketing in the fish supply chain, and
amounts of fish from inland capture are cured, and in the provision of cold chain at all levels.
Southeast Asian region, a significant portion of the catch
from inland fisheries goes into fishery products such as fish 3.1.3 Utilization of New Fishery Resources and
sauce and fish paste. In many cases however, food safety Waste Products
issues become a serious concern because the presence of
parasites in raw or slightly fermented fish or fish products, Post-harvest technological development has changed
or in products that have been improperly frozen, put the the utilization patterns practiced in the past especially
well-being of the consumers at risk. during the surimi era, where new products which are
equally important for food security in the future could
The stakeholders should therefore be made well aware that now be developed. However, efforts are still necessary on
live parasites could rarely stay alive in well-fermented fish, waste reduction and recovery, taking into consideration
and parasites do not usually survive when fish are properly the environmental impact of fish waste products. R&D
frozen. Addressing the above deficiencies requires activities could emphasize on the aspects of increasing
more capacity building and training in good hygienic by-product utilization for human consumption, alternative
practices, focusing more efforts on research work such use of waste products for bio-fuels, utilization of
as for example in systematic loss assessment to develop wastewater from production sources including from on-
sustainable loss-reduction strategies, and aspects related board facilities, and pharmacological use of by-products.
to live fish handling, and improved processing including Moreover, increased utilization of under-utilized species,
value addition. Many of the aforementioned facts also by-products, and recovery of wastes processing plants
apply to marine small-scale fisheries, particularly in should also be explored through continued research
countries that comprise large numbers of islands. Even on optimum utilization of under-utilized species.
if there are commercial and industrial inland and marine Furthermore, studies on waste reduction and recovery,
fisheries as well as modern small-scale fisheries, these sub- and environmental impact of fish waste products, and on
sectors should be made economically efficient especially by-product utilization, should be pursued.
in providing high-value products, that are meant for
international markets. Such scheme would often require 3.1.4 Traditional Products and Post-harvest
specialized catch preservation and distribution, and access Technologies
to markets.
Traditional fish processing is part of a “dual economy” in
In all aspects therefore, the promotion of value-added which traditional small-scale activities co-exist with the
technologies and improved traditional products should modern industrialized sub-sector. Traditional industry is
be intensified to foster demand, obtain higher economic characterized by the application of low-level technology,
returns and more fish and fishery products for human producing relatively poor quality and low-value products.
consumption, which could also include new non- Modern processing which includes proper icing of fish and
traditional products. It is also imperative to boost improved post-harvest handling had been developed in response to
packaging or marketing of traditional products to enable the growing export market and rising living standards,
such fishery products to gain access to high-end retail especially in urban communities and markets, with the
outlets and export markets. A number of activities needs technology which generally caters to the demand of
be done to alleviate the situation, including the need to importing countries. Generally, traditional processes
encourage governments through their respective national require minimal investments but products turned-over
development activities to improve fishery infrastructures should meet most of the domestic food needs. Hence, the
where appropriate. There is also the need to develop poor sector of society usually undertakes these activities,
guidelines for infrastructure requirements of small-scale many of which are women. Value adding in this aspect
fisheries especially in landing areas. Overall, efforts of the tends to be very small and such products are usually
governments should give more focus on the development inexpensive but are unable to enter world markets.

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Nevertheless, traditional products that are of good quality times have access to safe and nutritious food to maintain
would be able to access the urban and international a healthy and active life”. It is generally recognized that
markets, and command very high prices. Among the major the root cause of food insecurity is poverty, where people
problems in traditional products include poor quality and who are susceptible to food insecurity are predominantly
limited supply of raw materials because of the increasing those living in rural areas, especially in fishing and fish
competition for alternative use of raw materials. The farming communities. In Southeast Asia, majority of the
other problems are poor infrastructure and insufficient fisherfolks who are the primary producers of food fish, are
knowledge in processing and preservation technologies, as still underprivileged and live a very poor life. Eradication
well in packaging the products and the high costs involved of poverty and the maintenance of food security to ensure
in packaging. However, the biggest problem could be food for all are now being given high priority by almost
the large numbers of traditional processors that makes it all of the governments of the region.
difficult to deal with all of them on an individual basis.
For example, Indonesia alone turns over 6.4 million MT/ Trade is innate to fisheries, so that the moment a fisher
year of fishery products and exports 0.86 million MT/ has more than three or four fish for personal consumption,
year (mostly shrimp, tuna, and seaweeds), through some there is pressure to exchange the ‘surplus’ for money or
422 export processing plants. Another 59,345 registered other goods. Food security from fish has a direct and
traditional processing units take care of the rest of the indirect dimension to it. Fish as food on the plate, that
capture fishery products. is direct while fish as source of livelihood and income,
is indirect. Therefore, in assessing the food security
In some countries, fish processing centers or zones implications of fish trade and processing, these dimensions
have been established to facilitate the acquisition of the should be looked at considering the wide diversity of
necessary equipment, and to ensure that human resource fish. For example, some commodities like tuna and
development would be in place for packaging and other shrimps are for ‘luxury consumption’ while others like
relevant aspects in processing. In order to improve the anchovies and other low-value fish are for ‘nutritional
technological problems related to traditional products, consumption’. For direct food security issues, the latter
work on diversification of raw materials should be should be taken into consideration. Fish contributes
intensified to assess the different types of raw materials importantly to direct nutritional food security in countries
that can be used for the same traditional products as well where staple crop is particularly low in protein. Even a
as on different materials to generate ‘improved’ traditional small quantity of fish can contribute to increasing staple
products. There is also a need to enhance community consumption by improving its overall palatability and
cooperation in producing raw materials and endemic or adding micronutrients to its nutritive value. However, the
indigenous ingredients. Training programs on handling, need for food does not adequately translate fish into food
processing, distribution and marketing of traditional security because this need must be backed by effective
products at all levels should be conducted. The appropriate demand in the form of purchasing power, a factor which
methods of reducing insect infestations should be explored is lacking among many potential consumers of fish in
including the use of biological insecticides, and the use of developing countries.
non-food grade additives/preservatives. The development
of traditional and value-added products particularly Moreover, even if fish were accessible and affordable,
using low-cost methods should be investigated as well as there are other factors that limit food security. People living
improvement of the efficiency of processing equipment in adverse environmental surroundings that give rise to
and facilities, and promotion of the use of alternative poor health conditions cannot absorb such rich proteins.
energy sources. Finally, research on traditional and/or Therefore, people must have the ability to always access,
indigenous materials for packaging and use of modern afford and absorb the food they wish to eat, the three
technology to reduce the cost of packaging and better basic conditions that must be satisfied in order to achieve
preserve the products should be conducted. Governments genuine direct food security.
should be encouraged to establish fish processing centers
to reduce the costs of processing and packaging individual The relationship between fish trade and improved
traditional products. fish products and food security is more complex than
being thought of and is not necessarily always positive.
3.1.5 Post-harvest Technologies and Livelihoods Production of fish for the high value market can
substantially enhance the incomes of poor fishers, and
A very proper place to start discussion on this concern is to also raises their purchasing power to attain food security.
know the definition of food security. The most recognized However, in a country where fish is an integral part of the
definition is the one endorsed by the International culturally conditioned diet of the domestic population,
Conference on Nutrition (Rome, December 1992) which fish product improvement could reduce the direct food
states that it is “a state of affairs where all people at all security of the poor domestic consumers. In such cases,

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the demand is likely related to the inelastic price because no longer get fish as raw materials for their traditional
if supply is less than the effective demand by even a very processing activities because of their inability to pay for
small margin, the price of fish would sharply increase. the high price offered to fishers by alternate processors.
This can lead to undesirable nutritional consequences This results in loss of income and food security for these
especially for the poor fish consumers. Therefore, such groups of women. Furthermore, the perspective of the
product improvements would still have an adverse impact general consumers on food security could be detrimental
on food security for this segment of the population. to the food security of poor consumers. Many consumers
perceive that as export trade and value adding increases,
There are several issues concerning the production and the volume of fish available for local consumption would
use of low-value fish in relation to food security. Firstly, decrease, which could be valid. However, contextualizing
the continued expansion of aquaculture in the Southeast this within the real situation of a country, could give
Asian region which is dependent on the low-value fish different scenarios with different winners and losers, and
from capture fisheries for feeds. Although the use of low- thus, there is a need to analyze further such perception.
value fish as direct feeds or for the production of fishmeal
for aquaculture is economically viable, which is reflected Lastly, it is a fact that improved quality, technological
in the increasing prices of low-value fish, there is also an innovations, value-adding, national marketing systems,
increasing conflict between the use of low-value fish for and aquaculture as well as regional and international trade,
feeds and for human consumption. This demand from are bound to increase in the future. Although such situation
aquaculture makes the price of low-value fish higher than could contribute greatly to food security, but just the same
the price that traditional fish processors could afford in the gains could be skewed to the left or to the right. In
order to generate processed products that many consumers one way, these could enhance food security and on the
can afford. Even if it has been argued that it would be more other, could reduce food security at the same instant for
efficient and ethical to divert more of the limited supply different segments of the population. Therefore, it is only
of low-value fish for human food through value-adding, through poverty reduction programs that the situation of
because the low-value fish as food for domestic consumers the poor segments of the society could be improved. Many
is more appropriate than supplying fishmeal plants for governments and organizations have been undertaking
export, the income oriented aquaculture industry has to programs to activate rural fisheries communities and
produce high-value commodities for the export market improve their economic status. SEAFDEC for example,
to improve the economies of the countries. Meanwhile, had introduced an approach through a program known as
improving the abilities of poor people to generate income “One Village, One Fisheries Product” (FOVOP), which
can also increase food security especially that large called for fisheries communities to identify a unique and
numbers of people are employed in both fishing and differentiated traditional product, and develop a marketing
aquaculture activities, and thus would eventually get the strategy for such product. However, it was established
beneficial effects. However, most value-added products are that such programs would not work without technical
directed for the higher income and not to the poor income assistance, infrastructure support, and in some cases
groups where low-value fish was supposed to supply them financial incentives. Other management systems such
with affordable fish for consumption. as the ecosystem approach to fisheries (EAF) has post-
harvest dimensions incorporated into the human aspects
Secondly, technological innovations, value-adding, and of the system and plays a role in determining the economic
improving the quality of fish have always been beneficial “push” and “pull” mechanisms in fishing activities, and
to the peoples and the economies but such measures would also in the social, economic and institutional aspects. Such
require funding in order to get the much needed products, factors should therefore be considered and should not be
and in the end there would be winners and losers. As a left out from any fishery management equation.
whole, a country could benefit through earnings from
export or by supplying more fish to the newly affluent Addressing these issues would need a number of activities
urban population while the fisherfolk and those engaged which could include many of the earlier recommendations
in processing such new products would also gain some as well as those related to marketing, namely: assessment
benefits. Value-adding creates employment especially to of the marketing strategies that promote fresh and
the young women who are engaged in these jobs and who traditional fish products in urban communities; finding
are from poorer rural areas where other job opportunities ways and means for rural communities to gain better
are scarce, thus, these new jobs could enhance the food market access for their products; promoting the FOVOP
security of many people. scheme, and developing products and marketing strategies
for this scheme; establishment of a joint platform to
In some countries, a significant number of women earlier improve international trade competitiveness of traditional
involved in fish processing for the domestic market products; harmonizing data collection and reporting
have already been adversely affected since they could systems for traditional products; and conduct of studies

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on the distribution and marketing of fish and establishing with respect to import requirements have developed,
the means of redistributing the benefits along the supply which should be dealt with to enable the industry to access
chain towards the primary producers. the export market, such as traceability and certification
of products for safety, sustainability, combating IUU
Additionally, there is a need to improve the use of fisheries, social issues, and environmental responsiveness
incentives/credit schemes to promote the industry and of products from sea, inland waters or from aquaculture.
alleviate poverty by: promoting greater access to credit Additionally, there are other issues that should be
for post-harvest activities and greater support for the addressed under the new requirements such as testing the
development of marketing cooperatives and/or the small waters and the products for contaminants, toxins, residuals
and medium enterprises (SMEs), particularly in fishing or for genetically modified organisms (GMOs).
communities as well as for FOVOP or similar schemes;
evaluating the incentives that would foster demand Meeting the requirements of the export market is also
for higher economic returns and more fish for human a food security issue considering that increased foreign
consumption; and investigating the ways and means for exchange contributes to the welfare of the country and
traditional processors to get better access to credit or to all workers involved in the industry through income
micro-credit schemes. In essence, the governments should generation. In the ASEAN Economic Plan, all ASEAN
as much as possible, decide and take action to alleviate food inspection agencies including fisheries would be
poverty and improve food security in their respective harmonized by 2015, but would require more work on
jurisdictions. the technical aspects of harmonization, specifically in
the harmonization and verification of laboratory testing
3.1.6 Post-harvest Quality, Safety and Control methodologies, laboratory procedures and practices,
Systems and developing Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) in the
Southeast Asian region. A system of proficiency testing for
Quality, safety and control systems are crucial to every regional laboratories should be developed, while additional
aspect of fisheries from capture to consumption, and apply work is still necessary to harmonize procedures between
to government and industry catering to both domestic and inspection agencies in the region, and establish equivalency
export markets. The whole industry needs quality and with inspection systems in importing countries. There are
safety management systems to operate, whether through also other certification issues especially those related to
intuitive knowledge or formal control system or something Halal and organic products. Recently, such harmonization
in-between. Governments generally operate fish inspection has been initiated under the ASEAN mechanism, although
and control systems through relevant agencies to ensure slowly, and addressing some of the foregoing concerns
that all products meet the export market requirements, but could support efforts in achieving the goal in a shorter time.
most agencies do not have much control over domestic
production except those agencies that take charge of Safety of domestic fish products is vitally important to
controlling the areas of supply to export processing plants. food security by ensuring that consumers eat safe products.
During the last decade, much work has been done in
Several government agencies including fisheries, health, adapting HACCP to SMEs that export traditional products
commerce and trade, state, municipal, and local authorities and to develop improved operating practices for domestic
are currently providing services related to the safety and SMEs like the Traditional Processing Establishments
quality of fish products. However, in some countries there (TPEs) and Pre-Processing Establishments (PPEs) by
is still lack of coordination among the relevant agencies, incorporating Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) and
thereby creating confusion, and setting conflicting Standard Sanitary Operating Practices (SSOP). At this
standards and carrying out duplicating roles because point of time, it is not yet practical to apply HACCP to
different procedures are applied in different areas of these industries, but instead GMP/SSOP should be applied
responsibilities of the different agencies. since it is a prerequisite to HACCP. Up till now, the
implementation of GMP/SSOP is still inadequate in source
Furthermore, importing countries are becoming more suppliers, processors, and transporters due to high costs
and more demanding in their requirements. In the involved and lack of encouragement and support even if
beginning, importing countries require exporters to meet there is the need for its implementation to be fast-tracked.
only the safety requirements under the World Trade The aquaculture industry has also been confronted with
Organization’s Agreement on the Application of Sanitary problems due to the inability of small-scale producers to
and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS Agreement) through meet the quality requirements of foreign consumers.
verification of industry’s Hazard Analysis and Critical
Control Point (HACCP) control systems, which can be Some other major issues concerning international trade in
audited by the concerned governments. While adapting fishery products in the past biennium, and which continue
to a new global trade environment, new emerging issues to affect international trade include the introduction of

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private standards such as those for environmental and private certification schemes could be incorporated into the
social purposes which have been endorsed by major national or regional certification management mechanisms;
retailers; certification of aquaculture in general; concern and providing a platform for the sharing of information
of exporting countries about the impact on their fish among the countries in the region on the implementation
exports due to the introduction in 2010 of new traceability of harmonization activities within the fisheries sector.
requirements in EU markets; process and margins Lastly, there is also the need to improve internal regulatory
throughout the fisheries value chain; the need to enhance control systems and technical manpower by developing
competitiveness of fish products compared with other National Plans of Action in conjunction with the need for
food products; and perceived risks and benefits from fish coordination and control of all aspects of fish handling,
consumption. For some products and in some countries, processing, distribution, and marketing, by all regulatory
requirements for traceability systems do exist, because agencies; and encouraging the recruitment and training of
many of these systems are privately adopted and are not quality management personnel.
all-inclusive. However, there is a need for the varying
systems to be harmonized within a country and in the 4. FISHERIES MANAGEMENT
Southeast Asian region. In view of the strengthening of
the requirements of retailers for selling fish in developed In the Southeast Asian region, there is a growing problem
countries, private standards and certification schemes in of overfished fish stocks and excessive fishing capacity,
fisheries and aquaculture are becoming significant features which could be a result of the number of fishing vessels and
in the international fish trade and marketing. increased efficiency of fishing technologies. This together
with high levels of Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated
Nonetheless, the proliferation of these standards and (IUU) fishing are generally recognized as important
schemes causes confusion on the part of consumers and factors that obstruct all efforts of the region to conserve
producers, therefore, a mechanism for judging the quality and maintain fish habitats and stocks for long term
of the schemes is necessary. Overall, traceability systems sustainability. MRAG (2009) estimated that the global
that could be applied to the whole supply chain for the economic impact due to IUU fishing could be between
region should be developed and which could include US$ 9 billion and US$ 24 billion annually or about 11
regulations, enforcement systems, and certification million MT and 26 million MT of fish. Attempts have been
management mechanisms. seriously made by countries in the Southeast Asian region,
in seeking ways to improve fisheries management with the
3.2 Challenges and Future Direction objective of reducing IUU and destructive fishing activities.
The number of important international instruments,
In summary, a number challenges need to be worked binding or voluntary that have been developed and agreed
out in order to address the aforementioned issues. These upon globally are providing guidance to countries on
could include the development of training materials, what measures to take and restrictions to apply in order
conduct of training programs for trainers, and training to achieve sustainability in resource utilization. Such
of the industry in the implementation of GMP/SSOP; important conventions and other instruments include the
and investigating the ways and means for the industry to 1982 UN Law of the Sea Convention (UNCLOS 1982),
access to funds for the incorporation of GMP/SSOP in their the United Nations Fish Stocks Agreement (UNFSA), FAO
activities. In addition, there is also the need to improve Compliance Agreement 1993, 1995 FAO Code of Conduct
the methodology for traceability and capacity to deal for Responsible Fisheries, and the 2009 FAO Agreement
with new emerging export requirements by investigating on Port State Measures.
the various traceability systems that currently exist,
and develop a mechanism to harmonize such systems 4.1 Management of Fishing Capacity and
at the national and regional levels; and investigating Combating IUU Fishing
new emerging issues, and finding the ways and means
of incorporating these into the harmonized certification In response to the global requirements and the rapidly
management mechanism. There is also the need to increasing regional concerns to enhance sustainable
harmonize the inspection systems and standards in the exploitation of fishery resources, senior officials and other
region by: investigating the certification and accreditation decision makers of the ASEAN countries have increasingly
issues related to Halal and organic products; continuing strengthened their commitment to improve management of
the promotion of the ASEAN laboratory accreditation fishing capacity and efforts to combat Illegal, Unreported
system, developing methodologies and mechanisms for and Unregulated (IUU) fishing. The issue on management
proficiency testing, and promoting GLP; continuing the of fishing capacity and combating IUU fishing has been
process of harmonizing food/fish inspection systems and seriously addressed by the ASEAN Sectoral Working
standards for common products; building capacity in risk Group on Fisheries (ASWGFi), the ASEAN Fisheries
assessment and its implementation; investigating how Consultative Forum (AFCF), the SEAFDEC Council,

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and the RPOA initiative to combat IUU fishing (based in in registering all fishing boats, issuing fishing licenses
Indonesia), as well as in the “Resolution and Plan of Action and collecting data concerning their fishing activities
on Sustainable Fisheries for Food Security for the ASEAN in accordance with the modified method for countries.
Region Towards 2020” (SEAFDEC, 2011b) recently The SEAFDEC Council during its annual meetings in
adopted by the Ministers and Senior Officials during the 2009 and 2010, therefore recommended SEAFDEC to
ASEAN-SEAFDEC Conference in 2011. collaborate with FAO and look at the elements needed to
improve fisheries management, to control fishing effort
In addition to the afore-mentioned regional initiatives, and to combat IUU fishing by addressing the issues on
there have also been emerging trade-related measures fishing capacity, as well as vessel registration and record.
and requirements aiming to combat IUU Fishing and It is also envisaged that the establishment of good and
enhance responsible fishing practices, among which is systematic schemes for the registration of fishing vessels
the the European Council (EC) Regulation No. 1005/2008 and issuing of license would allow countries in the region
which established a community system to prevent, deter to come up with more reliable data and information on the
and eliminate IUU fishing, and the FAO Legally-binding actual fishing effort, which could further serve as a basis
Instrument on Port State Measures (PSM). The EC for the development of appropriate policy and management
Regulation aims to restrict the importation to EU and measures to ensure sustainable fisheries in the region.
between EU Member Countries of fish and fish products
that originate from IUU fishing, and the requirements However, the situation in the Southeast Asian region is very
are in conformity with the FAO/PSM Agreement. In complicate due to the fact that several hundred thousands
response, countries in the region have developed their of boats are small and artisanal fishing boats, and are
respective regulations and systems/mechanisms not only scattered along the coasts and in villages or landing sites.
to combat IUU fishing but also to meet the standards and Furthermore, the fishing gears and practices used by these
requirements for trade of their fish and fishery products to boats could also be very flexible and change according
these international markets, as well as within the region. to the seasonality and abundance of target species.
Although most countries in the region have implemented
In line with the initiatives in combating IUU fishing, in fishing vessel registration and licensing systems, but the
2010, SEAFDEC also organized an Expert Consultation degree/methods of registration and licensing could be
on Managing Fishing Capacity to Combat IUU Fishing varied, and the systems mostly focused on large-scale
in Southeast Asia, where the Member Countries and commercial fisheries. Different countries also apply
identified elements for sustainable fisheries management different definitions/classifications of fishing boats and
and controlling fishing efforts to combat IUU fishing registration format, which are difficult to change or
in the Southeast Asian region. Some of the specific harmonize among countries.
recommendations included the promotion of vessel record
and inventory as inputs to information sharing; fishing In addition, note should also be taken that countries in the
vessel registration and fishing license (vessel, gear and region have different laws, regulations and agencies that
people) and institutional and legal responsibilities including are authorized to undertake vessel registration and fishing
safety at sea aspects; catch documentation schemes to licensing. In some countries, e.g. Malaysia, Vietnam, only
register catches (e.g. log books); port monitoring to one agency is responsible for registration of fishing vessels
include landings by vessels from neighboring countries; and issuance of fishing licenses; while in some other
certification schemes to address the range of items that countries, e.g. Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia,
need to be certified by whom and how (e.g. catches, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand,
landings, environmental, social and labor aspects); there are more than one agency involved in the process.
development of MCS Networks based on the existing However, the purpose and mandate of these agencies
initiatives in the sub-region of Southeast Asia to be linked are generally different, e.g. the fisheries-related agency
with the Regional Plan of Action (RPOA) to Promote is responsible for regulating and ensuring sustainable
Responsible Fishing Practices (including Combating IUU fisheries management, while other agencies may focused
Fishing) in the Region as well as with the efforts of the on other aspects such as safety at sea standards, pollution
ASEAN and SEAFDEC. controls, etc. In some countries, the authority to register
smaller vessels even rests with the local government or
4.1.1 Fishing Vessel Registration and Fishing other local bodies such as the local government unit in
Licensing the Philippines or the local People’s Committee in the
case of Vietnam.
In order to ensure that the fishing effort be regulated at
acceptable level and enhance sustainable exploitation of During the Expert Consultation organized in 2010,
the fishery resources, the FAO IPOA-IUU specified one discussion was also made on the necessity for countries
of the responsibilities of Flag State and Coastal State in the region to strengthen their fishing vessel registration

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and licensing system. However several countries to recognize the extent to which the mandates are divided
expressed their difficulties in recording fishing vessels between different agencies to handle fishing vessel
and registering the fishing boats due to the inadequate registration and the process of issuing licenses to fish,
number of officers, the lack of stakeholder’s cooperation, and examine the possibility of having only one agency to
and the insufficient budget and financial support to handle both systems to simplify the process. Nevertheless,
undertake the required tasks. In addition, there have also irrespective of the system, linkage and cooperation among
been inadequate information and communication from the agencies concerned should be strengthened.
responsible agencies to enhance the understanding and
knowledge of fishing boat owners and other stakeholders In addition to the efforts and initiative as mentioned above,
on fishing vessel registration and licensing and encourage there is also a new global initiative initiated by FAO to
boat owners to register their boats or obtain appropriate combat IUU fishing activities, known as the FAO Global
licenses. The Consultation therefore recommended that, Record (GR) of Fishing Vessels, Refrigerated Transport
at the national level, governments should provide various Vessels and Supply Vessels which was designed to include
forms of incentives for fishing boat owners and fishers the provision of unique vessel identification (UVI). The
who apply for registration; establish routine mobile units implementation of GR is expected to move ahead in steps,
with designated officers for fishing boat registration starting with vessels larger than 100 Gross Tonnage (GT)
and fishing licensing especially in the distant areas; and gradually, to include the smaller vessels. The UVI is
and establish national data record center responsible aimed to increase transparency making it more difficult
for collecting data from relevant local offices in the and expensive for those who would attempt to operate
country; while stakeholders’ participation throughout the fishing vessels illegally. Although the implementation of
processes of fishing boat registration and fishing licensing the FAO GR is at this stage on voluntary basis but in the
and awareness raising activities should be enhanced. In future it could be declared a global requirement in order
addition, at the regional level, a regional network should to monitor IUU fishing activities. It is therefore necessary
be established to promote the sharing of knowledge and for countries in this region to improve their respective
information on effective fishing boat registration and fishing vessel registration system to be able to comply with
fishing licensing; and a regional data center should also the requirements that may emerge in the future including
be established to facilitate compilation and exchange of those of the FAO/GR.
data collected by the national data record centers.
4.1.2 Catch Documentation including Logbook
In line with the above recommendations, attempts had been Systems
continuously made by SEAFDEC in collaboration with the
Member Countries to strengthen cooperation especially in The increasing concern and awareness of consumers on
the development of mechanisms for information sharing safety and quality of fish and fishery products led to the
among agencies responsible for the registration of fishing growing number of requirements to ensure good food
vessels and those that grant the licenses to fish. However, it quality standards. The requirements include compulsory
is necessary to make a clear distinction between a “vessel measures to verify the good quality and environmental
registration” in accordance with the International Maritime responsibility of the fishery industries and market
Organization (IMO) and international standards, which organizations through various certification schemes
allow a vessel to fly a certain flag, and a “record of fishing to ensure acceptable standards for international and
vessels” that have or have not or need not have any fishing regional trade in support of responsible and sustainable
license. The existence of such limitation made it difficult fisheries. The FAO PSM Agreement and the requirements
for the countries to promote the collection and compilation of EC Regulation No. 1005/2008 imply further that the
of information on registration and licenses, especially in fishery products intended for export especially through
countries with divided institutional responsibilities. It international or regional trade should have verifiable
is therefore necessary to develop a Regional Standard catch documentation. Under the requirements, producers
for vessel inventory, which could include information should be able to certify the origin, quality, sustainability,
on safety requirements since such information could be legality of production, production methods including
referred to when the need arises especially in the aspect treatment of labor force, and social equity among people
of preventing accidents at sea and implementation of involved in the fishery production. These requirements
rescue schemes. are increasingly well recognized among the countries in
the region as could be seen in the “Resolution and Plan
In addition, it was also recommended that legal provisions of Action on Sustainable Fisheries for Food Security
and requirements of the countries should be reviewed for the ASEAN Region Towards 2020”. The main
to assess their legal and institutional arrangements for emphasis in the context of catch documentation is to be
providing support towards the development of national able to “validate” that the information contained in the
systems for registration and licensing. It is also important documents are reliable. Since countries should now take

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the opportunity and consider market-based measures as legislations. Nevertheless, in order to verify the legal
tools to promote their products, combating IUU fishing status of fishery products landed in the ports of the region,
should be continuously pursued including the promotion of practices and procedures for port monitoring and port
certification and labeling schemes including the processes inspections should be developed to ensure that these meet
to validate the information provided. The promotion of international standards as well as the aspirations of the
“branding” could also be initiated as a cost-effective option ASEAN Community development and the development
to promote products that are produced legally based on of the ASEAN Economic Community which envisioned
environmentally and socially sound practices. to promote increased trade among the ASEAN countries.
Therefore, it is crucial for the Southeast Asian region to
The validity of registration documents and licenses have efficient and reliable port monitoring/inspection
including documents on crew members, are among the mechanism that would ensure the sustainability of marine
basic documents to be provided at fishing ports together resources and maintain sustainable trade as well as combat
with the catch documents. These documents will also be IUU fishing.
scrutinized during port inspection with, among other things,
the objective of combating IUU fishing. Considering that In establishing and enhancing port monitoring mechanisms,
some countries in the region are much more far ahead and it is necessary to strengthen the cooperation among
advanced in initiating the implementation of processes to all relevant sectors and institutions, as well as among
register fishing vessels and to issue licenses to fish (vessel, neighboring countries. It is important to recognize
gear and people), the September 2010 Expert Consultation that during port monitoring, local and foreign vessels
suggested that the experiences of such countries could are monitored to be able to validate and support the
be shared with other countries in support of the efforts increasing requirements for catch traceability and other
to update and modify their respective registration and documentations. In facilitating the process, support should
licensing systems. be provided to countries by building upon their existing
well-managed ports to be developed as a model for the
4.1.3 Port Monitoring and Port Inspection country and establish protocols relevant to the laws and
regulations of each country. Furthermore, landings by
The importance of fishing ports and landing sites to control vessels in neighboring ports require special consideration
and monitor catch has been increasingly recognized. All in the process of validation of the legal status of landed
countries involved in marine fisheries need to seriously catches, especially with regards to artisanal fisheries as
consider their responsibilities with respect to monitoring indicated in the PSM Agreement. Initially, this could be
of catches at their ports and landing sites as an essential followed up in relation to cross-boundary relations with
part in support of effective fisheries management. In 2009, regards to areas such as in the Gulf of Thailand between
the FAO Agreement on Port State Measures to Prevent, Cambodia and Vietnam, Cambodia and Thailand and in
Deter and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated the area between Malaysia and Thailand. Similar efforts
Fishing (PSM Agreement) was approved as a legally should be explored for border areas in the Andaman
binding instrument with the main objectives of preventing Sea, such as between Myanmar and Thailand and in the
illegally caught fish from entering international markets southern part between Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand.
through ports and addressing the role of port states in Therefore, close cooperation should be enhanced among
preventing IUU-caught fish at landing sites, in ports and on the countries in the Southeast Asian region and around
transshipment vessels which are being considered as first sub-regional seas where countries share common interest
“port”. The PSM Agreement was opened for signature until in sustaining the benefits derived from productive fisheries
21 November 2010 and would enter into force 30 days after and eventually effectively combat IUU fishing.
depositing the 25th instrument of ratification, acceptance,
approval or acceptance with FAO. As of 15 August 2011, Ideally, port monitoring should include all fishing ports
only 23 states became signatories to the Agreement with and landing sites, district and provincial, bearing in mind
Indonesia as the only Southeast Asian country signatory, the places where fishery products are landed, which are
although Myanmar had acceded to the PSM Agreement considered as important and critical control points. Good
based on information from the FAO Legal Office. port monitoring and port inspection is not only important
to combat IUU fishing but is needed to control the quality
The PSM Agreement highlights the role of the port State of fishery products passing through the ports. In this
in the adoption of effective measures through effective regard, control of the socio-environmental standards of
port monitoring and stringent inspections as needed the ports is necessary since it is through the catch and
from time to time, to control the legality of catches being landing documents provided at the ports and landing sites
landed. As an important step towards complying with the that the relevant authorities could appropriately assess the
EC Regulation, the PSM Agreement could set an example country’s earnings in terms of taxes and other revenues.
on how the principles could be incorporated in national Presently, port monitoring in the Southeast Asian region

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is basically or primarily done to monitor the management and on how advanced the systems used in the country
of ports and landing sites without putting much focus on could be. While generally monitoring may not be well
systematic monitoring and validation of catch documents developed, in some countries, control has been undertaken
and documents linked to the operation of the fishing through the use of Vessel Monitoring Systems (VMS)
vessels (e.g. registration, licenses, crew, other relevant for monitoring fishing activities within the respective
documents) as stipulated in the PSM Agreement. EEZs. Many countries also attempt to strengthen law
enforcement in order to improve fisheries management,
One critical challenge in port monitoring and inspection is but the effectiveness of such initiatives varies among the
to validate the legal status of catches from traditional small- countries. The high maintenance cost of surveillance assets
scale fisheries, which becomes even more “challenging” is a critical factor that contributes to the slowing down of
because verifying the origin of landings especially for the the development of MCS in the Southeast Asian region.
small-scale fishing boats in border fishing ports is a very
difficult task to undertake in view of the limited monitoring Therefore, as a result of the prevalent ineffectiveness of
efforts and no records of their catch. One possible solution national governance structures and varying MCS capacity
could be through the application of “cluster arrangements” to control fishery activities of national and foreign fishing
whereby authorities at the landing sites can verify and vessels as well as combat IUU fishing, the efficiency
validate the combined landings from a “cluster” of small of MCS could differ widely especially that regional
boats in accordance with national laws and ensure that structures to coordinate data collection and assessments
landings have been fished in a sustainable manner. As an to guide regional management are also lacking (Morgan
option, cluster arrangements could also be used to certify et al., 2007). While structures are being developed and/
products from small-scale aquaculture. With regards to or improved in the respective countries, the varying legal
artisanal landings across boundaries, Article 3, Para Part mandates and/or regulatory systems among the countries
b of the PSM Agreement provides the necessary guidance make it difficult to harmonize policies and legislations in
viz: “Each Party shall, in its capacity as a port State, apply fisheries. Limited efforts in data collection and compilation,
this Agreement in respect of vessels not entitled to fly its and varying levels and quality of existing research also
flag that are seeking entry to its ports or are in one of its make it difficult for managers to monitor and discern the
ports, except for (a) vessels of a neighbouring State that real status of the fishery resources. Moreover, relevant
are engaged in artisanal fishing for subsistence, provided government agencies, although not directly concerned with
that the port State and the flag State cooperate to ensure fisheries, e.g. environment authorities, national defense,
that such vessels do not engage in IUU fishing or fishing coast guard, customs, and immigration, should take part
related activities in support of such fishing”. in dialogues on matters relevant to determining priorities,
allocating resources and sharing of information for the
Another challenge is to be able to validate the legal development of MCS networks (Awwaluddin et al., 2011).
status of catches from areas where fishing vessels have
two flags and double registration that would allow them As a regional approach to the development of MCS
to operate in waters of two countries. Recording of such networks, common understanding should be created
catch becomes an issue because the catch might have including the perspectives on the new “requirements” that
been landed in ports which are most convenient for the highlights the importance of cooperation in MCS activities
best price of the day. Furthermore, institutional structures and efforts to combat IUU fishing. In the Southeast Asian
could actually obstruct all attempts to implement good port region, establishment of more “sub-regions” could be
monitoring since in most instances, a number of agencies pursued as these could form basis of cooperation especially
are involved with the fish landing and more often than in areas where countries have common interests towards
not, cooperation for sharing of information among such the development of MCS networks (SEAFDEC, 2010b).
agencies is very limited contributing to the hindrance for In this connection, the efficiency and effectiveness of
adequate enforcement. fisheries-related MCS activities should be improved
through enhanced cooperation and coordination, and
4.1.4 Monitoring, Control and Surveillance System improved information collection and exchange among
and Network national organizations and institutions responsible for
fisheries-related MCS activities. Moreover, cooperation
Effective monitoring, control and surveillance (MCS) should also be strengthened in the sub-regions involving
capability is a fundamental component of fisheries the ASEAN countries and as applicable, non-ASEAN
management which could strengthen all efforts to manage countries (e.g. Arafura-Timor Sea between Indonesia,
fishing capacity and reduce IUU fishing. However, for Timor-Leste, Papua New Guinea, and Australia). A
MCS system to be effective supportive legislation would number of regional, sub-regional and bilateral cooperative
be necessary. The MCS capacity of the Southeast Asia initiatives on MCS activities already exist in the Southeast
countries varies depending on the level of technology Asian region, which could be grouped into two categories,

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namely: a) joint patrol, and b) sharing of information, been highlighted (SEAFDEC, 2010b). To improve the
which provide clear contribution to capacity-building in effective cooperation on M, C and S, a synthesis should
MCS. Countries like Indonesia, Malaysia and Philippines, be developed on the common needs for each sub-region as
for example, have been involved in sub-regional initiatives basis for the development of MCS networks. The synthesis
or tri-lateral agreements to combat IUU fishing in the should take into consideration the legal and institutional
Sulu-Sulawesi Sea. Such initiatives include the “Marine opportunities or limitations embedded in the relevant
Eco-region Program” of WWF, the RPOA to promote legislations of each country.
responsible fishing, and the Coral Triangle Initiative.
The legal and institutional implications in developing
In addition, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore through an MCS network and in embarking on a regional
trilateral agreement, conduct regular collaborative cooperation would mean increased emphasis on port state
seaborne patrol activities under the MALSINDO program responsibilities and further pressure on flag states as basis
and the joint “eye in the sky” air reconnaissance program to for cooperation and information sharing. In the process of
combat IUU fishing in the Malacca Strait (Poernomo et al., facilitating consultative dialogue legal officers should be
2011). However, human and financial resources are critical involved in the process of regional cooperation considering
components of any MCS program. Even the capacity of that the countries have different laws and regulations.
MCS officers who are highly competent with high degree
of integrity and professionalism in the implementation of Lawyers and legal officers should help in assessing the
MCS still needs to be strengthened. Moreover, as another opportunities and limitations of the legal structure of
means of enhancing MCS, community-based fisheries each country to find out the common elements as basis
monitoring systems could be promoted as carried out for cooperation, including technical aspects reflected in
in Indonesia, where community groups undertake the national legislations. In order to adapt to rapid changes
observation at sea and land, and report to the proper based on new requirements including those required
authorities in their communities any suspected fishers and for the building of the ASEAN Community, countries
vessels conducting illegal fishing. should learn from each other’s experiences and exchange
information among countries in the region to facilitate the
4.1.5 Legal and Institutional Matters development of a structure that fits with national regulatory
and institutional frameworks that could be adapted to
In response to new international and regional instruments, common perspectives. Information-sharing should be
requirements and agreements, e.g. FAO PSM Agreement enhanced while capacity building should be continuously
and EC Regulation, safety and working conditions under promoted to improve institutional capacity.
the IMO and ILO Conventions, and ASEAN “Blueprints”
for building the ASEAN Community, it is necessary to 4.1.6 Future Direction
review the existing legislations, and the institutional and
legal structures of the ASEAN countries as the results In the Southeast Asian countries, being major producers
could form basis for dialogue and recognition of the of fish and fish products, efforts are continuously made
opportunities and limitations of such legal structures. Such to improve various aspects relevant to the management of
recognition is an important basis for the enhancement fishing capacity including efforts to reduce IUU fishing
of cooperation among institutions involved in fisheries in the region. Countries should now start looking beyond
and maritime-related activities. Since the characteristics international agreements and conventions on combating
of fisheries in Southeast Asia is very complex with IUU fishing, by taking suitable actions in support of
commercial, urban-based, a wide range of traditional improved management of fishing capacity, e.g. fishing
and small-scale vessels with multi-gear fishing activities vessel registration and licensing system, MCS, port
considered significant for the regions’ economies, it would monitoring, catch documents for fisheries management,
be a great challenge to look at the legal and institutional and control of fishing efforts in the region. However,
implications of the various instruments, requirements and considering national policies and procedures, there is a
agreements. It is therefore necessary that the countries need for capacity building and strengthening of relevant
should review their existing regulatory frameworks and institutions to enable the countries to implement the
as needed make certain adjustments to be able to improve abovementioned measures and requirements.
their respective fisheries management.
Furthermore, considering the ASEAN Community
During the 2010 Expert Consultation on Managing Fishing building which is envisaged to come into force by
Capacity to Combat IUU Fishing, the need to build up 2015, it is important to consider appropriate actions
personal and institutional capacity in all aspects especially to facilitate cooperation among neighboring counties
in terms of improving fisheries management and capacity, through bilateral and tri-lateral arrangements. Such
including port monitoring and MCS related matters had arrangements could strengthen and provide basis for more

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effective implementation of international instruments region. For in general, the amount of discards in Southeast
and agreements. To boost the regional approach and to Asia could be relatively small, considering the nature of
facilitate cooperation, options should be explored in finding small-scale fishery operations, but the increasing demand
common ground for the management of fishing capacity for aquaculture feeds encourages fisheries to land non-
and in enhancing efforts to combat IUU fishing in the edible small-sized catch.
region. Moreover, cooperation among such organizations
as the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), The collection of data to estimate the scale of discards
the Asia-Pacific Fisheries Commission (APFIC), Southeast might not be a priority issue for the Southeast Asian region.
Asian Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC), and the However, since collection of accurate data on discards
Secretariat of the RPOA to Promote Responsible Fishing requires enormous efforts and still might give unreliable
Practices (including Combating IUU Fishing), should be results due to the small volume, more practical and useful
enhanced in order to improve the working relationship with approach should be developed through the conduct of
the countries based on the respective on-going and planned appropriate research directed towards the development of
initiatives that would secure benefits for the countries and management actions to reduce discards. The first important
ensure the sustainable utilization of the fishery resources step that could be immediately undertaken by the countries
in the Southeast Asian region. is to identify the fisheries with discards problems through
research that focuses on the reduction of “by-catch” or
4.2 By-catch Reduction and Management “unwanted catch”.

At the international level, the term “discards” is frequently Under the present fishery regime, it may be difficult to
synonymous with “by-catch”, even considering that “by- convince fishers to be responsible in their operations
catch” is usually the main source of discarded catch in through the use of selective fishing devices or by-catch
many fishery activities, especially from industrial fisheries reduction devices such as the Turtle Excluder Devices
in the temperate countries. Since “discards” are generally (TEDs), and the Juvenile and Trash Excluder Devices
regarded as an important result of the negative impact of (JTEDs) which have been specifically designed to reduce
fisheries, various attempts have been made around the by-catch. Fishers should also be made aware that such
world to minimize “by-catch”. Unfortunately, the term devices are important for the development of practical
“by-catch” as used in tropical areas including the Southeast selective fishing methods which, in conjunction with the
Asian region, could result in misunderstandings about implementation of right-based fisheries, will eventually
fisheries of the region. The major part of fisheries in the minimize the “unwanted catch”.
Southeast Asian region can be categorized as small-scale
coastal operations exploiting a large number of tropical Considering that reduction of by-catch is a new initiative
species. Therefore, three factors could differentiate the in the Southeast Asian region, demonstrations on the use
fisheries in the region from those of the temperate zones. of JTEDs have been conducted in the region through
These are: (a) most fishery operations in tropical waters the SEAFDEC and FAO collaborative programs on
are small-scale and conducted from one to few days, Responsible Fishing Technologies and Practices, and By-
taking into account the economic value of the catch; (b) catch Reduction Technologies and Change of Management
by the characteristics of tropical ecosystem, individual (REBYC) which exhibit the rationale for the adoption of
species in tropical waters have relatively small stock JTEDs as technical tool and as platform to initiate other
size compared with those in temperate areas; and (c) the management measures. In order that the adoption of
inherent flexibility of markets in tropical areas traditionally JTEDs in the region would be sustainable, the Southeast
handle a wide range of catch species each of which is Asian countries are encouraged to develop their respective
relatively in small volumes. national policies on the use of JTEDs and other selective
fishing devices or by-catch reduction devices.
Therefore, the international definition of “by-catch” could
be modified for it to be applicable to fisheries in Southeast 4.3 Community-based Fishery Management
Asia, but should not be understood as source of discards. Approach in the Southeast Asian Region
Thus, for the Southeast Asian region, “by-catch” could be
associated with the target catch although such term is not Fisheries in Southeast Asia are complex and any one
used in all fisheries in the region and “by-catch” could be single community-based fisheries approach may not
used for industrial fisheries. However, a more appropriate be applicable, although it has been recorded that co-
working term for by-catch in the region could be “unwanted management approach has been progressing well in
catch” or “trash fish” which comprised the low- and no- Malaysia, Thailand and Cambodia. The experiences of
value species, and under-sized commercially valuable these countries indicate that effective and well-defined
species. Another major issue that should be addressed is partnerships of NGOs and government take some time
the estimation of the scale of discards by fisheries in the to establish, while the fisher groups or community

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organizations need encouragement from the government regulations with minimum advice and assistance from
and NGOs to adapt sustainable fisheries management. the government.

The region’s fisheries could be considered as among the Organized fishers groups are the central elements in
most productive and biologically diverse resources in co-management intervention with local institutions as
the world, where more than 300 million people depend important prerequisites for effective co-management,
significantly on fish as source of protein (SEAFDEC, because these institutions are to make decisions and
2001) although approximately 35% of the people live undertake collective actions (Kalikoski et al., 2002; Noble,
below the poverty line (Pomeroy and Viswanathan, 2008). 2000). The participation of fishers and other stakeholders
The region’s fishery resources had been known to be reduces the negative economic, social and cultural impacts
depleted due to increased fishing pressure, unregulated that are traditionally borne by the fishing communities
fishing efforts, continued use of destructive fishing (Lane, 2001). Pomeroy and Ahmed (2006) cited that
methods such as mechanized push-net, trawlers, cyanide the potential benefits of co-management could include
and dynamite seriously destroying the fish habitats and a more open, accountable, transparent, and autonomous
reducing the fish stocks. It has been reported that over management process which is more economical as it
the past 40 years, the standing fish stocks in the Southeast requires less cost for administration and enforcement. In
Asian region have been reduced to less than one-fourth of the process of co-management, community awareness
their former levels (Pauly et al., 2002; Pauly et al., 2005). should be enhanced through information, training and
The current fishery crises therefore pose critical threat to education, allowing local communities to share power
sustainable fisheries and the livelihoods of millions of with political and economic elites and government
people who depend on these resources especially those agencies. The social unity among fishers groups in local
living in the coastal areas. communities should be improved in order to minimize
social conflicts. Effective co-management framework is
The fishery management system that has been practiced usually envisioned to generate benefits for the resource
in this region through the years had been unsuccessful in users and local communities’ conservation efforts, and
managing the fishery resources. It has been recognized that subsequently under the co-management arrangement,
fishers must take active part in the fishery management poverty and resource degradation could be reduced (Brown
system and the current top-down and centralized et al., 2005).
system must be reviewed and subsequently changed to
better management systems. Co-management has been Generally, community organizations in the Southeast
considered an alternative approach for the management Asian region are rather weak especially in the aspect of
and exploitation of the fishery resources. Specifically, co-management, which could be because co-management
Community-based Co-management (CBCM) is a people started to develop in Southeast Asia only in the early
centered, community oriented, and resources-based 1990s. Pomeroy (1998) found out that few groups of
partnership approach in which government agencies, fishers in the Philippines had opted to either formally
the community of local resource users, NGOs, and other organize or seek to implement institutional arrangements
stakeholders share the responsibility and participate in on their own. In the village organizations in Lao PDR,
the decision making for the management of the fisheries there are no specific local organizations that focused on
(Kuperan et al., 2003; Berkes et al., 2001; Pomeroy, 2001; resource management.
Pomeroy and Williams, 1994; Sen and Nielsen, 1996; Nik
Mustapha et al., 1998). 4.3.1 Issues and Concerns

The ultimate goal for co-management is to empower Various initiatives on co-management have been
fishers in the expectation of better management (Kuperan undertaken by the Southeast Asian countries, but the
et al., 2003). Meanwhile, Community-based Fisheries scale for co-management arrangements varies a great deal
Management (CBFM) is a process by which the substantial in terms of people, ecology and level of management.
role for fishers in management of the resources they Fisheries are considered common pool resources and
depend on is enhanced within a framework of government characterized as open access. Traditional top-down
support. Co-management is not an end point because it management approach could not provide incentives to the
is a process by which the relationship among the parties fishers to reduce fishing effort. Therefore, there is a need
concerned is constantly changing. However, there is a to address the important issues in co-management which
hierarchy of co-management arrangements where the include: unclear property rights, undefined role of NGOs,
fishers are initially consulted by the government, but later homogeneity characteristics of communities, poverty in
on, when regulations are introduced fishers are involved fishing communities, and sustainability of co-management.
in designing, implementing, and enforcing laws and

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The main problem in fisheries management generally most successful in organizing the poor. In the Philippines,
lies among the fishers themselves because of unclear a CBFM program started with a small aquaculture project,
property rights over the fishery. Although property rights which had expanded through the help of local NGOs
arrangements exist, these are complex where fishers and and local government. Similar lessons learned about the
community members have generally low motivation to importance of NGOs in fisheries co-management have
contribute to community fishery. Without seeing any also been documented in Thailand.
tangible benefits, community members are unwilling to
invest time and effort in the management. Even if fishers It has been observed that communities that are homogeneous
recognize that community management can reduce are more likely to establish effective community-based
illegal fishing which is attributed to the establishment fisheries management. There are many communities in
of the community fisheries, but it is still unclear to them Thailand, Indonesia and the Philippines, where successful
whether community-based fisheries could really provide co-management was dependent on the high level of socio-
them benefits in terms of increased income from fishing. economic and cultural homogeneity of the communities.
Although local and municipal level governments could However, co-management project could also be successful
play active role in fisheries management, each country even in socio-economically and culturally heterogeneous
has their own different ways of handling problems communities, such as in the village of San Salvador in
related to legal authority of co-management institutions. the Philippines where co-management in fisheries has
The government’s role in granting legal authority is the been successful despite marked differences in ethnicity
basis for the ‘constitutional rules’ that determine who can and fishing gears. Fishing is an activity of last resort or
exercise legitimate local management functions which as a safety valve for the poor, i.e. people who fish for
include determining access rights to the resources. subsistence are already poor. However, at this point in
time, it might still be early to determine whether CBFM
The community fishery potentially offers the government could really have a strong role in rural poverty reduction,
a low-cost and effective means of improving compliance even if food security and poverty reduction had always
with rules and regulations, for example in banning of been the key agenda of the Southeast Asian countries.
illegal fishing gears. Considering that individual and The easy entry into artisanal fishing by the poor results
community empowerment is a central element of co- in the vulnerability of the aquatic resources to biological
management, empowering the communities would free and economic over-exploitation, making it impossible to
them from many bureaucratic requirements of government use the exploitation of resources as routes for people to
agencies. Based on some countries’ experience in co- get out of poverty.
management, NGOs have played very important role in
facilitating the establishment local co-management, by The sustainability of institutional arrangements under
focusing on building fisher community organizations that co-management arrangement is still to be determined.
can manage their fisheries through active interaction with Although it has become clear that establishing sustainable
the government. Although the involvement of NGOs in co-management in any one fishery requires some
establishing an appropriate co-management approach may time, meanwhile, the locally organized communities
not always be equal, it is expected that individual NGOs should be developed as sustainable organizations with
should not also be rigid to adopt their own approach legitimate decision making body to decide on the access
but should make limited modifications to fit with local and use of the fishery. Eventually, the fishers’ feeling of
circumstances. However, several NGOs have different ownership would automatically come through their active
approaches and in some cases, do not want to change their participation in the communities’ fishery activities. The
strategies and adjust to the local or project needs. most important factors that hamper the establishment of
CBFM are external forces such as threats and conflicts.
Based on the experience of the Philippines and other Improving the political will and commitment of the fishers
Southeast Asian countries, enhanced capacity building groups would be needed to counter the pressure from elite
strengthened the confidence and sense of empowerment groups, because when local but influential people and
of the resource users and partners, and NGOs have been politicians are involved with personal gains in mind and
the appropriate groups for organizing local communities. control the fishing rights, it would be difficult to solve
In Thailand, some NGOs network emerged and succeeded the problem. In the communities where political elites are
in organizing the local resource users. However, it has not included in the process or are opposed to the project
come to a point that co-management in Thailand is for some reasons or another, all interventions could not
heavily dependent on NGOs in terms of organizing local be sustained after the completion of any project. Since
communities and raising the awareness of community adequate financial resources is required in order to support
members on the aspect of resource management. A similar the co-management processes, oftentimes co-management
situation emerged in Bangladesh where the NGOs were projects which are initiated and funded by external

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financial sources fail when the project is completed due for its part has developed regional guidelines for all
to the inability of the local partners to continue funding Member Countries to formulate fisheries policy supportive
the activities. to co-management or community-based management
approach. From 2001 to 2009, co-management pilot
Co-management in the Southeast Asian Region projects have been implemented in Thailand, Malaysia
and Cambodia under the ASEAN-SEAFDEC collaborative
In Southeast Asia, co-management and community-based mechanism with support from the Trust Fund of the
natural resources management has started to develop Government of Japan (JTF). During the implementation of
through the initiatives of people, NGOs, government the pilot projects, the participating countries made certain
and international agencies, as ways of involving the adjustments in the CM approach to ensure its applicability
resource users in fisheries management. The history of in the concerned countries and sustain its implementation
co-management in this region shows a shift from CBFM to after the completion of the relevant funded projects.
co-management (CM). In the Philippines, natural resource
management had been top-down and non-participatory for The first pilot community-based fisheries management
centuries, and with its long history of traditional fisheries project was started in Thailand by its Department of
rights and allocation, community-based coastal resource Fisheries (DOF) with the involvement of local fishers and
management (CBCRM) was initiated in early 1980s. The other stakeholders. In Thailand, it has become necessary
country is now the only country in the region that has a to adopt the CBFM approach because commercial fishing
wide range of experiences in terms of CBCRM and co- vessels had been encroaching in the prohibited areas 3 km
management (Pomeroy and Carlos, 1997). Since the late from the shoreline and using destructive fishing gears.
1970s, the country’s fisheries was defacto open access and The main objective of the pilot project was to improve the
subjected to overexploitation but in 1975-1998, fisheries livelihoods of coastal fishing communities by reducing the
management had been implemented in accordance with fishing pressure. Many important activities were conducted
the Philippine Presidential Decree 704 series of 1975, under the project which centered on enhancing local
and in order to reduce fishing effort, licensing system was employment and income through capacity building and
introduced. Nonetheless, in spite of the number of laws and improved participation of local fishers in the management
regulatory frameworks for integrated coastal management of the coastal resources through sustainable utilization
that were introduced in the Philippines, none of these were and at the same time generate alternative income for
enforced properly (Eisma, Christie and Hershman, 2005). sustainable livelihoods. As part of the project activities,
fishers groups were organized and had been involved
In 1991, the Philippine Government recognized the need in fisheries conservation such as releasing juveniles,
to enhance the stakeholders’ participation in management establishing crab banks, installation of artificial reefs,
and to devolve control over resource access to local among others. This pilot project has been successful in
levels through policy and institutional reforms. Such managing fishing activities, monitoring, and enforcement
policy reforms included decentralization of authority, of regulations to combat illegal fishing.
strengthening of the enforcement of fisheries laws,
and promoting community-based initiatives. Thus, the The centralized fisheries management system provides
government transferred the management of natural limited scope for co-management of the fisheries in
resources to local fishing communities and municipalities Malaysia. Thus, the Locally Based Coastal Resource
under its Local Government Code (LGC). Thus, good Management (LBCRM) project was implemented in
prospects for co-management in the Philippines started Langkawi Island from 2001 to 2007, where a model
largely due to the changes in the political climate of Fishermen Economic Group was formed, and later
the country, specifically the move to delegate more this model group had been adapted in several fishing
responsibilities to local governments and NGOs involved communities in Peninsular Malaysia. Considering the
actively in community development (Nik Mustapha, nature of the functions of the group, it was later renamed
2002). Since then, over 180 CBCRM projects have in July 2007 as the Fishery Resource Management
been implemented by the government, NGOs, fishing Community. Therefore, the fisheries management approach
communities, as well as by the academic and research has moved towards a more holistic and ecosystem based
institutions. approach (SEAFDEC, 2009).

Evidences of the implementation of co-management have During the implementation of the LBCRM in Malaysia,
been increasing in Thailand, Malaysia, Cambodia, Lao all administrative and technical support was provided
PDR, and Vietnam. The governments of these countries are by the Department of Fisheries Malaysia (DoFM). Co-
exerting efforts in order to sustainably utilize the fisheries management approach was initiated in Kuala Teriang,
and improve the socio-economic conditions of small-scale Langkawi with the active participation of the staff of
fishing communities through the CM approach. SEAFDEC DoFM and members of the local fishing community.

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 SEASOFIA: The Southeast Asian State of Fisheries and Aquaculture 2012

The local people were actively involved in fisheries local administration to the Governor with the Community
conservation activities in the project area such as re- Fishing Area Agreement for approval. Under the co-
plantation of mangroves, installation of artificial reefs management project, the Community Fishers (CF) and
and selling fish-based food products. The institutional Local Enforcement Unit (LEU) were established in 2002.
arrangement for the project implementation was done with Although community management is a very new concept
the strong role of SEAFDEC and DoFM, while a fisheries in Cambodia compared with that the other countries in
resources management committee was formed under the the Southeast Asian region, the country has an excellent
supervision of the DoFM and Fisheries Development opportunity to practice sound community management
Board. The organized fishers group was able to prepare because the Cambodian Government encourages the
their own fisheries resource management plan (FRMP). fishers to be actively involved in community resource
However, there was a problem in the implementation of management.
the planned activities due to inadequate number of DoFM
staff in the project site (SEAFDEC, 2009). In Vietnam, communities are not yet regulated by the rule
of law, which is very important for sustainable resource
A traditional community-based approach had been use. The legal framework is not yet clear on how much
implemented in Sabah, East Malaysia over the past 20 the local government can be creative and proactive in the
years. Locally called tagal, the system prohibits fishing decision-making and planning of the local community.
by concerned communities in a river for a certain period. Based on traditional methods and practices along with
Since 2001, the Department of Fisheries Sabah (DoFS) the lessons learned and experience gaines, Vietnam could
has extended support to promote this approach in order have the real chance to implement successful community-
to conserve and protect freshwater riverine fisheries. As based management if the government would only remain
a result, more than 240 tagal fisheries groups have been highly supportive and would continue to encourage the
established in various locations in Sabah. The DoFS stakeholders to implement such scheme.
and local community had worked jointly in this co-
management project. Only local people with traditional 4.3.2 Future Direction
use rights are included in the tagal fisheries groups,
which have established fish sanctuaries and introduced Thus in the Southeast Asian region, community-based
restrictions on using fishing gears such as gill net in management and co-management arrangements in fisheries
particular fishing area in the river. Eco-tourism activities are considered as feasible options for bringing together the
have also been promoted very successfully in many tagal relevant levels of the government and users in pursuing a
projects. Although in general, the tagal co-management common set of goals to improve the resource and socio-
approach is promising, but in some areas this system has economic conditions of the communities. More than two
not been successful due to weak institutional arrangements decades of research have provided sufficient conclusive
and lack of enforcement. support for co-management and community-based
management as approaches for effective enforcement
In Cambodia, riverine fisheries are open access especially and equitable access for the poor and often voiceless
in the upstream provinces near the Mekong River Basin. fishers (Dey and Kanagaratnam, 2008). Nevertheless,
In 2000, the Royal Government of Cambodia, through in the context of small-scale fisheries in Southeast Asia
the Fisheries Administration (FiA) reformed the fisheries which is complex, one single community-based fisheries
policy of the whole country by empowering the local approach may not be applicable everywhere, considering
communities to manage the resources by themselves, that community-based co-management approach involves
known as the “community fisheries” or CF. However, the continuous consultation, negotiations, information
process of CF establishment and implementation varies sharing, and conflict management among stakeholders
and relies on the supporting organizations and government for the improvement of the existing management systems.
agencies. A co-management pilot project implemented
in 2005-2009 by the FiA with funding support from the 4.4 Habitats Protection and Coastal Fishery
Japanese Grassroots Level Aid, focused on community Resources Enhancement
organization, capacity building and empowerment of
local fishers in order to ensure their participation in the 4.4.1 Issues and Concerns
management of the resources and improve livelihoods
through alternative income earning opportunities. In the The coastal waters of Southeast Asia comprise a rich
process, the organized local community groups were ecosystem characterized by the existence of areas with
able to prepare their own Community Fisheries Area extensive coral reefs and seasonal up-welling, as well
Management Plan (CFAMP) which together with other as the presence of dense mangrove forests enriched
related documents such as Internal Law, By-Laws, and with nutrients from land. These areas are critical to
the community fisheries zoning map were endorsed by the a broad range of aquatic organisms during their life

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cycle from breeding, spawning, nursing and growing, resources. However, note should be taken that the use of
hosting the feeding zones of aquatic species that are ARs can result in positive social and economic benefits
economically important, and serving as important source if fishing effort is regulated, but it could result in further
of recruitment of a wide diversity of fish species. In view overfishing if uncontrolled. A combination of integrated
of the economic benefits that these areas could provide, programs using ARs, closed season, limited entry, habitat
human settlements have mushroomed in coastal areas protection and restoration, fish sanctuaries, mangrove
leading to the significant deterioration of the quality of reforestation; and increased community awareness of
the ecosystem as a result of continued and increasing the need to conserve the resources is therefore necessary.
human activities. More specifically, the commercially AR programs also need proper planning and management
important fishery resources in the region have declined due at the national and regional levels while the implementation
to many factors that include overfishing, illegal fishing, of any AR-related activity must be based on scientific
use of destructive fishing practices, and environmental knowledge and multi-discipline expertise. In the process, it
degradation. Massive clearance of mangrove forests for is necessary to strike a balance between the objectives and
aquaculture, urbanization, industrialization, wood fuel, benefits of the AR projects in terms of the environmental,
timber and the like, could bring about large temporary economic and social aspects in fish production for food
economic benefits to certain groups of people or the security.
governments but in the end, the breeding, nursery and
feeding areas of many aquatic species such as fishes, 4.4.2 Use of Big-size Artificial Reefs: Malaysian
crustaceans, and mollusks have been destroyed and lost. Experience
For example, sand mining destroys the natural habitats of
many commercial fish species while the use of dynamites Focusing on the efforts of Malaysia, its ARs program
in fishing could seriously destroy the coral reefs which which was started in 1975, aimed to promote fish
serve as the natural habitats for the highly economic and sanctuaries, recover seriously depleted coastal fishery
commercially important demersal fishes such as groupers, resources and prevent the encroachment of trawlers into
humphead wrasse, snappers and others. the prohibited inshore areas. The country’s ARs program
started with the use of discarded car tires and later, under
In addressing such concerns, most countries in this region the Ninth Malaysian Plan in 2006, the Department of
have deployed artificial reefs (ARs) to restore the depleting Fisheries Malaysia focused on the design and construction
coastal fisheries resources, prevent encroachment of of big-sized reinforced concrete ARs suitable for
trawlers, reduce conflict between commercial and installation in hard and soft bottom sea beds. The structures
traditional fishers, and increase the opportunities for small- considered various factors such as the fish behavior, marine
scale fishers to improve and sustain their incomes from engineering aspects, physical oceanography, and the target
fishing. Other measures have also been promoted such species. The structures were constructed according to the
as the installation of fish enhancing devices, promotion British Standard 8110, and until the end of 2010, fifteen
of stock enhancement through re-stocking, development new designs of concrete ARs weighing about 6-42 MT/
of fish refugias, seasonal closure of breeding grounds, module and measuring 1.6 to 3.8 m (length, width and
and establishment of marine protected areas or marine height) were produced. The various ARs had their specific
parks. Fish refugia is the spatially and geographically functions, for example the cuboid bio-active ARs, anti-
defined inland, marine or coastal areas in which specific trawling ARs, juvenile ARs, soft bottom ARs (2 designs),
management measures are applied to sustain important tetrapod ARs (2 designs), recreational ARs (2 designs),
species (fisheries resources) during the critical stages of cube ARs (2 designs), cuboids ARs (2 designs), and lobster
their life cycle. The establishment of fish refugia had been ARs (2 designs).
intensified in Thailand, Vietnam and Cambodia. Other
man-made structures including aquaculture facilities, The experience and knowledge gained since 1975 was
breakwaters, oil platforms, oil and gas pipe lines, used to improve the planning and management of the ARs
stationary fishing gears, and jetties have also enhanced program during the Ninth Malaysia Plan (2006-2010). New
the biodiversity of aquatic organisms including fish. Thus, objectives were set-up which included the development of
strengthening the linkages between resource enhancement new AR sites and deployment of additional AR modules
activities and integrated coastal fisheries management at the existing/present sites for resource enhancement;
with particular emphasis on decentralized rights-based conduct of research and compilation of information on
fisheries has been promoted in the Southeast Asian region suitable AR designs, durability of materials, and suitable
for the sustainable development of coastal fisheries for sites of local fishery resources; development of new AR
food security. designs which can deter the encroachment of unfriendly
fishing operations especially trawlers into traditional
Fish refugia and ARs can be complementary tools for fishing grounds and specific zones; and providing
conservation, management and enhancement of fisheries substrates for corals to grow.

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During the Ninth Malaysia Plan (2006-2010), ARs In 2008, the ARs project was implemented in all states
program was implemented in all states of Malaysia for except in Sabah and Sarawak. Another 19 new sites were
the first time since 1975 using funding from the federal identified and a new design for lobster ARs was deployed
and state governments. The research and development in the Federal Territory of Labuan. The success of big
program focused on design and construction of big size size ARs in enhancing coastal fisheries resources as well
reinforced concrete ARs for installation in hard and soft as hindering illegal trawlers had encouraged the Federal
bottom seabeds taking into consideration fish behavior, Government to allocate additional budget for the project
marine engineering, physical oceanography and target in 2009.
species (Zaidil Abdilla et al., 2010).
Thus, another 38 new sites for ARs were identified in
Construction using reinforced concrete grade 30-50 was 2009. The project was continued in 2010 with another
started in 2006. The structures constructed included soft 35 new sites identified and by the end of 2010 a total
bottom ARs measuring 3 m x 3 m x 3.6 m (18-22 MT/ of 105 new sites were deployed with the appropriate
module); cube and cube juvenile ARs 2.5 m x 2.5 m x ARs, where each site had 12-134 modules depending on
2.5 m (14-14.5 MT/module); cuboid and cuboid juvenile the available budget. Thus, Sabah had 17 new sites for
ARs, 2 m x 2 m x 3 m (10-10.5 MT/module); tetrapod reinforced concrete ARs while Terengganu had 15, Kedah
ARs, 2.655 m x 2.655 m x 2.385 m (8 MT/module); (12), Federal Territory Labuan (9), Kelantan and Perak
lobster ARs, 1.65 m x 1.65 m x 1.65 m (5-6 MT/module); (8), Pahang and Selangor (7), Negeri Sembilan and Johor
recreational and recreational juvenile ARs, 1.85 m x 1.85 (4), Malacca and Penang (3), and Perlis two sites. From
m x 1.85 m (6-6.5 MT/module); and juvenile soft bottom 2009 until the end of 2010, a total of 237 recreational
ARs and anti-trawler ARs, 3.4 m x 3.4 m x 3.75 m (35-42 concrete ARs and anti-trawling ARs were deployed at
MT/module). The construction work followed the British 12 sites in Sabah. Management and monitoring of all
Standard 8110, where concrete covers at least 50 mm, AR sites are under a co-management approach between
column and beam rebar make use of 4 rod of Y12, link the DoFM and local fishers. Meanwhile, the Department
uses R8 @ 200mm c/c and slab reinforcement uses BRC of Fisheries Sabah (DoFS) put up a condition that ARs
A10. Ready-mix concrete from batching plant grade 40 would be deployed near the fishers’ fishing villages
was used for all designs except for the soft bottom ARs, only if local fishers are willing to take part in the Local
anti-trawler ARs and juvenile soft bottom ARs. Since these Artificial Reef Committee which functions and commits to
designs were quite big and heavy, ready-mix concrete protect, monitor and harvest fish in a sustainable manner
grade 50 was used. Cube test was conducted 7 and 28 from the AR sites. The approach introduced by the DoFS
days after construction at the government and private has succeeded in protecting the resources in the AR sites
laboratory. Curing was implemented for at least 28 days from dynamite and cyanide fishing by illegal fishers. In
before deployment. Any module which did not follow the addition, the DoFS also prescribed that only angling is
specification as stated in the quotation or tender documents allowed while other gears are prohibited to operate near the
was rejected (Zaidil Abdilla et al., 2010). AR sites. The Marine Police and the Malaysian Maritime
Enforcement Agency also participate in the activities that
The newly designed ARs for soft and hard bottom sea bed aim to protect the AR sites from illegal fishing. The local
were deployed in 2006, where a total of 33 modules of soft fishers in Sabah that have ARs projects near their villages
bottom ARs were deployed in Pulau Payar Marine Park, are now very happy to have such big concrete artificial
Kedah for research purposes and another 16 modules in reefs deployed because the structures function not only as
Kuala Langat, Selangor for resource enhancement. Forty resource enhancement but also prevented trawlers from
tetrapod AR modules were also deployed on sandy bottom encroaching into their inshore areas.
in Terengganu and Pahang. A series of visual observations
by SCUBA diving was conducted to study the fish behavior Site selection is an important component in the deployment
especially their interaction to the ARs structures, while of ARs. Thus, a series of surveys were carried out in
information on the bio-fouling on the ARs surface was the waters of Malaysia using echo-sounder for seabed
also recorded. Minor modifications were made from year topography, grab or divers for collecting sediments, and
to year until the most suitable design was materialized in current meters for information on direction and speed of
2010 (Fauzi, 2010). current. Divers also used to explore and film the seabed
areas to obtain baseline information especially on the
In 2007, the project was expanded to another 10 new sites, topography, substrate stability, proximity to natural coral
especially making use of the tetrapod ARs to deter the reefs, and the biological resources within the immediate
encroachment of illegal trawlers into traditional fishing vicinity of the site. Bamboo traps, and hooks and lines were
grounds in Kelantan and Johor, while soft bottom ARs also used to gather preliminary indication of the fishery
were also deployed in Kedah and Selangor, and ARs for resources of the selected sites.
recreational anglers deployed in Terengganu and Pahang.

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Considering the heavy weights of the ARs, pontoon or In the latest findings in 2010, more than 100 species of
barge was used to transport and deploy the concrete ARs fish were recorded at the AR sites in Terengganu, Kedah,
to the selected sites. During the installation processes, free Sabah, Sarawak and Federal Territory of Labuan. Among
fall deployment method was applied using 44-100 MT the species found were the highly commercial species
crane. Special mechanical device was constructed which such as groupers, red snappers, sweetlips, lobsters, and
worked very successfully during the deployment process. coral fishes such as banner fish, anemone fish, lion fish,
Each module was placed on the sea bed at 2-3 meters apart bat fish, chromis, among others. Tetrapod ARs deployed
from each other. After the completing the deployment, near the Mak Daerah turtle nesting beach in 2006 has
several divers inspected the position of each module and become a safe resting place for green turtles during their
all information was recorded by video camera for future inter-nesting period. Adult green turtle Chelonia mydas
reference (Zaidil Abdilla et al., 2010). was observed resting closed to the ARs in July 2010. This
place is now a safe temporary habitat for this reptile away
Monitoring activities are conducted regularly every 3-6 from trawling activities. A study in May-June 2010 by the
months after deployment to record the changes in fishery DoFS on ARs deployed in Tempurong and Lok Nunuk
resources as well as the physical stability of the reef in 2009 recorded 22 species and among them are high
modules by the Penang-based DoFM staff of the Fisheries grade snappers (Lutjanus spp.), groupers (Epinephelus
Research Institute, staff of SEAFDEC/MFRDMD in spp. and Cephalopholis spp.), Carangoides (Caranx spp.),
Terengganu, and from the Fisheries Research Institute stingrays, and spiny lobster (Panulirus spp.).
Sarawak Branch. Several survey methodologies were used
and this included intersected transect method for sessile, The DoFM has imposed prohibitions against fishing in
fouling and encrusting organisms, and visual observation the immediate vicinity of up to a radius of 0.5 nm of the
via transect, fixed stationary points as well as search ARs, the locations of which had been suitably indicated
pattern for fishes. Information on the encrusting, sessile by marker buoys (Jothy, 1986; Wong1991; Abdul Razak
and fouling organisms, fish assemblages, fish composition, and Mohamed Pauzi, 1991). However, all marker buoys
as well as physical, chemical and biological parameters were lost due to vandalism and from forces of nature. In
were recorded and analyzed. Several research activities Sabah, the DoFS enforced a policy or condition that only
were conducted in collaboration with local universities local fishers who are committed to take active part in the
involving the undergraduate as well as post-graduate Local Artificial Reef Committee to protect and monitor the
students. Mapping of the AR locations were also conducted AR sites from dynamite and cyanide fishing, overfishing,
using side-scan sonar. from net and trap fishing with only angling allowed, will
be considered as ARs project beneficiaries and where ARs
Results of the monitoring by SCUBA diving showed fast would be deployed near their fishing villages.
development of the resources that had been enhanced
and various organisms had immediately encrusted the Generally, the ARs program of Malaysia in 2006-
structures while all surface areas have been covered with 2010 has achieved its objectives of deterring illegal
bio-fouling, sessile and encrusting organisms within six trawling activities into the coastal waters. Moreover, the
months after deployment especially for ARs deployed on involvement and commitment of local fishers in protecting,
sandy sediments. Generally, the surfaces of most ARs have monitoring and managing the ARs from illegal fishing
been covered with mollusks, barnacles and multi-species and overfishing had been the most effective form of
corals. In Kuala Terengganu, an average of 364 tails of management in the AR sites. The DoFM also gathered
fish was estimated at each module for cuboid ARs after valuable experiences that will serve as guide through its
six months of deployment. These included 45 juveniles future undertakings in habitat enhancement as well as
of high quality grouper (Epinephelus coioides and E. on the suitable materials, appropriate designs, size and
areolatus). After 11 months, the mean count/module was strength that will provide the best performance of the ARs.
increased to 1839 tails and mostly dominated by the bigeye
snapper, Lutjanus lutjanus and yellowtail scad, Atule mate For example, the large concrete artificial reef modules
(Mohammed Pauzi et al., 2010). Fauzi (2010) reported that currently being promoted by DoFM have the strength,
big size ARs deployed in the coastal waters of Peninsular design and size which are most suitable in terms of
Malaysia in 2006 has become a nursery and breeding creating new habitat, resisting environmental conditions
ground for lobsters and crabs, especially the fully gravid and also withstanding the onslaught of the illegal trawlers’
animals which were found within the AR structures during malpractices. The DoFM is continuing its efforts to find
the series of visual observations conducted by DoFM new designs for concrete ARs that will be able to closely
researchers. The structures also function as substrate for imitate the natural reefs, preferably those that could
many marine fauna and flora to grow, and also proved protect young juveniles of marine organisms and at the
successful in hindering illegal trawlers especially because same time provide niche for a host of marine organisms.
the cod-end of a trawler could be entangled with the AR Nevertheless, various issues have also arisen during the
structures.

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implementation of the ARs project in Malaysia in 2006- CCRF. Thus, it was deemed important for SEAFDEC to
2010. These include: (a) perceptions of most people and address the specificity of fisheries in the region through its
policy makers that ARs are constructed for fishing, and as a program on the Regionalization of the Code of Conduct
consequence AR sites outside Marine Park areas are fished for Responsible Fisheries (RCCRF) starting in 1998.
without control; (b) fishers’ management responsibility of RCCRF aimed to: clarify the requirements of the CCRF;
the ARs is unclear because many government agencies identify and prioritize the required actions; identify the
are directly involved in the construction and deployment issues that require special consideration from the regional
of ARs; (c) conflict of interest among user groups point of view; formulate regional policies that would
especially between drift net and anglers in the AR areas, help the ASEAN Member Countries in implementing
especially that drift nets are always entangled with the the global Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries;
AR modules and are left unrecovered; (d) inadequate and facilitate the formulation and implementation by the
technical knowledge among officers involved in ARs ASEAN Member Countries of national codes of practices
project especially in marine engineering construction for responsible fishing operations, fisheries management,
and physical oceanography; (e) insufficient facilities and aquaculture, and post-harvest practices and trade. While
infrastructures such as jetty, pontoon, crane and concrete the RCCRF focused on the Southeast Asian region’s
batching plan; and (f) limited funding for the scheduled specific context, encompassing its culture, its fisheries
monitoring activities. structure, and the region’s fishery ecosystems, the result
was a compilation of regional guidelines accommodating
4.5 Responsible Fishing and Practices in the specific regional concerns that the global CCRF failed
Southeast Asia to highlight, and where the issues of particular importance
to Southeast Asia have been amplified and elaborated on
Promotion of the concept of responsible fishing is not under the framework of the global CCRF.
new in global fisheries as it can be traced back to the
Convention on Fishing and Conservation of the Living 4.5.1 Key Issues Related to Responsible Fisheries
Resources of the High Seas in United Nation Law of
the Sea (UNCLOS) 1958 which explains the global In order to sustain the marine fishery resources and
concern of sustainable utilization of the marine fishery maintain marine capture fisheries in the Southeast Asian
resources. Similar message was reemphasized in the region, the RCCRF attempted to put more emphasis and
articles of UNCLOS 1982 which concerned more on the strengthen Chapter 8 of the CCRF, while the hindrances
conservation and utilization of the living resources, and confronting the development of sustainable fishing
especially the stocks occurring in the exclusive economic were identified. Two main issues were then focused, i.e.
zones of two or more coastal States or transboundary or depleting fishery resources coupled with environmental
highly migratory species. However, the fishery resources deterioration, and climate change that impacts on fishing
had gradually declined year by year and in order to operations and safety of fishers at sea. Since the impacts
address the problems on stock decline, the Committee on of fishing operations and practices both legal and illegal
Fisheries (COFI) organized the International Conference had been identified as the main causes of the depletion of
on Responsible Fishing in 1992 (The Cancun Declaration fishery resources and deterioration of the environment,
1992) to consider the draft of the Code of Conduct for these issues were discussed thoroughly during the
Responsible Fisheries (CCRF). Finally, the global CCRF Regional Workshop on the Reduction of the Impacts
was adopted in 1995, providing general principles and of Fishing on Coastal and Marine Environments in the
international standards for responsible fishery practices Southeast Asian Waters organized in Thailand in January
worldwide. Recognizing that the implementation of the 2009, and scoped into specific issues that include: over-
CCRF is very important in ensuring sustainable fisheries fishing; destructive gear; on-selective gear and practice,
in Southeast Asia, SEAFDEC also sustained its campaign IUU fishing; ghost fishing; and use of fossil fuel. In
for the implementation of the CCRF in the region. In addition, the 2009 Workshop also identified major fishing
order to encourage the Southeast Asian countries to adopt practices that could bring negative impacts on the coastal
the CCRF, it was necessary for SEAFDEC to provide and marine environments hindering all efforts to achieve
clarification on the requirements spelled out in the CCRF sustainable fishing especially in the Southeast Asian
taking into consideration the specific situation of the waters. These included: light fishing; use of stationary
Southeast Asian region. gears (e.g., tidal traps, stow-net, fyke net, Japanese set net,
Muro-ami, Choko-ami); use of active gears (e.g., trawls,
The different fishing scenarios and issues that exist within dredge, push net); use of semi-passive gear and small-scale
the region, especially those related to multi-species, fishing gear (e.g., pot, gill net); longline fisheries; and
multi-gear and small-scale nature of fisheries are rather purse seine operations associated with fish aggregating
dominant and unique, but it is unfortunate that these devices (FADs).
issues were only superficially covered by the global

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Moreover, considering that the impacts of climate change hooks, promotion of best practices for longline fisheries,
and the consequences of unpredictable weather conditions onboard observers programs as well as assessment of by-
had been the main hindrances in sustaining responsible catch in pelagic longline fisheries.
fishing activities and safety of fishers at sea, efforts are
being made by the Southeast Asian countries to mitigate Moreover for stationary fishing gear (tidal trap, stow net,
the impacts of fishing operations to the environment. The Japanese set net), the action plan could include assessment
SEAFDEC Fishery Statistical Bulletin 2007 reported that of the impact of stationary gear, establishment of regional
the number of fishing boats in Southeast Asia both powered expert network to promote further extension of set net
and non-powered could reach about 1,500,000 units, technology in the region, and dissemination and promotion
reflecting the fact that the fishing sector is rapidly growing the manual on good practice. For small-scale gear (gillnet,
and could be a major source of greenhouse gas emission pot/trap), future R&D activities should aim to enhance
and thus, should be addressed as part of the international sustainable fisheries, and could include: assessment of
climate change mitigation framework. Furthermore, the impact of small-scale gear to marine fishery resources,
reports have also shown that some 2.5 million out of 4.3 mortality risk assessment of small-scale fishing activities
million vessels used in fisheries worldwide are powered to marine mammals, development of mitigation measures
by fossil fuel burning engines that consume some 42- for ghost-fishing and use of non-selective fishing gears,
45 million MT of fuel per year. The increasing use of development of management model for small-scale gears,
fossil fuels by fishing boats led to increased emission of and development of awareness building materials to
CO2 providing the information on carbon footprints of mitigate by-catch in small-scale gears. As for purse seine
fishing boats. Since the boat’s carbon footprint is directly in association with FADs, activities that had been initiated
proportional to the amount of fuel burned, it is therefore in the region should be enhanced, e.g. survey on the use
necessary to reduce the use of fossil fuel to minimize the of drifting FADs and fixed FADs in Southeast Asian
fishing boat’s carbon footprint and subsequently reduce countries, assessment of the impact of fixed FADs on tuna
the emission of CO2, a major greenhouse gas (GHG) that stock, materials and designs for eco-friendly FADs, and
contributes heavily to global warming. awareness building on the impacts of abandoned drifting
FADs and on the use of fixed FADs in purse seine fishing.
SEAFDEC recognizes that strengthening responsible In addition, the development of best practices for drifting
fishing and practices is an approach that could sustain FADs and fixed FADs should also be pursued.
marine fisheries in the Southeast Asia region. In this regard,
three main issues have been considered which should be In line with the efforts of the Southeast Asian countries to
addressed in future R&D activities, i.e. investigating reduce the impact of fishing practices to the coastal and
the destructive manners of fishing gear and practices, marine environments, the establishment of the Network
optimizing energy use in fisheries, and enhancing safety for Reduction of Impact of Fishing on Coastal and Marine
at sea for small-scale fishing boats. The 2009 Workshop Environment in Southeast Asian Waters (IFCOME-
noted that destructive fishing gears and practices are being Network) has been initiated by SEAFDEC to facilitate
operated in the Southeast Asian region and thus, countries the sharing and dissemination of information on programs
were asked to mitigate the impact to fisheries resources and initiatives related to the reduction of the impact of
and ecosystem. On light fishing for example, research on fishing, and monitor the developments to be used as basis
appropriate use of lights in fishing (optimizing and saving), in improving the design of fishing gears and promotion of
fish behavior in response to the light, visual physiology and responsible fishing practices. The main role of the Network
impact on socio-economic as well as alternate light source is to provide information and recommendations that could
technology should be undertaken. The outcome of such contribute to improving the current fishing gear technology
effort could be a draft policy on the use of lights in fishing. and practices to reduce the impacts from fishing activities;
enhancing inter-agency and inter-sectoral coordination at
For active fishing gears (trawl net, dredge, push net), action the national, regional and international levels for achieving
plans for the development of strategy on the promotion sustainable fisheries management and development in
of JTEDs in trawl fishing in Southeast Asia should the Southeast Asian region through proper development
be strengthened, while observers program for trawls, of fishing gear technologies and practices; strengthening
dredgers, and push nets should be initiated. Assessment regional cooperation on R&D, technology transfer,
of the impact of dredge, push net and other active gears and resources capacity building on the issues related to
should be conducted, the results of which could be used reduction of impact of fishing practices; and widening the
in the development of appropriate policies. Action plans network of people, government, organizations for reducing
for longline fisheries should be developed to include the the impact of fishing practices to the coastal and marine
development of strategy for adoption of the circle hook in environments.
longline fishery and secure reliable supply of appropriate

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4.6 Optimizing Energy Use in Fisheries Taking into consideration the small-sized fishing boats in
the Southeast Asian region, the Regional Workshop on
Considering the large number of powered fishing boats in Safety at Sea for Small Scale Fishing Boats in Southeast
the Southeast Asian region, it has become imperative to Asia held in 2003 and 2010 (SEAFDEC, 2010c),
reduce fuel consumption in order to contribute to savings recommended that “Since safety at sea is a serious problem
on operations costs as well as reduce CO2 emission to the in developing countries, the initiatives of respective
environment. In the capture fishery sector, introduction of Southeast Asian countries in improving safety at sea for
good engine maintenance including the use of alternative small fishing boats should be reviewed taking into account
energy source for example the use of sails for small fishing the international and regional initiatives on safety at
vessels, natural gas such as the liquefied petroleum gas sea”. The 2010 Workshop also made special focus on the
(LPG) or compressed natural gas (CNG) or the liquefied establishment of a mechanism for recording the accidents
natural gas (LNG) commonly used in natural gas vehicle at sea for fishing boats, and on the need to improve the
(NGV) has been promoted to reduce pollution and CO2 fishers living conditions onboard fishing boats (Box 3).
emission from boats’ engine. Modification of fishing
gear construction and design should be pursued to reduce Moreover, even if the Southeast Asian countries have
resistance during fishing operations or reduce travel time been implementing measures to improve safety of fishing
from shore to fishing grounds. boats and fishers, there is still a need to generate political
will in order that such efforts could be further enhanced.
Furthermore, it is also vital for the Southeast Asian Thus, the 2010 Workshop called upon the governments
countries to advance the production of fish and fishery to mainstream the safety issues into national policies in
products in terms of safe and good quality standards in order that safety at sea could be integrated in the overall
order to promote the region’s fish and fishery products fisheries management with the recommendations during
in the world market, and eventually boost the flow of the 2010 Workshop (SEAFDEC, 2010c) as the overall
foreign currency into the region’s economies, as well as framework, and that appropriate programs on Safety at Sea
increasing the availability of fish and fish products for should also be pursued by the Southeast Asian countries.
human consumption. Therefore, sustainable development
in fisheries post-harvest technology could also be enhanced Note should also be taken that in order to promote and
by minimizing the fuel consumption for refrigeration address safety at sea including working condition onboard
or that of the boat’s auxiliary engine through good fish fishing boats to ensure that the consideration that appeared
handling processes and preservation onboard, and proper in Box 3 are addressed, a series of activities have been
local knowledge practices. The use of ice and chilled sea initiated and implemented in the region. These include,
water, practicing traditional method of fish processing among others, development of regionally harmonized
such as the use of solar energy, should also be advanced format for recording accident at sea of small fishing boats;
to reduce the use of charcoal and fuel in processing. production of awareness building materials for promoting
safety at sea of small fishing boats; development of the
4.7 Safety at Sea and Standards for Fishers in regional guidelines on safety at sea and working standard
Southeast Asia for small fishing boats; establishment of the regional
network to strengthen inter-agency coordination on
The global Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries has safety at sea and working standard of fishing boats in the
prescribed in 8.1.5 that: “States should ensure that health Southeast Asia.
and safety standards are adopted for everyone employed
in fishing operations. Such standards should not be less 5. AQUACULTURE
than the minimum requirements of relevant international
agreements on conditions of work and services”. Taking Aquaculture contributed 38% to the world’s total fisheries
into consideration the situation in the Southeast Asian production of 145 million MT in 2009, and has become
countries, the Regional Guidelines for Responsible the fastest growing food producing activity in the world
Fishing Operations in Southeast Asia (SEAFDEC, 2000) with an average annual growth rate of more than 8% from
specifically stipulated in (8.1.5 (1)) that: “Since the 1970 to 2008 (FAO, 2010). Aquaculture has also grown to
minimum requirement in relevant international agreements be a robust and vital industry providing about 46% of the
including SOLAS and IMO is only applicable to vessels fish consumed globally, and with its ancillary industries,
larger than 24 m LOA, and considering that majority of engaging about 11 million people and spurring global trade
fishing boats in the region is smaller than this size, States of fish and fishery products.
should be encouraged to elaborate special safety standards
and policies with emphasis on smaller boats”. While global accounts show remarkable milestones for
aquaculture, the scenario in Southeast Asia suggests a

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Box 3. Recommendations on Safety at Sea produced by the Southeast Asian countries (SEAFDEC,
for Small Fishing Boats in Southeast Asian Region 2010). While direct engagement in aquaculture is not
• Develop appropriate incident reporting and investigation the only indicator of its contribution to the economic
systems for the purpose of improving safety at sea, taking development, aquaculture in the Southeast Asian region
into account the following considerations: is expected to contribute towards the holistic development
- The draft Guidelines to Competent Authorities in
Implementing an Accident Reporting and Analysis of rural communities.
System for Small Fishing Vessels currently being
developed by FAO; 5.1 Integrating Aquaculture in Rural
- The possible establishment of incentives for fishers,
indemnity programs, registration systems for fishing Development in Southeast Asia
vessels, MCS systems and subsidies to the fishing
industry; and The incidence of poverty remains high in the rural areas
- The objective of the systems which should be
appropriate to the size of vessels and types of fishing of many Southeast Asian countries (Table 58). Thus, most
operations or facilities onboard. rural development programs are generally envisioned to
• Promote the registration of small fishing boats. address poverty, food insecurity, nutritional deficiencies,
• Promote and ensure that safety aspects, including
considerations on the working conditions and socio-
insufficient livelihood alternatives, limited human skills
economic development, are incorporated and addressed and environmental degradation that drag economic
by concerned authorities while improving monitoring and growth and hinder improvement of the societal welfare
control of the status and use of small scale fishing vessels.
• Strengthen local authorities and local organizations and
in rural communities. Therefore, the role of aquaculture
promote the application of safety at sea standards among in contributing towards rural development needs
the coastal communities. critical analysis while relevant strategies for integrating
• Promote technical and financial support from authorities, aquaculture in rural development should be determined
including subsidies, at all levels for issues of safety at sea,
including considerations on working conditions and socio- and implemented.
economic development.
• Identify and promote the basic requirements for safety at Considering the scientific and technological breakthrough
sea in the following areas:
- Research on the design and construction of small attained in aquaculture for the past three decades, the
fishing boats including the modification of traditional sub-sector is being challenged on its role in uplifting
types of boats; the welfare, and in particular, securing food and the
- Safety equipment including fire fighting and live-
saving appliances, regular maintenance and repair of livelihoods of rural folks. The most common questions
boats, gear and equipment; and being asked these days are: Has aquaculture benefited
- Development of regular boat inspection systems. the marginalized fisherfolk who depends on the aquatic
• Implement training and education programs for all
stakeholders including the fishers, family members, boat
resources for their food and livelihood? Are there
builders and others, for basic requirements of: specific policies that address the issues of environmental
- Boat design and construction; degradation and social inequities in rural communities
- Equipment and its correct use (including avoidance of
dangerous fishing practices);
resulting from the rapid development of aquaculture?
- Search and rescue operations; How is the impact of climate change in rural aquatic
- Occupational health, working conditions and safety communities being addressed by R&D institutions and
awareness; and government policy makers? Nonetheless, there seems to
- Awareness of the environmental factors.
• Promote awareness among policy makers, central be more questions than answers considering that data and
authorities and the broader public on the safety hazards information remain limited and yet to be organized for
facing people involved in fisheries in order to: most countries in the region.
- Attract more attention and resources to be allocated
to safety at sea aspects;
- Provide knowledge on the working conditions and 5.1.1 Aquaculture and Rural Development in
hardships faced by fishers (which are increasing Southeast Asia
following the impacts of climate change); and
- Raise political will to address safety at sea and in
strengthening the local organizations. Why is aquaculture being challenged to pay attention
• Develop and promote the use of appropriate to rural development in Southeast Asia after decades of
communication systems for:
- Weather forecasting information; and
remarkable production growth rates and profitability?
- Search and rescue systems. What has transpired in the sector? FAO (2010) noted
that the level of development of aquaculture has varied
widely across nations, with positive bias towards countries
more challenging appraisal. Aquaculture in the region has and localities where private entrepreneurs have been
undeniably eased the supply and demand gap for fish for successful or where growth was driven by the capital-
domestic consumption, and has also benefited the export rich private sector. A review of literature in aquaculture
sector that revved up economic development in the region. conducted through a commissioned study by FAO in
Of the world’s aquaculture production of 55 million MT 1997 “Aquaculture Economics in Developing Countries:
in 2009, about 91% came from Asia, of which 17% was Regional Assessments and an Annotated Bibliography”

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Table 58. Incidence of poverty in selected economies in

Southeast Asia, 1997-2002 (%) Possibly arising from this redirected attention, a more
Incidence of poverty (%) using recent study noted some contradictions to what has been
national poverty line suggested in earlier literatures about the inequalities
Country Year Contribution of rural brought about by aquaculture. Irz, et al. (2007) noted
Total Urban Rural poverty to total that aquaculture demands a large number of relatively
poverty
unskilled labor which in the context of rural communities
Cambodia 1999 35.9 18.2 40.1 93.8
offer opportunities for employment, either directly or
Indonesia 2002 18.2 14.5 21.1 70.3 indirectly in fish farming and post-harvest activities. Poor
Lao PDR 1997 38.6 26.9 41.0 80.7 households engaged in aquaculture obtain larger portion
Malaysia 1999 7.5 3.4 12.4 69.3 of their income from fish farming than the non-poor and
Myanmar 1997 22.9 23.9 22.4 70.4
those doing other forms of farming. Since aquaculture
is suggested to be inequality-reducing, policy-makers
Philippines 2000 34.0 20.4 47.4 72.4
and local government units in inland aquatic and coastal
Thailand 2002 9.8 4.0 12.6 91.3 communities who aim to counter poverty should give
Vietnam 2002 28.9 6.6 35.6 92.3 attention to the effects of adopting new policies and
Source: Asian Development Bank (2004) aquaculture technologies. Nevertheless, these results could
be limited to situations where aquaculture is done without
(Charles et al., 1997) revealed that majority of the studies compromising the environment, as this will change the
focused on the evaluation of aquaculture production impact of evaluation outcomes.
systems or farm-level economics that aimed to find the
most efficient techniques to culture fish. Various culture Furthermore, recent gender studies in the mid-1970s
techniques have been developed and verified either in to early 1990s showed evidences aquaculture provided
paddies, fresh and brackishwater ponds, reservoirs, avenues to enhance the role of women in rural areas as
irrigation canals, tanks, cage nets and pens in freshwater owners and managers of aquaculture enterprises as well as
and marine water bodies. Various species combination active participants in community-management of fishery
and agri-aquaculture integration have also been studied. resources aside from being homemakers. Although issues
The most economically efficient methods under different on environmental degradation and resource use conflicts
culture scenarios have been determined and promoted of the late 1980s and early 1990s had been reviewed
through aggressive extension methods. Credit packages by the governments, valuation assessment of natural
have been offered to national governments down to resources that could influence policies on sustainable use
local entrepreneurs to boost aquaculture investments of fishery and aquatic resources in rural setting remain
and development. Rural areas have been host to various insufficient. Issues on how climate change will impact
aquaculture systems and have witnessed the conversion people and aquaculture in rural development should also
of its landscape to suit the most technologically suitable be studied, requiring equal attention considering the very
and economically viable aquaculture operations. fragile but important connections between people and the
environment in rural communities.
Despite the increase in world aquaculture production, the
benefit distribution from aquaculture was not a prominent 5.1.2 Integrating Aquaculture in Rural
consideration in rural development planning not until Development: Issues and Opportunities
the onset of the new millennium. The human dimension
of aquaculture has since then became a focus of policy Expressed in gross domestic product (GDP), the economic
and government programs to concurrently address the growth in Southeast Asia during the past decades has been
food security and poverty question more upfront than in remarkable, with GDP in 2002 of 4.7% compared to the
previous years. Most governments in Southeast Asia began whole of Asia (3.2%) and the world (2.4%). In 2000-2002,
providing institutional and infrastructure support to rural the average contribution of agriculture including fisheries
communities to enable access to resources such as land and to GDP was 13.8% which was much higher than the whole
water, integration of production systems (fish breeding, of Asia (7.9%) and the world (5.1%). Empirical data show
nursery and grow-out). Governments in the region also that although economic growth reduces poverty, however,
got involved in the development of input markets and poverty still persists in rural Southeast Asia, where about
post-harvest and value-adding facilities that are accessible 70-90% of the poor come from the rural areas. Moreover,
for resource poor households in rural areas (Ahmed and in most fishing communities in Southeast Asia, the rural
Lorica, 2002). The issues of environmental degradation poor have limited access to land and water resources,
and the resource use conflicts of the late 1980s and early technology, services, capital, markets, and centers of
1990s had governments reviewing their policies and taking governance.
steps to address such issues.

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Aquaculture has big potentials in alleviating poverty although occasional and limited (Irz et al., 2007). This
and attaining food security, as it can provide food shows an example of non-market mechanisms in the
of high nutritional value especially for women and practice of aquaculture in rural communities making fish
children, livelihood and “own-enterprise” employment available and improving the nutrition of poor households.
opportunities, and incomes from sale of relatively
high-value species. The sustained promotion and wider Many of the developing countries have moved away
adoption of aquaculture among fishing families will from the centralized strategic approach to development
result in positive impacts especially improving household that received heavy emphasis in the 1950s and 1960s.
food security. Thus, aquaculture as a supplier food and Since government services and control have not reached
tradable goods has the potential of improving the food remote areas especially the fishing communities, such
and nutritional security of people in three ways, namely: situation led to mismanagement and destruction of
(1) adoption-income linkage; (2) adoption-employment the fishery resources. As a result, paradigm shift from
linkage; and (3) adoption-consumption linkage (Ahmed central governance to a decentralized form of resource
and Lorica, 2002). management has been adopted by many Southeast Asian
countries (e.g. Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand, and
Although adoption of appropriate aquaculture technologies Cambodia). The shift to devolve government control of
may be slow among the rural folks, empirical evidence in fishery resources is a responsive act towards addressing
Vietnam, Philippines, and Lao PDR shows that aquaculture the issues regarding property rights arrangements over
has been providing additional income to the poor. The bodies of waters for fishing and aquaculture.
impact of aquaculture on employment including wages
is not well documented except for some aquaculture Since marine and freshwater bodies are technically state-
economic analysis that indicates a ratio of one technician owned, they become an “open access” property where any
for every 5 ha of ponds. In one Mariculture Park in southern individual or entity can undertake personal and enterprise
Philippines, one technician is hired for every 1-5 units of activities. The open access nature of the fishery resources
fish cages. Self-employment in seaweeds farming has also does not augur well for the security of small-holder fish
demonstrated a big potential, especially considering that farmers. With devolution and decentralization, local
almost all seaweed farms in the Philippines and Indonesia government units are now in better position to provide
are family-operated. Abundant labor in rural areas can policy support in the management the coastal waters and
therefore be tapped to supply the needs of aquaculture, inland bodies of water through enactment of ordinances
but the wages for hired labor in aquaculture enterprises indicating the zone for exclusive use of fisherfolk for
should be documented. aquaculture livelihood. In addition to policy support,
government should provide technical and extension
The consumption effects of aquaculture depend on many services, market accessing and guides to micro-financing
factors such as price, and consumer taste and preferences. schemes, and disaster-preparedness mechanisms because
High-value species such as crustaceans is more price of the vulnerability of coastal dwellers to the impacts of
elastic and has high rate of substitutability compared to climate change. As a matter of fact, one of the key reasons
low value species like tilapia. The consumers, especially for the flourishing aquaculture industry driven by the
in developed western countries have become health private sector in one jurisdiction but not in the others is
conscious in their eating habits. Fish is considered as a governance (FAO, 2010) because in the past two decades
health food and consumption is expected to increase in considerable progress has been made in addressing
both fish producing and fish importing countries. Home aquaculture governance issues. This progress has been
consumption of aquaculture production is estimated to made possible by an international corporate effort and
be 30-40% in Bangladesh (Gupta in Ahmed and Lorica, by several nations that have pushed for the aquaculture
2002), while in Tonle Sap in Cambodia, small-scale agenda forwards in an orderly and sustainable manner
aquaculture provides food for families and incomes from through good governance.
excess production for sale.
One of the major impediments in promoting aquaculture
Traditions and practices associated with aquaculture in for food and livelihood in rural Southeast Asia is the
rural areas generate some important nutritional benefits inaccessible and unaffordable financial packages for
for households that engage in various ways in aquaculture. small-scale fish farmers. Some governments in the region
The practice of allowing the collection of “free fish” have provided subsidies such as interest-free loans to
or residual and non-target species after harvest by the farmers to boost adoption of agricultural technologies.
young and the poor in the communities happen to provide However, many such programs are not self-sustaining and
fish food and nourishment. These benefits are highly subsequently failed because of poor repayment rates. The
appreciated by many rural residents in the Philippines, traditional collateral-based lending schemes of banks also

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do not meet the financing needs of rural farmers, especially first phase focusing on “Trainers’ Training” conducted at
the fishers in island communities without material and the Tigbauan Main Station of AQD in Iloilo, Philippines
financial assets (Farrington et al., 1997). A relatively recent for selected senior fishery extensions workers representing
development is the entry of NGOs in the lending of cheap the Southeast Asian countries.
and accessible loans to break the barriers faced by the rural
poor in accessing formal financing packages. The micro- The second phase involved on-site training courses in
financing innovations introduced by some NGOs appear eight countries, which had been facilitated by the Senior
to be more promising than previous attempts to induce Extension Officers who participated in the Trainers’
lenders to serve this clientele group, where the scheme Training with experts from AQD providing the technical
heavily relies on the social assets of individual borrowers assistance. Moreover, AQD also implemented a project
and the community. Such micro-financing scheme on “Institutional Capacity Development for Sustainable
engages a group of 5 to 15 individuals, each of them Aquaculture (ICDSA)” to promote appropriate aquaculture
accountable to the loan repayment failure of any member technologies for improving the livelihoods of fishing
of the group. This scheme has generally worked and has communities through strategic partnership with “on-
induced collective action among the group of borrowers in the-ground” institutions such as local government units,
protecting the group’s interest. The loan is usually short- fisherfolk organizations, NGOs, micro-finance companies,
term which covers the production cost for one production and schools of fisheries. A “Season-long Training”
run where its utilization is often supervised by the lending approach was adopted in order that the fisherfolk could
agency. For example, to avoid misuse of loans, some experience the full aquaculture production cycle including
NGOs supply the inputs (seed and feeds) needed by small post-harvest and simple value-adding techniques. An
fish farmers the costs of which are charged to the loan, important component of the training program is the
which is payable upon harvest. This way, loans are used establishment of demonstration set-ups (e.g. fish culture
for fish farming livelihood activities instead of other non- in cages, ponds and other systems) where the aquaculture
productive purposes which could result to non-payment system to be introduced to communities could be
of the loans. Nevertheless, one big challenge is for the demonstrated for its technical and financial viabilities.
government and private sector to invest in infrastructure Impact assessments are then conducted to determine
and ancillary services, e.g. cold storage, processing the effectiveness of technology transfer strategy to rural
plants and other downstream investment to support the folks in adopting aquaculture as a sustainable livelihood
marketing of the produce of aquaculture farms, big and alternative and source of food.
small. Public-private partnership investment modalities
should be encouraged for long-term capital investments Climate Change
to upgrade production and processing facilities to meet
the growing global fish market. Sea level rise is expected to reach 1.0 m or more by 2100
due to global warming, glacier melting, and accelerated
Mainstreaming the rural communities into the aquaculture decline in polar ice sheet mass. The resulting disastrous
industry will require building their capacities to adopt impacts on low elevation coastal zones are certain, but the
appropriate aquaculture technologies. However, most ability of society to cope via adaptation remains uncertain.
countries in the Southeast Asian region are constrained Moreover, observations on climate change show that
by many factors, which include: ineffective government rapid environmental change has coincided with shifts in
extension programs; lack of facilities and logistical the food web from its base to the apex. This complicates
support; inadequate and ill-prepared extension workers the management and protection of marine resources that
because of the lack of skills and knowledge on new have direct negative impacts on coastal communities. The
aquaculture technologies; lack of “easy-to-understand” climate change phenomena have been observed in many
information materials on aquaculture and ineffective Southeast Asian countries through flash floods, increase
delivery systems to the rural folk; and remoteness of rural in sea levels and temperature, stronger waves, and longer
areas from knowledge centers such as government and dry season. Therefore, there is a need to conduct social
private facilities. research on the vulnerability and resiliency of the small-
scale fish farmers on the impacts of climate change which
In 2008, SEAFDEC with support from the ASEAN will not only affect their aquaculture livelihood but may
Foundation initiated and implemented a project on endanger the safety of their families. In order to know
“Human Resources Development (HRD) for Poverty the adaptive mechanisms for reducing or mitigating the
Alleviation and Food Security by Fisheries Intervention effects of climate change, technical research should also
in the ASEAN Region”, which had rural aquaculture as look into the aquaculture systems and species that have
one of the thematic areas. Under the rural aquaculture better chances of withstanding the negative impacts of
portion, training was conducted on two phases, with the climate change.

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5.1.3 Perspectives in Integrating Aquaculture in role of aquaculture in poverty alleviation for better policy
Rural Development formulation. In addition, in order to realistically integrate
aquaculture activities in community development plans,
Taking into consideration the issues and constraints compliance to national employment practices, facilitation
faced by the aquaculture industry, especially on the need of financial incentives and credit schemes, and promotion
to enhance the role of aquaculture in securing food and of investments in ancillary and other support structures to
income which is critical in rural development in the motivate aquaculture enterprises are also stipulated in the
region, the ASEAN-SEAFDEC Conference on Sustainable new Plan of Action. Moreover, public-private modalities
Fisheries for Food Security Towards 2020 “Fish for the to catalyze integration of aquaculture in rural development
People 2020: Adaptation to a Changing Environment” are also encouraged.
in June 2011 in Bangkok, Thailand adopted the new
Resolution and Plan of Action on Sustainable Fisheries Recently, the FAO together with regional and national
for Food Security for the ASEAN Region Towards partner agencies has been promoting the precautionary
2020. Included in the new Plan of Action is a provision approach through the ecosystems approach to fisheries
on aquaculture which stipulates the guideline for the management (Christie et al., 2007). This principle in
development of programs, projects and activities for the effect applies a preventative approach to safeguard
implementation of the new Resolution. The provisions in the environment from rapid development of offshore
the Plan of Action specific for aquaculture are expected aquaculture, and likewise consider development of
to compliment and update existing technical guidelines, regional guidelines on responsible marine (inshore and
policies and regulations in the practice and promotion of offshore) aquaculture. In rural development scenarios,
aquaculture in the Southeast Asian region (SEAFDEC, a precautionary and ecosystems principle will benefit
2011b). Thus, the relevant future directions in the new protective and conservation measures that are critical
Plan of Action could broadly be classified into: enhancing in the practice of aquaculture in fragile environments.
support for sustainable aquaculture in national through Natural resources are very critical and often fragile, assets
to local programs and policies; motivating governments being used for generating economic benefits in rural
to mainstream aquaculture in rural development; and communities. Ecosystems approach therefore beneficially
applying precautionary and ecosystems approach in magnifies the interconnectedness between the human
aquaculture. The new Plan of Action also enjoins that and ecological dimensions in the utilization of natural
national programs and policies on aquaculture in the resources in aquaculture in rural areas.
Southeast Asian countries should address the pressing
social, economic and environmental aspects of sustainable The fundamental way forward in integrating aquaculture
aquaculture that directly impact rural development, i.e. in rural development in the Southeast Asian countries
that aquaculture programs should contribute to improved is to collaborate through organizational networks in the
food security, livelihoods, employment and poverty promotion and implementation of the new Plan of Action.
alleviation. Such programs should envision to: provide The technological breakthroughs and economic benefits
the mechanisms and enabling environment for good from the growth and success of aquaculture in the region
aquaculture practices, efficient markets and fair trade; cannot be emphasized if aquaculture cannot significantly
strengthen the capacity of small-holder farmers; and contribute to rural development. For several decades now,
promote inter-agency collaboration. aquaculture technology has been introduced in many
communities in inland aquatic resources and coastal
Meanwhile, measures to manage the sustainability of areas in the region. However, the social dimension of
aquaculture will include the implementation of strategies aquaculture in improving the welfare of the poor in rural
at the national and local levels to monitor and regulate communities has been below par. Thus, while CCRF
aquaculture operations, prevent its over-development, which stipulates sustainable aquaculture development in
and ensure that aquaculture practices are conducted in Article 9, remains to seek voluntary compliance, where
a manner that will not compromise the environment governments at the national through to local levels would
(BFAR-PHILMINAQ, 2007). In particular, governments benefit from referring and adhering to the recommended
at all levels have been encouraged to integrate aquaculture aquaculture practices (SEAFDEC, 2005).
into rural development planning within the context of
multiple uses of land and water resources, as well as For most countries in Southeast Asia where rural
the strengthening of inter-agency coordination in policy development in inland aquatic and coastal areas
formulation, project planning and implementation, is hampered by overfishing and lack of livelihood
stakeholders consultation, extension services and opportunities, the options could be diverse but should
technology transfer. Mainstreaming aquaculture in rural be coordinated. Since there is a need for aquaculture
development requires the participation and support of the to be mainstreamed in the rural development planning,
governments to regional initiatives that will assess the governments and development planners at the national

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through the local level should harmoniously ensure that undetermined or no established breeding technologies,
their fisheries and aquaculture development policies and possibly low seed production capabilities, the source
include the need to: encourage optimal use of harvest of seedstock will be a limiting factor as commercial
from capture fisheries; reduce post-harvest losses; production would depend entirely on wild seeds. Seed
and enhance aquaculture benefits by engaging and production is primarily affected by several factors, from
supporting rural communities in farming and processing genetic to non-genetic or extrinsic causes such as the
fish to generate local nutritional and economic gains. presence of diseases and sub-optimal hatchery and nursery
Support from governments should also include: cohesive methods or extreme changes in the environment. However,
and comprehensive policies and guidance to promote low seed production in the hatchery can be improved
responsible aquaculture including generous measures particularly if appropriate interventions are made. For
for mitigating impacts of climate change to small-holder some species such as catfish in Cambodia, milkfish
aquaculture livelihoods initiatives; development and and grouper in Indonesia, tilapia in the Philippines and
implementation of supervised micro-financing schemes for Malaysia, grouper and sea bass in Thailand as well as in
small-holder aquaculture entrepreneurs; and aggregation Vietnam, and shrimp in Malaysia, Myanmar and Vietnam,
of small-scale producers to facilitate participation in aquaculture production is constrained by seed supply and
market and trade. quality (Hishamunda et al,. 2009).

5.2 Good Quality Seeds for Aquaculture 5.2.2 Issues and Concerns

World fisheries production was estimated to have reached A logical solution to the issue of decreasing aquaculture
145.1 million MT in 2009 of which 55.1 million MT came yield caused by poor survival and slow growth is to use
from aquaculture (FAO, 2010). In addition to China, good quality seedstocks. Quality seeds are fish fingerlings,
the major contributors to global aquaculture production crustacean post-larvae, molluscan spats or aquatic plantlets
from Southeast Asia are Vietnam, Indonesia, Thailand, that are robust or hardy apart from having the same
Philippines, and Myanmar. Production from Asian beneficial traits such as the capacity to grow fast, tolerate
aquaculture accounted for about 89% of world’s production stress and feed efficiently as the case may be. Good quality
from aquaculture. Although noted to be a relatively young seeds can be intentionally produced through the use of
food production sector, annual aquaculture production has good quality spawners; suitable broodstock maturation
rapidly increased from 1.0 million MT to 50.2 million MT diets; appropriate broodstock management methods that
after six decades (FAO, 2010). Aquaculture production can minimize inbreeding; conventional selection such as
covers not only freshwater and marine fishes, crustacean hybridization, mass selection, within family and family
and molluscan species but also includes aquatic plants, selection, or combined selection; genetic manipulation
mostly seaweeds. Breeding and culture requirements for methods; and improved hatchery and nursery rearing
most of the commercially important aquaculture species protocols.
especially those found in freshwater environments have
been well studied (Siriwardena, 2007) thus accounting for For aquaculture in the Southeast Asian region, genetic
a steady growth in production. Ironically though, in many methods have been employed through major selective
Asian countries, several species that are economically breeding programs and several of these technologies
valuable are not indigenous. Tilapia for instance, is a have been known to generate improved stocks that are
major national aquaculture product in the Philippines, either in the process of field testing or have already been
Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, and China. In the last five disseminated. For example, the Nile and red tilapias,
years, apart from tilapia, the whiteleg shrimp (Penaeus some carps, Clariid catfishes, penaied shrimps, abalone
vannamei) from the U.S.A. became a major culture and seaweed species have been the subject of genetic
species in Southeast Asia replacing the black tiger shrimp improvement research in Asia although in varying levels
(P. monodon). The interest in whiteleg shrimp can be of development and adoption (Appendix 3).
attributed to the fact that the shrimp industry was in need
of a species which when cultured, can earn profits that may Nevertheless, some countries have considered genetics
be enough to compensate for the losses in tiger shrimp as an important component in improving quality of seeds
production brought about by disease problems. and as such have designated national genetic improvement
centers to undertake research to further improve aquatic
5.2.1 Status of Seed Production breeds. Indonesia for one, has assigned institutes specific to
species, e.g. Sukabumi Aquaculture Development Center
Aquaculture production is mainly reliant on seed and Bogor Research Institute for Freshwater Aquaculture
availability. Seedstocks for the aquaculture of different are designated to do genetics research on tilapia, catfish,
species could be obtained from the wild or from captive carp and gourami, and other centers to engage in grouper,
stocks in hatcheries (Appendix 2). For species with seaweeds and tiger shrimp improvement. Apart from these

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research centers, broodstock multiplication centers and through known genetic improvement programs, grow-out
a nucleus breeding center especially for non-indigenous farms which receive the improved seedstock would need
species such as the whiteleg shrimp have also been to ensure that there would be no other unselected stocks
established mainly to reduce dependence on imported on-farm to avoid unintentional mixing of seedstocks for
broodstock (Sugama, 2011). Except for tilapia, the impact culture. One of the main challenges in the production
of the numerous genetic programs that aimed to develop and distribution of quality seedstocks would be keeping
growth-enhanced, stress tolerant and/or disease resistant the genetic quality and integrity of the seeds used in
species have yet to be evaluated in terms of their direct aquaculture (Romana-Eguia and de Jesus-Ayson, 2011)
impact on increased aquaculture production and the and addressing most of the problems in the development
gains derived from using the improved seedstocks on and production of quality seedstocks in the Southeast
commercial farming need to be quantified. Asian region (Appendix 4).

It is recognized that improved reproduction and As reported, an estimated 10% of the seedstocks used in
consequently, good quality seedstock are likewise aquaculture technically come from known genetically
achieved by nutritional intervention. SEAFDEC/AQD enhanced stocks. The lack of better seeds or lack of access
through its numerous research and verification studies to the same could either be due to flaws in the distribution
involving fish and shrimp feed development, has chain in that farmers still have limited access to genetically
determined the nutritional requirements in the formulation improved seedstocks. It is also possible that knowledge
of fish/crustacean broodstock diets that promote enhanced about potential sources of good stocks or strains, optimal
reproduction. This also contributes further to the fact that breeding, hatchery and nursery methods, selective
apart from genetics, appropriate or best management breeding techniques or simply efficient broodstock
protocols or the adoption of optimal husbandry techniques management schemes to maintain genetic integrity in farm
for rearing potential broodstock as well as for hatchery stocks, has not reached the farmers who are the ultimate
and nursery operations also help improve seed yield and end users. One way of addressing these issues would be
quality. to build and/or further strengthen public-private sector
partnerships. Establishing and maintaining links among all
5.2.3 Challenges and Future Direction the major players in the seed production and distribution
chain would basically be part of the responsibility of
Aquaculture seedstock are produced by both public and national governments.
private hatcheries. In many Southeast Asian countries, fish
and prawn hatcheries are normally based on small- and Grow-out operators who can afford the better seeds
backyard- scale operations (Tayamen, 2007). Traders serve which are sold at premium prices can choose to get
as the link between farmers and hatchery operators where them from private/commercial hatcheries that are able to
often when the seedstocks available from one hatchery do adopt advanced genetic technologies. Meanwhile, both
not meet the requirements or demand from prospective small-scale farmers and hatchery operators can seek the
grow-out farmers, the trader procures seedstocks from assistance of the government for capacity building to
various sources. This arrangement inevitably affects seed facilitate farmers’ adoption of new simple technologies,
quality as seeds would come from different farms and access to quality broodstock and seeds produced through
subsequently on-farm performance and yield would not be farmer-friendly broodstock management methods, and
what the farmer would expect. To ensure quality of seeds establishment of effective distribution links or channels to
that would be in compliance with industry standards, seed enable continuous production and profitable dissemination
certification standards should be defined and imposed, a of better seeds (Mair, 2002).
concern which some governments in Southeast Asia are
now trying to address. Countries like the Philippines, Finally, the best way to proceed would be for scientists to
still need to formulate and implement seed certification pursue research on existing genetic resources, particularly
standards while Vietnam and Indonesia, have been on how to improve the seeds to be used in aquaculture.
imposing regulations to ensure seed quality. Hatcheries For all the key players, from researchers, individual
such as those operated by large-scale investors, implement farmers and farmer clusters, academic organizations,
strict seed quality standards and dissemination schemes industry and governments, there is a need to establish
as required by genetically enhanced stocks. In addition to links to collectively address genetic issues, support sound
seed standards, these farms follow biosecurity measures policies and promote the implementation of better farm
on-farm, and this is especially true for disease-resistant management practices to improve the supply of quality
and disease-free shrimp seedstock. Ideally, to protect seeds and sustain aquatic food production in the region
the genetic integrity of premium seedstocks developed (Little et al., 2004; Little et al., 2007; Siriwardena 2007).

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5.3 Disease Diagnosis, Control, Monitoring Development of Diagnostic Methods for Important Viral
and Surveillance of Aquatic Animals Diseases of Aquatic Animals

Aquaculture has always been a major part of the economic Through the SEAFDEC Regional Fish Disease Project,
strategy adopted by many Southeast Asian countries for diagnostic methods have been developed to ensure healthy
reducing poverty in view of its great potentials to fill the and wholesome trading of aquaculture products in the
gap between supply and demand for fish and fish products Southeast Asian region. Generally, there are 3 levels of
especially the role that it has maintained as an important diagnostics: Level I, which provides the foundation and is
producer of high quality protein for domestic consumption the basis of higher diagnostic levels. It includes production
as well as a major generator of export earnings. However, site observations, record-keeping and health management;
the continuing population growth, the decline in marine Level II includes the specialization of parasitology,
fish catch, and the widespread poverty in the rural areas of histopathology, bacteriology and mycology; and Level
the region make it imperative that sustainable aquaculture III includes advanced specialization like immunology
be promoted to ensure food security. In fact, aquaculture and molecular techniques (Bontad-Reantaso et al., 2001).
in Southeast Asia has grown very rapidly especially The SEAFDEC Regional Fish Disease Project focused
during the last two decades, but due to irresponsible more on Level III diagnostics. As a matter of fact, the
introduction of aquatic species that allegedly carried implementation of the Project was also an opportune time
pathogens, a large number of infectious diseases have to prevent the spread and control of an emerging viral
emerged threatening the sustainability of aquaculture in disease of common carps known as koi herpesvirus (KHV)
the region. The occurrence of aquatic diseases has not which almost devastated carp production in the region.
only led to low production but has also threatened food The timely efforts of SEAFDEC to address such concern
security and raised alarming environmental concerns had ensured the sustainability of carp culture, a major
(Ogata, 2009). In a brave attempt to address the issues, economic livelihood in many Southeast Asian countries.
a regional project on fish disease was implemented at
SEAFDEC/AQD in Iloilo, Philippines since 2000 with The main activities of the Project aimed to address the
funding support from the Trust Fund Program of the concerns related to the reported viral diseases including
Government of Japan’s Fisheries Agency (JTF). Phases emerging ones in cultured shrimp and fish in Southeast
included in the Project are the Development of Fish Asia, such as the white spot syndrome virus (WSSV),
Disease Inspection Methodologies for Artificially-bred monodon baculovirus (MBV) of the black tiger shrimp
Seeds which focused on the development of diagnostic (Penaeus monodon), the taura syndrome virus (TSV)
methods for important viral diseases of aquatic animals in and infectious myonecrosis virus (IMNV) of the whiteleg
the region and Development of Fish Disease Surveillance shrimp (Penaeus vannamei) (Nagazawa, 2004). WSSV
System which aimed on the development of surveillance was in fact one of the root causes of the devastation of
system for diseases of aquatic animals. Also, another the shrimp culture industry that brought acute economic
phase of the project which is still on-going is the Food slow-down in Southeast Asia in the 1990s and even
Safety of Aquaculture Products. Through this Regional until now. This epizootic probably began in China then
Fish Disease Project, trading of healthy and wholesome subsequently spread to Japan, Taiwan and the rest of
aquaculture products has been promoted in the Southeast Asia. Outbreak will cause a high and rapid mortality
Asian region (SEAFDEC, 2008a). which may reach 100% within 10 days from the onset
of clinical signs. Host range extends widely into other
5.3.1. Status, Issues and Concerns marine and freshwater crustacean species, including
annelids, copepods and even aquatic insect larvae. This
Important findings from the Project have been disseminated persistence in wild crustacean species in the vicinity of
to the countries in the region through hands-on training shrimp farms may make the disease difficult to eradicate
and information dissemination. Meanwhile, the countries from affected aquaculture areas. Through the Project,
in the region are also exerting efforts in controlling aquatic Level III diagnostic method such as the polymerase chain
diseases to safeguard the quality of their products which reaction (PCR) was optimized and standardized for WSSV
are meant not only for domestic consumption but also for (de la Peña et al., 2007). MBV is exemplified by problems
the export markets. For its part, SEAFDEC would continue related to infection that is usually encountered in hatchery
to provide the means in order that the objectives of the and grow-out operations because its outbreak can slow
countries are attained and to ensure that the requirements the growth of the cultured animals. Level III diagnostic
for safety and quality of the customers especially the methods have also been optimized and standardized for
international markets are being complied with. However, MBV and hepatopancreatic parvovirus (HPV) in shrimp
this would depend much on the available resources at (Catap et al., 2003; Catap and de la Peña, 2005; de la
SEAFDEC. Peña et al., 2008). TSV was first recognized in Ecuador
in early 1990s where the disease caused heavy losses

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with a very high cumulative mortality rate of affected harveyi, a common bacterial disease that has also heavily
cultured P. vannamei. It was not reported in Asia until after affected shrimp aquaculture in the Southeast Asian region,
introduction of P. vannamei in Taiwan in the late 1990s were also developed as alternatives for chemotherapy (de
and was subsequently reported from most Asian countries Castro-Mallare et al., 2005). Results from the standardized
where P. vannamei were imported for aquaculture. IMNV diagnostic and husbandry methods for disease control have
is considered as an emerging viral disease and its outbreak been disseminated to the region through hands-on training
was initially documented in Brazilian P. vannamei farms and massive information dissemination.
in 2002. The virus caused low but steady mortality leading
to accumulated losses up to 70%. In mid-2006, IMNV E-learning on Principles of Health Management in
outbreak was reported in Indonesia (Flegel, 2009; Taukhid Aquaculture
and Nur’aini, 2009). The legalization of the importation
of P. vannamei in several Asian countries including the Since 1988, AQD has been conducting classroom-based
Philippines for aquaculture hastened the efforts for the face-to-face training courses on health management
establishment of Level III diagnostic methods such as RT- in aquaculture on a regular basis at its main station in
PCR for both TSV and IMNV. These diagnostic methods Tigbauan, Iloilo, Philippines. Later in the early 2000s,
are very useful in the pre- and post-border screening of the teacher-student face-to-face setting had been changed
imported stocks. into a distance-learning mode, which AQD considered
more convenient and practical for a learner to acquire
In marine fish, well known viral diseases that severely knowledge and skills in health management at his own
affect the aquaculture industry in the region are the viral place and at his own time. This new learning experience
nervous necrosis (VNN) and iridovirus and also the via information technology was developed for the AQD
koi herpesvirus (KHV) for the freshwater fish. VNN is AquaHealth Online, which covers up-to-date knowledge
considered as one of the most devastating diseases of on fish and crustacean diseases, the causal organisms and
marine fish. Larvae and juveniles are the most affected the methods of disease prevention and control (Lavilla-
stages wherein outbreaks may cause up to 100% mortality. Pitogo and Torres, 2004). Targeting full-time working
Iridovirus may also cause infections in many marine fish professionals, AquaHealth Online aims to introduce the
such as red seabream and groupers wherein mortalities principles of health management in aquaculture, and is
may reach 60% among fingerlings and market-sized fish. envisaged that by the end of the course, online participants
Methods to detect, prevent and control VNN infection should be able to recognize diseased shrimps and fish,
in marine fish hatchery have also been developed and identify the cause(s) of the diseases, explain how the
established (Pakingking et al., 2009 and 2010; de la diseases develop, apply preventive and control measures to
Peña, 2010). Level III diagnostics such as PCR was also lessen the risks posed by the diseases, and use appropriate
optimized and standardized for iridovirus. techniques for the preparation of samples for disease
diagnosis. The AquaHealth Online was developed to train
The first outbreak of the viral disease in koi and common a large pool of geographically dispersed participants at
carp (Cyprinus carpio) known as the koi herpesvirus minimum costs. Since its first session in 2002, AquaHealth
disease (KHVD) was reported to have caused mortalities in Online has trained more than 150 e-learners not only from
carps in Indonesia in early 2002 and in Japan in 2003. With Southeast Asia but also from other regions in the world.
potential threats of spreading in other Southeast Asian Based on the feedbacks from the e-learners, AquaHealth
countries, SEAFDEC through the Regional Fish Disease Online has proved that a state-of-the-art online course
Project initiated strategies for the prevention and control of can be as effective as the face-to-face training. However,
the KHVD. Kanazawa (2005) cited that in 2003, the losses AquaHealth Online requires that participants should have
incurred by Indonesia due to the KHVD was more than basic knowledge of written English and competency in
US$ 15 million, and considering that common carp is an using the computers and browsing the Internet.
important source of protein in the rural areas in Southeast
Asia, it has become necessary for AQD to conduct Fish Disease Surveillance System
studies on KHVD taking into account its high virulence
and devastating impact on the freshwater aquaculture The Regional Fish Disease Project also focused on the
sector. Lio-Po et al. (2009) cited that the results of the development of Fish Disease Surveillance System in
studies on KHVD conducted at AQD that targeted five Southeast Asia to assist its Member Countries in their
Asian countries had provided basic data on the status of efforts in fish health management. Both general and
the disease in the region and led to the prevention of the targeted surveillance were implemented; thus, a network
transboundary movement of KHVD in Southeast Asia. In of the region’s resources and facilities for fish health
addition, husbandry techniques (e.g. use of live bacteria diagnosis has been established while human capacity
or probiotics and “green water” culture system) to control building has been enhanced. During the implementation
the luminous vibrosis caused by Vibrio spp. such as Vibrio of the Project, AQD has continued to refine the diagnostic

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methods to be able to develop new prevention methods for have been conducted to develop detection methods of
aquatic animal diseases. More importantly, a surveillance residual antibiotics in aquaculture products. Oxolinic acid
system for important viral diseases for shrimps in the (OXA) and tetracycline (TC) are the most extensively used
region has been instituted. As a result, the countries have antibiotics in aquaculture and in order to determine the
developed a well-coordinated network for the timely residue levels of OXA and TC in aquaculture products,
and efficient reporting on any outbreak of any aquatic high performance liquid chromatography methods had
disease in the region as exemplified in the reporting of been developed (Tan et al., 2005). Moreover, a compilation
KHVD which spared the region’s freshwater aquaculture of the methods for chloramphenicol and nitrofuran
sector from total economic collapse. As one of the most residue testing were prepared by MFRD and AQD and
significant outcomes of this Project, the countries in disseminated to the region’s fish disease laboratories
the region can now boast of its regionally-recognized (Ruangpan and Tendencia, 2004; Borlongan and Ng,
reference laboratory for specific aquatic diseases. 2004). Furthermore, evaluation methods for residual
chemicals in aquaculture products have been established
In order to review the emerging fish diseases and to to secure the safety of aquaculture products while the
keep the region abreast on the advances in pathogenesis, use of antibiotics in the region’s aquaculture industry has
diagnosis, epidemiology, and surveillance of emerging been closely monitored (Borlongan, 2005; Ruangpan and
diseases of aquatic animals the International Workshop Pradit, 2005).
on Emerging Fish Diseases in Asia was convened by
SEAFDEC in December 2007 in Bangkok, Thailand. 5.3.2 Challenges and Future Direction
Attended by more than 70 participants from 17 countries
including the Southeast Asian region, the information Recognizing that aquaculture which is an important
obtained from the Workshop has largely contributed to contributor to food security in the region has been severely
the promotion of responsible aquaculture in the region. threatened, efforts have been made by SEAFDEC in
Moreover, the knowledge gained by Southeast Asian collaboration with the Member Countries towards its
countries on newly emerging aquatic diseases could boost sustainable development through the effective control
their efforts in preventing the occurrence and spread of of diseases by developing technology and techniques
any aquatic diseases. Moreover, AQD has also updated for disease identification, quick and reliable field-
information related to fish disease management based side diagnosis and harmonized diagnostic procedures
on considerable research findings achieved through the specifically on Level III diagnostic methods; establishing
implementation of the Project (Lio-Po and Inui, 2010). regional and inter-regional referral systems including
This would then ensure that aquaculture products from the designation of reference laboratories; reducing risks of
region are safe and wholesome for human consumption. negative environmental impacts, loss of biodiversity,
and disease transfer by regulating the introduction and
Monitoring Residual Chemicals in Aquaculture Products transfer of aquatic organisms; and establishing quality
standards and take measures to reduce or eliminate the
The expansion of aquaculture farming activities over the use of harmful chemicals.
years has made the health of the culture animals under
constant threat from bioagressors such as viruses, bacteria, Considering that the occurrence of diseases in aquaculture
parasites and fungi. In an effort to control the occurrence is attributed to irresponsible management practices
of such bioagressors, many farmers use antibiotics and that bring about deteriorated culture conditions, some
other chemicals without knowing that some could be innovations have been adopted by many countries in
toxic to humans and pose danger to the wellness of the region that aimed to prevent disease outbreak. This
the environment. Improper use could also induce the includes the installation of effluent reservoirs which has
development of resistant pathogens in the cultured aquatic been found effective in controlling viral diseases (Platon et
species, the human consumers and the environment (Platon al., 2007). Also included is the concept of total biosecurity
et al., 2007). Considering that the presence of chemical system which comprises the installation of disinfection
residues in aquaculture products poses threats to human baths, dedicated paraphernalia per pond, screening of
health, SEAFDEC through the Regional Fish Disease postlarvae for diseases, presence of reservoir ponds,
Project has developed and standardized detection methods water filtration and treatment for incoming and outgoing
for residual chemicals such as pesticides and antibiotics in water and proactive monitoring of the animals and rearing
aquaculture products. This is aimed at securing safe and water during the culture. In addition, strategies have been
healthy aquaculture products from the Southeast Asian formulated to control fish diseases in aquaculture systems
region. (Platon et al., 2007) as well as address the issues on
healthy and wholesome aquaculture (Toledo et al., 2011)
With the cooperation of the Singapore-based SEAFDEC which should be considered specifically in the further
Marine Fisheries Research Department (MFRD), studies development and refinement of the various methods and

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techniques for fish disease prevention and control, taking for FM and FPs such as the low value with high volume
into account the various preventive measures that are now aquaculture species should be encouraged and to a certain
being advanced that could inhibit the use of chemical extent environment regulations should be put in place.
inputs in aquaculture. In addition, there is a need for greater involvement of
governments to expand the market and promote consumer
More importantly, AQD would continue to focus its acceptance of low value species.
activities in addressing the areas of concern of responsible
aquaculture development guided by the priorities 5.4.1 Use of Fishmeals and Fish-based Products for
especially on the development of responsible aquaculture Aquafeeds
technologies and practices, responsible use of genetic
resources for the purpose of aquaculture, adoption of Production from fed aquaculture is 54% of total production
measures to avoid environmental degradation, and in Asia (FAO, 2008). In 2009, the Southeast Asian region
promotion of environmentally sound culture methods which is a major producer of aquaculture products, the
and commodities. There is certainty that if uncontrolled, volume of production was 12.5 million MT valued at US$
irresponsible practices in aquaculture would continue 14.8 billion (FAO, 2010). The amount of raw materials that
to threaten food safety and create negative impacts goes into aquafeed production in the region is significant
on the ecosystem. It is for this reason that AQD has and the impact is tremendous on non-renewable resources
been promoting the concept of healthy and wholesome or on the raw materials with limited supply. The collective
aquaculture, which is a holistic approach to fish disease impact of market forces, research results, and pressures
management for food safety and security. This concept of environmental issues lowered the inclusion levels of
also promotes the use of efficient feeds which are cost FM as a source of high quality protein and minerals as
effective and low-polluting in order to optimize production well as that of FO as a source of omega fatty acids, the
and healthy famed aquatic animals with the least negative second most valuable among the FPs in compounded
impact to the environment (Toledo et al., 2011). feeds for aquaculture. Global reported data showed that
these ingredients are expected to decline from 1995 to
5.4 Development of Sustainable Aquaculture 2010 in the levels of FM and FO in compounded feed
Feeds of milkfish (Chanos chanos) from 15% to 3% and 3% to
1%, respectively.
Southeast Asia is a major producer of aquaculture products
and aquaculture production has been steadily increasing Except for catfish, a similar trend is also reported for
with concomitant increase in the demand for aquafeeds shrimps, marine fish and tilapia. The compounded feeds
in the region. Fishmeal (FM) and fish derived products for these species have become less dependent on FM and
(FPs) such as fish oil (FO), fish hydrolysates, fish protein FO as lesser amounts are used, and are also increasingly
concentrates, fish processing by-products, and fish soluble, efficient as shown by lower average FCR values from
are the major components of aquafeeds that would satisfy 1995 to 2010. The decreased levels of FM and FO in
nutrient requirements and acceptability. However, FM and aquafeed imply that there is now less pressure on the
FPs are not always available and market prices could be manufacture of FM and FO. However, fish production
unstable. Hence, these have big impacts on aquaculture from aquaculture in the Southeast Asian region has
activity and its sustainability. increased and more fish farmers are using efficient
compounded feeds in aquaculture, increasing the demand
Aquaculture feeds with lesser dependence on these for aquafeed production and thus, increasing also the total
feedstuffs are being developed to sustain growth of requirements for FM and FPs. For instance, the volume
aquaculture in the Southeast Asian region. Decreasing the of aquafeeds used in the culture of milkfish between 1995
levels of FM and FPs in aquafeeds has been the objective and 2007 has more than doubled while that for the other
of many feed formulators and feed millers. Therefore, species groups has quadrupled (Table 59). In 2010, the
research effort should emphasize on determining the estimated volumes of total feeds for the culture of these
lowest levels of FM and FPs in feeds formulated for species also increased. Thus, with increased aquafeed use
specific aquaculture species in their stages of growth in aquaculture production in the Southeast Asian region,
without loss in efficacy and on protein production. This the demand for FM and FPs will continue to increase.
has been achieved to a certain extent, for example in the
compounded feeds for some species using alternative 5.4.2 Issues and Concerns
protein sources and nutritional interventions. Improvement
and refinement of formulations, however, should be Aquaculture production in the Southeast Asian region has
continued together with technologies that make alternative been increasingly dependent on aquafeeds and this trend
protein sources commercially available and cheap. will continue as long as resources for the feed poduction
Moreover, the culture of species with low requirement are available. However, FM and FPs which are significant

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components of aquafeeds are finite resources, and as such As a result, products with soybean as the base component
feed producers and feed formulators are optimizing the are coming out in the market with enhanced protein
use of these feedstuffs in aquafeeds. There is a lower limit level and amino acid profile. These enhanced products
to the inclusion of these feedstuffs in compounded feeds are not cheap and so their utilization is constrained by
for specific species for culture without loss of efficiency. the economics of aquafeed manufacturing. The use
The pressure on FM and FPs would be greatly alleviated of genetically modified soya and corn in aquafeed is
by finding the right resources as alternatives for protein also a concern for some sectors of the industry. Plant
and oils in aquafeeds. These alternative resources should protein sources such as corn, peas, Leucaena leaf meal,
come in adequate supply, cheap, effective, and acceptable the leguminous meals, and copra meal are commonly
to consumers. The use of alternative protein sources found in the region and these have been increasingly
in aquafeeds has been done successfully to a certain used in fish diets, thus, decreasing reliance on the use of
percentage of the protein coming from FM. The common protein from FM. The other plant sources such as rice
sources are those coming from plants which are high in bran, wheat, palm kernel meal, ground nut cake which
fiber and contain some anti-nutrients. Soybean which is are used mainly as sources of carbohydrates in aquafeed
the most important plant protein source in aquafeed is contains small amounts of proteins and thus, FM protein
highly digestible to most species for culture. However, is substituted to a lesser extent. Through fermentation
its use in aquafeeds is constrained by its application in processes, the nutrients in these plant sources can be
the livestock industry, for human consumption, and for made more available, however, constraints in the use of
the production of ethanol and biodiesel. The importance these feedstuffs could include keeping their quality and
and acceptability of soybean meal, however, as a major acceptance by fish.
plant protein source (also a source of lecithin and oil) has
long been recognized. Agricultural by-products including rendered products of
terrestrial animal origin and dried grains as by-products
of fermentation and distilleries have also been effectively

Table 59. Fishmeal (FM) and fish oil (FO) uses and efficiencies (1995), and
estimates based on expected growth (2007-2010) in milkfish and four species
groups
Total feeds
Species/ Percentage Average Feed Average FM Average FO usedb
on feeda Conversion level in feed level in feed (Thousand
Group Ratio (FCR) (%) (%) Tonnes)
Milkfish
1995 30 2 15 3 220

2007 41 2 3 1 499

2010 44 1.9 3 1 572

Shrimp

1995 75 2 28 2 1,392

2007 93 1.7 18 2 5,603

2010 95 1.6 12 2 7,170

Marine fish

1995 50 2 50 15 498

2007 72 1.9 30 7 2,311

2010 73 1.8 24 6 2,797

Tilapia

1995 70 2 14 1 984

2007 82 1.7 5 0 3,590

2010 85 1.7 3 0 4,953

Catfish

1995 85 2 5 1 345

2007 72 1.5 8 1.7 2,080

2010 73 1.5 6 1.7 2,923

Source: Data from Tacon and Metian, 2008.
a
Estimated percentage of milkfish and total species group fed on aquafeeds
b
Estimated total aquafeed used

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used in aquafeed formulations but the inclusion level is of aquaculture. The fast growth of aquaculture sector has
limited. Rendered by-products are cheaper and those that spurred a great demand for aquafeed and most importantly
have been successfully used in aquafeeds production as on FPs as important ingredients in aquafeed production.
protein sources are blood meal, meat and bone meal, This has resulted in some cases in the adulteration and
feather meal, and poultry by-product meal. Furthermore, indiscriminate addition of chemicals in these commodities
dried grains have high fiber content but may not be to avoid spoilage, increase bulk weight, retain freshness,
always palatable to fish. Many studies have shown the and to improve fish health and growth. Adulterations
use of these by-products in aquafeeds, but the reduced in fishmeal had been reported and governments of the
digestibility of these products in fish is a constraint. In Southeast Asian countries should take important steps to
addition, poor market acceptance has limited the use of curtail this activity since it undermines the use of FM, the
rendered products. efficiency of the aquafeeds, and the safety of aquaculture
products.
Plant-based oil which is cheaper than marine fish oils
have also been used in aquafeeds. The sources of plant The use or application of basic nutritional information
oils are sunflower, olive, coconut, corn, and palm, in the formulation of aquafeeds by formulators in the
but the use of these oils is limited by their fatty acid aquafeed industry is critical in improving the efficiency
profiles and degree of un-saturation. Nevertheless, of the feeds and sustaining aquaculture. However, more
these characteristics benefit most freshwater species research still needs to be done to improve the understanding
for culture. The combination of plant-based oils with of fish nutrition and feeding management, as for example
marine oils has been known to improve feed utilization in the use of enzyme complexes to reduce FM required in
by cultivable marine species. Other feed ingredients that aquafeeds to give the same or even improved performance
can be used as FM and FPs substitutes include fermented in fishes which seems to be feasible. Much research efforts
plant protein, single cell protein, krill, and by-products of on FM and FPs substitutions in aquafeed have been done
seafood processing (Naylor et al., 2009). These are good and presently being done, where valuable results should
and suitable substitutes but they are not yet produced in be made accessible to people who are responsible for the
commercial quantities and, in the case of krill, the adverse adaptation and use of such information.
ecosystem impacts. Numerous fishery products are used
as feed ingredients in aquafeed and probably not all can 5.4.3 Challenges and Future Direction
be substituted by alternative sources. The most important
ones are FM and FO, and these are the focus of much More efficient compounded feeds with lesser inclusion of
research effort for many species. These investigations FM and FPs are presently produced compared with the
also include other rich sources of DHA and EPA such as situation a decade ago. Therefore, efforts to continue such
marine algal resources. initiatives should be sustained through the involvement
of other sectors of the industry. For the sustainability
Research had also been done on the use of leaf meals as of the industry in the region, a more aggressive and
alternative protein sources in commonly cultured fish in the multidisciplinary effort in finding adequate substitutes in
region. Although substitution of FM is possible to a certain aquaculture feeds should be pursued, while the various
level but processing leaf meals would be expensive and, in challenges should be addressed. The major challenge
addition, contain anti-nutritional factors. In the continuing in the use of conventional feed ingredients for aquafeed
efforts to develop new formulations using non-traditional formulations are commercial availability, quality, and the
feed ingredients, the use of beneficial microorganisms adequacy of nutrients to meet the requirements of specific
in the gut of aquaculture species have been explored to species. In addition to cost, there is competition for these
ferment common feedstuffs to increase their suitability resources from other users such as the food producing
for use in aquafeeds, while other fermentation methods sector. Government subsidies and incentives will help
such as solid state fermentation, are also being explored bring down the cost, but, stringent regulations should be
to process non-traditional feed ingredients. in place to safeguard quality. Furthermore, for effective
FM and FPs substitution in aquafeeds, research should be
The cultivation of low-value with high-volume fish conducted on feedstuff digestibility for important species
species is being promoted because they require lesser for culture, as well as intervention should be in place in
amount of FM and FPs in the feeds compared with the order to achieve nutrient balance, palatability, and stability
high-value with low-volume species which are mostly in compounded feeds to enhance the FCR.
marine carnivores. In this case, farmers prefer to grow such
species because of the profitability of farm operations or Commercial quantity is also a constraint for the non-
incentives given by the government. However, the use of traditional feed ingredients. However, it is crucial to
high amounts of FM can be limited to the larval feeds and establish efficacy through research to enable the other
lesser amounts can be included in the feed for later stages sectors of the industry to follow with the commercial

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production of these feed ingredients. Aquaculture products dwindling supply of wild aquatic resources, aquaculture
grown on non-traditional feedstuffs should also be assessed has been projected to compensate the declining fishery
for acceptable sensory characteristics such as odor, color, production and considered a reliable solution to food
taste, and texture. Traceability, effect on human health, security problems. However, as aquaculture production
and impact on the environment are significant issues to intensifies, a lot of problems have been linked with it.
be addressed in the use of non-traditional ingredients.
Databases are available on feed ingredients that include The phenomenal growth of aquaculture in the recent years
their nutrition composition, usage in industrially- and has caused modification, destruction or complete loss of
farm-made aquafeeds, quality criteria, limitation of habitat; unregulated collection of wild broodstocks and
use, as well as documented feeding studies (Tacon et seeds; translocation or introduction of exotic species; loss
al., 2009; Hertrampf and Pascual, 2000). Databases of biodiversity; introduction of antibiotics and chemicals
should be updated to contain the current information to the environment; discharge of aquaculture wastewater,
on feed ingredient including those on non-traditional thus coastal pollution; salinization of soil and water;
feed ingredients, and should be made available to feed and dependence on fishmeal and fish oil as aquaculture
manufacturers, researchers, fish farmers, policy makers, feed ingredients, to name a few (Chua et al., 1989;
and other stakeholders. Iwama 1991; Beveridge et al., 1994; Naylor et al., 2000;
Primavera, 2006). Efforts have been done by the countries
The use of alternative substitutes for FM and FPs has in the region to increase production and at the same time
some setbacks such as poor palatability, poor digestibility, minimize impacts of aquaculture on the environment.
essential amino acids deficiency, high fiber content, and
limited inclusion level. Technological innovations are 5.5.1 Status, Issues and Concerns
therefore needed to effectively use these in aquafeeds.
Genetic engineering can improve amino acid profile The many advantages of aquaculture provide a strong
in legumes and increase DHA/EPA levels of plant- and credible argument for its continued implementation.
derived oils. In addition, with technological innovations, Aquaculture continues to provide valuable food supply
concentrated and hydrolyzed protein products can be and economic support for many countries. However, the
made cheaper and bone content in meat and bone meal industry has its own share of problems that need to be
can be adjusted to reduce calcium levels. In addition, addressed, the most important of which is its impact on
genetic selection can be done for strains/stocks that can the environment. In order to limit the potential negative
efficiently utilize plant derived non-traditional ingredients.
It is apparent that the demand for aquafeed will continue
to increase in the region as more aquaculture operations
will be producing fish through fed aquaculture. The
development of efficient aquafeeds with less dependence
on FM and FPs should be pursued aggressively and
with more multidisciplinary research efforts. Some feed
ingredients with potentials for use as substitutes for these
resources are already found in the market. Their efficacy
to substitute FM and FPs in aquafeed including those of
non-traditional feed ingredients can be increased through
technological innovations. Figure 38. Aquaculture production from 1950 to 2009
(Source: FAO database)
5.5 Minimizing Impacts of Aquaculture on the
Environment

Aquaculture is the fastest-growing food production

system globally, with about 9% increase in production
per year since 1985 (Diana, 2009). On the average, Asia
which is known as the birthplace of aquaculture (Tacon
et al., 1995) provides 83% (range: 59-91%) of the total
world aquaculture production, 14% of which comes from
Southeast Asia (Fig. 38). Indonesia and the Philippines
contribute the most to aquaculture production in Southeast
Asia at 23-42% and 20-45% of the total production from
Figure 39. Contribution (%) of Southeast Asian countries to
aquaculture, respectively (Fig. 39). With the increasing aquaculture production of the region from 1950 to 2009
demand for fish and fishery products coupled with the (Source: FAO database)

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environmental impacts of aquaculture effluents, studies are and the adverse environmental impacts of aquaculture
being conducted, policies and laws are being formulated, development, important issues that have become a matter
and there is a concerted effort of the scientific community, of urgency to the Southeast Asian region.
academe, policy makers, farm owners, and government
authorities to come up with approaches that could help Among the coastal ecosystems, mangroves are the most
reduce production of aquaculture wastes or mitigate its greatly affected by aquaculture. The positive feedback
impact. of aquaculture in boosting production and compensating
losses from capture fisheries is usually coupled with
The specific strategy for mitigating the negative effects of negative feedback of converting mangroves to aquaculture
aquaculture will depend on local conditions. Among the ponds. Southeast Asia used to have the widest and the
basic approaches are choosing a location with high flushing most diverse mangroves in the world but between 1980
rates and deep water, and using dry, easily digested feeds and 2005 it suffered a decline of more than 26% (Spalding
that will help reduce the potential negative impacts et al., 2010), where most of the losses were due to
(Iwama, 1991). In addition, treating farm effluents prior to conversion of mangrove areas into milkfish and shrimp
discharge; limiting the concentration of specific dissolved/ ponds (Naylor et al., 2000). Looking at the countries as
suspended inorganic/organic materials and/or nutrients major contributors to aquaculture production in Southeast
contained within the effluent discharged from the farm; Asia, Indonesia which had the widest mangrove cover
establishing maximum permissible amounts of specific worldwide (Giri et al., 2010; Spalding et al., 2010), began
nutrients (such as total nitrogen or phosphorus) that the large-scale mangrove conversions for extensive milkfish
farm is able to discharge over a fixed time period; limiting ponds called tambaks, as early as the 1950’s (Fast and
the total number of licenses that can be issued and/or size Menasveta, 2003). The country reportedly converted
of farm, depending upon the vicinity of other farming 269,000 ha of mangroves to shrimp ponds between 1960
operations and the assimilative environmental carrying and 1990 (Harrison and Pearce, 2000 in Thornton et al.,
capacity of the receiving aquatic ecosystem; limiting or 2003) and which remains a major threat to its mangroves
fixing the total quantity of feed the farm is able to use (Spalding et al., 1997).
over a fixed time period; fixing maximum permissible
specific nutrient levels within the compound feeds to be From 1951 to 1988, almost half of the 279,000 ha of
used to rear the species in question; banning the use of Philippine mangroves were developed into culture ponds
specific potentially high-risk feed items such as fresh/ with 95% of brackishwater ponds in 1952–1987 derived
trash fish and invertebrates; banning the use of certain from mangroves (Primavera, 2000). From 1975 to 1993,
chemicals and antibiotics; prescribing minimum feed the mangrove area in Thailand was halved from 312,700 to
performance criteria; requiring the use of specific Codes 168,683 ha. Mangrove conversion for shrimp aquaculture
of Conduct, including appropriate Best Management began in 1974 but accelerated in 1985 when shrimp farm
Practices (BMPs) for farm operations; requiring the areas expanded from 31,906 to 66,027 ha and number
development of suitable farm/pond sediment management of farms increased from 3,779 to 21,917 in 1983-1996
strategies for the storage and disposal of sediments; and/ (Barbier, 2003). Vietnam has reportedly lost more than
or requiring the implementation of an environmental 80% of its mangrove forests over the last 50 years and
monitoring program have been suggested by Tacon and shrimp aquaculture is considered to be the greatest threat
Forster (2003). However, most fish farmers still do not to the remaining mangroves (Thornton et al., 2003).
follow these approaches at present, and thus, continuing These conversions result in loss of goods and ecosystem
implementation of only some but not most, would mean services generated by mangroves including plant and wood
that the environment continues to suffer. products, provision of nursery habitat, coastal protection,

Coastal aquaculture is a traditional practice in Southeast

Asia, and prior to the establishment of SEAFDEC/
AQD in 1973, Indonesia has been the top aquaculture
producing country in the region (Fig 40). Five years after
SEAFDEC/AQD was established until 2004, Philippines
led the Southeast Asian countries in terms of aquaculture
production. However, as aquaculture development in the
region accelerated, it has created negative environmental
impacts. As one of the leading institutions for aquaculture
research and development in Southeast Asia, SEAFDEC/
AQD needs to continue developing management
Figure 40. Aquaculture production of the top six producing
measures to mitigate deteriorating coastal water quality
countries in Southeast Asia from 1950 to 2009
(Source: FAO database)

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 SEASOFIA: The Southeast Asian State of Fisheries and Aquaculture 2012

flood control, sediment trapping and water treatment deficit caused by the decomposition of organic substances;
(Macnae, 1968; Bandaranayake, 1998; Ewel et al., 1998). sedimentation; eutrophication or algal bloom caused
In Southeast Asia, mangrove-dependent species account by the accumulation of organic nutrients like nitrogen
for roughly one-third of yearly wild fish landings excluding and phosphorus; changes in energy and nutrient fluxes,
trash fish (Naylor et al., 2000). A positive relationship changes in pelagic and benthic biomass and community
between fish and shrimp landings and mangrove area has structure and fish stocks; low productivity; and sometimes
been documented in Indonesia (Martosubroto and Naamin, disease outbreak. Moreover, inadequate handling of
1977), Philippines (Camacho and Bagarinao, 1986) and wastewater has serious consequences for human health,
Thailand (Barbier, 2003). Aside from losing these goods the environment and economic development (Cao et al.,
and services, converting mangroves into aquaculture ponds 2007). This past decade, fish kills have been a recurring
transforms an open access fisheries with multiple users phenomenon in the Philippines. The most serious among
to a privatized farm resource of few wealthy individual the recent ones was in Taal Lake, Batangas last 28 May
investors and business enterprises. 2011 which resulted in the death of about 752.6 MT of fish
with an estimated value of US$1.3 million. Fish kills in the
The impacts of aquaculture on biodiversity are rarely country have been attributed to eutrophic waters and algal
positive, sometimes neutral, but usually negative to certain bloom (Azanza et al., 2005; San Diego-McGlone et al.,
degree (Beveridge et al., 1994). Loss of biodiversity is 2008) which could be linked to uncontrolled proliferation
one of the consequences of habitat modification or its of fish pens and cages to more than double the allowable
complete destruction to give way to aquaculture ponds. limit (Yap et al., 2004; San Diego-McGlone et al., 2008).
Globally, mangrove biodiversity is highest in the Indo-
Malay Philippine Archipelago with 36-46 of the 70 known Aside from wastes, aquaculture also introduces various
mangrove species occurring in this region. However, chemicals to the environment in the form of therapeutants,
the region has one of the highest rates of mangrove area disinfectants, water or soil treatment compounds, algicides
loss at an estimated of 30% reduction in mangrove area and pesticides, fertilizers, and feed additives. The
since 1980 (Polidoro et al., 2010). Although mangrove excessive use of these chemicals can result in toxicity to
species diversity may be low, faunal, microbial and other non-target populations, human consumers and wild biota,
associated species diversity can be high (Alongi, 2009). and the accumulation of their residues (Primavera, 2006).
Thus, losing mangroves means losing a highly complex Antibiotics such as tetracycline, oxytetracycline, oxolinic
system that serves as nursery or permanent residence for acid, furazolidone, and chloramphenicol have also been
a range of organisms, both from the terrestrial and the used excessively the result of which could lead to the
aquatic environments (Macnae, 1968; Alongi, 2002). development of bacteria-resistant populations (Tendencia
The interdependence of mangroves with sea grass beds and de la Peña, 2001; Hoa et al., 2011).
and coral reefs is apparent in the movement of fish and
other organisms observed between these three adjacent 5.5.2 Challenges and Future Direction
systems (Gillanders et al., 2003; Sheridan and Hays,
2003). Losing one of these habitats will affect all three There is an urgent need to change the present aquaculture
ecosystems and everything that dwells in them. Aside practices in order to minimize its environmental impact
from habitat modification, unregulated collection of and preserve the remaining habitats which may eventually
broodstock and wild seeds for use in aquaculture facilities be affected as aquaculture continues to intensify.
may eventually threaten the wild population. The same Aquaculture had intensified because of diminishing wild
could also happen to fish species harvested for use in stocks, but there are other ways of replenishing depleted
fishmeal and fish oil production. Regardless of purpose, stocks, such as regulating the fishing effort; restoring
indiscriminate harvesting of wild stocks has negative degraded nursery and spawning habitats; or enhancing
impact on biodiversity. the stocks (Blankenship and Leber, 1995).

As the world’s fastest growing agriculture industry, In the case of aquaculture, habitat rehabilitation or
aquaculture has heightened public concerns about restoration should be more focused on mangroves which
pollution, water quality degradation, health and other suffered most because of pond construction. The review
violations of the public trust (Costa-Pierce, 1996). paper of Ellison (2000) suggested that although most of the
Aquaculture wastewater outputs and loads vary widely, objectives of restoration projects were for forest products,
depending upon the species cultured, farming systems coastal protection and stabilization, two Southeast
employed and aquatic environment utilized (Tacon and Asian countries have set their goals for maintenance or
Forster, 2003). Aquaculture wastes are mostly derived sustainability of fisheries (Malaysia) and provision of
from excess feeds and fecal matter, and continuous habitat for wildlife (Vietnam). Rehabilitating nursery
discharge of wastewater without treatment could result in habitats is effective in restoring populations of naturally
a chain of undesirable events, that include serious oxygen occurring species and considered as one of the approaches

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in enhancing fisheries (Welcomme and Bartley, 1998). 2002), and shrimp pond culture (Shimoda et al., 2006) in
This has been observed in mud crabs, Scylla spp. in the Indonesia. A forestry program was initiated in Indonesia
reforested mangroves in Kalibo, Aklan in the Philippines by the state forest enterprise in 1976 integrating forest
(Walton et al., 2007) and mangrove recolonized abandoned management with fish production. Popularly known as
pond in Dumangas, Iloilo also in the Philippines (Lebata- the ‘tumpang sari’, the program allows for crops to be
Ramos, unpublished data). grown while protecting the forest and optimizing land
use, filling 80% of the ponds with trees and leaving 20%
Stock enhancement using individuals reared in aquaculture for fish production (Adger and Luttrell, 2000). Aside
facilities is becoming a popular method of supplementing from integrating aquaculture into the mangroves, culture
depleted stocks (Bert et al., 2003). Bell et al. (2006) species, i.e. seaweeds, mussels and oysters, and fish can
discussed two of the most successful stock enhancement also be reared in mangrove waterways.
initiatives, which are the augmentation of scallop fishery
in Hokkaido, Japan causing a four-fold increase in annual The concept and practice of integrated aquaculture is
harvests; and the 20-year shrimp release program in well-known in inland environments in Asia, but much
China which achieved a 7 to 10-fold return of investment. less reported in the marine environments. In the recent
The success in stock enhancement depends on setting years, the idea of integrated aquaculture has been
the management goals and identifying the right species often considered a mitigation approach against the
for release. Once these are determined the ten essential excess nutrients/organic matter generated by intensive
components of a “responsible” enhancement program aquaculture activities particularly in marine waters.
suggested by Blankenship and Leber (1995) can be Integrated marine aquaculture can cover a diverse range
distilled into three critical issues, namely: 1) understanding of co-culture/farming practices, including the integrated
the nature of the system or the habitat for release; 2) multitrophic aquaculture (IMTA) and aquasilviculture.
producing robust, compatible individuals for release; and IMTA explicitly incorporates species from different
3) evaluating the effects of releases (Blaylock et al., 2000). trophic positions or nutritional levels in the same system
for bioremediation and economic returns (Soto, 2009).
Most stock enhancement activities have failed because Integration can be directly beneficial to farmers either
of lack of proper habitat for released juveniles. Stock through additional valuable products, improved water
enhancement can be very effective if accompanied quality, prevention of diseases, habitat conservation, or
with habitat restoration because it will be of no effect increased allowable production volumes through waste
in situations where recruitment is limited by the lack of reduction (Troell, 2009). Neori et al. (2004), for example,
sufficient nursery areas (Bell et al., 2006). Although stock reported that annually, a 1-ha land-based integrated sea
enhancement activity may change the status quo of the bream–shellfish–seaweed farm can produce 25 MT of fish,
ecosystem, given the substantial damage these ecosystems 50 MT of bivalves and 30 MT fresh weight of seaweeds or
have suffered due to anthropogenic activities and the 55 MT of sea bream or 92 MT of salmon, with 385 or 500
depletion of fisheries resources due to overfishing, the fresh weight of seaweeds, respectively, without pollution.
impact of adding juveniles which is aimed at improving Modern integrated systems are bound to play a major role
production of the target species should not be a cause of in the sustainable expansion of world aquaculture. IMTA
great concern, provided that this activity is conducted seems to be the direction of aquaculture which appears to
responsibly and that this will not cause further degradation be economically and environmentally sustainable.
to the ecosystem and its diversity (Lebata, 2006). Contrary
to most beliefs, mangroves and aquaculture are not Most aquaculture wastes are usually dietary in origin.
necessarily incompatible (Primavera, 2006). Marginal Aquaculture feeds and feeding regimes can play a major
coastal sites such as denuded and over-exploited mangrove role in determining the quality and potential environmental
areas and unproductive or abandoned fishponds can be impacts of fish and crustacean farm effluents (Tacon and
made productive and economically profitable through Forster, 2003). Optimized local feed management together
aquasilviculture, the integration of aquaculture with with further development of fish feed in terms of increased
silviculture or the harmonious co-existence of aquaculture digestibility of feed components will lead to greater
species and mangrove trees (de la Cruz, 1995). profitability to the farmers and also minimize aquaculture
wastes (Kolsäter, 1995). Among the best management
This mangrove-friendly aquaculture technology had practices (BMPs) related to feeding management, Boyd
been applied in shrimp ponds (Primavera et al., 2007) (2003) suggested that fertilizers should be used only as
and mud crab pen culture (Triño and Rodriguez, 2002; needed especially to maintain phytoplankton blooms.
Primavera et al., 2010) in the Philippines; mariculture Moreover, it is also important to use high quality and
in Taiwan (Su et al., 2011); shrimp-mangrove farms in water stable feeds that contain only the required amount
Vietnam (Binh et al., 1997); and milkfish pond culture, of nitrogen and phosphorus than necessary; and apply
milkfish and shrimp polyculture (Fitzgerald and Savitri, feeds conservatively to avoid overfeeding and to assure

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that as much of the feed is consumed as possible. Feeding 6. ADAPTATION AND MITIGATION OF THE
may be also improved through the use of automatic feeder IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE
and by employing compensatory feeding. An experiment
involving three automated feeding systems gave FCRs of Capture fisheries and aquaculture are the most beneficial
0.94, 0.93, and 1.05, providing good control of feeding livelihood sources in coastal communities. However, the
and helping in the improvement of feeding efficiency sustainability of these sources is being subjected to various
(Myrseth, 2000). threats and pressures especially during the past decades.
In the advent of these serious fisheries and aquaculture
In a feeding experiment on Pangasius bocourti, there concerns coupled with environmental changes, the
was no significant difference in the final weight among people’s dependence on fisheries in the Southeast Asian
the five groups tested indicating complete compensation region for economic growth is in question. Considering
in the fish experiencing restricted feeding. Improved feed that nowadays, extreme meteorological events have
conversion efficiency was experienced in the juveniles increasingly occurred with frequent and more severe
of P. bocourti when restricted feeding was conducted manifestations. Therefore, it is valid to analyze how people
(Jiwyam, 2010). Atlantic halibut reared on a repeated 5/10 involved in fisheries react and adapt to existing climate
week starvation/re-fed regime for 3 years led to full growth fluctuations (Daw et al., 2009). It is noteworthy that
compensation, higher feed conversion efficiency, lower climate change affects fisheries and aquaculture directly
male maturation, and improved flesh quality (Foss et al., by influencing the fish stock and the global supply of fish
2009). In one of the compensatory feeding experiments consumption, or indirectly by influencing fish prices or
conducted by SEAFDEC/AQD, biomass of milkfish the cost of goods and services required by fishers and fish
reared in brackishwater ponds and fed every other day farmers (WFC, 2007).
was comparable to stocks fed daily resulting to one-half
of the usual FCR and 50% savings on feed inputs (de In particular, strategies and interventions to mitigate
Jesus-Ayson, unpublished data). Based on these results, the effects of climate change to the fisheries industry
feeding regimes may be manipulated in such a way that should be established. In aquaculture for example, the
feed inputs to the environment may be minimized without impacts of climate change to the various culture, and
sacrificing production. its effect to the cultured species and their vulnerability
to the environmental changes as well as to the wild
Aquaculture may be the ultimate solution to the problem stocks targeted by capture fisheries, should be assessed.
of dwindling fishery production. Since most of the time, Environment friendly strategies to lessen the sectors’
aquaculture does nothing good to the environment, and in impacts to the environment should also be developed,
order to compensate the diminishing fishery production which also pertains to the efforts to reduce the carbon
and meet the demands of fishery products for the human footprint of fisheries. These efforts should be taken with
population which continue to grow, aquaculture must be serious consideration considering that many peoples in
redesigned to minimize its impact on the environment the Southeast Asian region are increasingly dependent
and make it more environmentally and at the same on the fishery resources as evidenced in the per capita
time economically sustainable. Scientific studies on consumption that reached a new all time high (FAO,
how aquaculture has destroyed habitats, polluted the 2010a).
waters, threatened non-target species, and a long list
of other impacts; and how aquaculture should be done Since these resources come mostly from our vulnerable
to make it sustainable and environment friendly are coastal areas, it is therefore important and urgent to
readily accessible. However, despite the easy access to integrate fisheries management in resource exploitation
such information, aquaculture continues to pollute the with the objective of ensuring sustainable utilization of the
environment. Therefore, scientific findings should be very important resources, protecting vulnerable areas and
properly and widely disseminated to fish farmers, hatchery species, and eventually mitigating the effects and ensuring
operators, feed suppliers, policy makers, and government the stakeholders’ adaptation to climate change.
agencies to make them understand that protecting the
environment is not the task of just one person but should 6.1 Vulnerability of Coastal Habitats
be a joint effort of everyone producing from it, using it,
and living in it. Science should be strongly supported by It is most certain and widely recognized that the effects
policies that are strictly implemented and enforced in of climate change are (but not limited to) sea-level rise,
order to achieve the goal of having a better and cleaner seasonal monsoon/rainfall variations, increased and
environment in the future. stronger incidence of storms and typhoons, increased
land-based run-offs, and sea-surface temperature (SST)
rise. These effects highly influence the productivity of the
coastal habitats where most of the fishery resources are

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confined. The Southeast Asian region has been considered

as one of the most vulnerable areas to environmental
variations caused by climate change because of its long
coastlines and dependence in seasonal monsoon patterns,
and where most coastal dwellers depends on fisheries
for sustenance (IPCC, 2007 as cited Santos et al., 2011).
In addition, poverty is still recognized as widespread
in the Southeast Asian region especially along coastal
communities (FAO, 2010a) where the people in these
communities are most vulnerable to environmental
changes brought about by climate change. At certain Fig. 41. Schematic representation of the impacts of climate
degree, habitats exhibit minimal natural recovery change and fishing activity on the marine ecosystem and its
responses to climate change, but constant pressure from fish component
(Source: http://www.pnas.org/content/104/50/19709.full)
other anthropogenic activities and natural calamities
hardly presses their integrity and recovery. Pacific region thus making a decline of stocks in this region
(Alcala, 2010 as cited Santos et al., 2011).
In coral reef ecosystem, SST rise is the main factor which
has the most direct adverse effect as manifested in massive Changes in the distribution through migration (either
coral bleaching that started in 1998 and followed by spawning and/or feeding) of stocks will ultimately affect
subsequent similar events throughout the region up to the the ability of fishing to detect target species at certain place
present, e.g. Andaman Sea and Aceh, Indonesia in 2010. and time. Other profound effect to stocks is the availability
The level of recovery in the coral bleaching events varies of food which could already affected by climate change.
depending on the subsequent water physical conditions, Warming of sea surface deepens the thermocline layer and
availability of spats and food resources for corals to feed. disrupts the upwelling due to SST, and warming could
Similarly, climate-related effects on mangroves will be likely influence primary productivity. In addition, ocean
highly manifested due to sea level rise as well as the acidification affects the formation of calcium-carbonate
frequency and intensity of strong surges. Sea level rise phytoplankton shells and skeleton which are primary
will have the most direct impact to these habitats and elements of the ocean’s food chain.
will dictate mangrove landward migration (Gilman et
al., 2007). Likewise sea grass beds are affected by SST The changes in global climatic patterns and season, will
rise particularly impinging on the plant growth and other affect fish recruitment and population. The warming of
physiological functions. Distribution pattern of aquatic river basins and estuarine waters could affect yields from
species would most likely shift due to temperature fisheries either positively or negatively depending on the
variations and sea-depth. Changes in terms of productivity resulting dissolved oxygen concentrations and aquatic
in deeper areas will also be manifested (Short and Neckels, productivity. It is likely that species distribution will occur
1999). according to the adaptability of the species involved.
Salinity changes in the coastal waters also encourage
6.2 Impacts of Climate Change on Capture species re-distribution but the net effects on fisheries yields
Fisheries are unlikely to be significant as shown in Fig. 41 indicating
the representation of impacts of climate change and fishing
Climate change is modifying the distribution and activity on the marine ecosystem and its fish components.
productivity of marine and freshwater aquatic species
(Appendix 5) and is already affecting biological 6.3 Impacts of Climate Change on
processes and altering food webs (FAO, 2009). Since Aquaculture Development
fish are cold blooded animals, their adaptive capacity to
the environment is highly affected by changes of water As aquaculture requires water as culture media for its
temperature. Changes in habitat temperature greatly affect operation, any climate change however short term will have
their growth rate, metabolism, reproduction seasonality an impact to the overall operation. In particular, changes
and efficacy, susceptibility to diseases and toxins and in water temperature could influence stocks growth rate
their spatial distribution (Lehody, 1997 as cited by Santos and metabolism prolonging period of culture and increase
et al., 2011). Fish may tend to move to cooler tolerable production inputs. The variability of weather conditions,
waters thus changing their migratory patterns and known prolonged hot conditions, intense/stronger storm surges
availability. This has been observed on migration of are just but a few that would most likely influence fish
skipjack tuna, an economically important tuna species stocks vulnerability. A rising water temperature and
in the Coral Triangle area, which move to cooler Central adverse rainfall patterns will affect the physical, chemical

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and biological quality of the water such as the dissolved among fishers working in harsh offshore conditions as
oxygen, salinity, pH, nutrients and plankton dynamics. As well as the small-scale fishers in coastal waters is crucial.
such, greater impact will be experienced for those activities Likewise, governments should exert efforts to strengthen
in the open environment like floating net cages in lakes adaptive measures and provide safety at sea tools to
and estuaries as well as in the open sea. Rising sea level fishers. Thus, wide range, reliable, accessible and up to
poses great threat to the pond production system in the date meteorological services should be in place in the
estuarine environment by flooding the land. Among the Southeast Asian countries. Resource enhancement and
possible effect is water would have low carrying capacity rehabilitation activities should also be continued and
which means lower productivity for aquaculture operation. appropriate strategies should be widely promoted in the
Higher temperature will reduce oxygen solubility in water Southeast Asian region.
but raise the oxygen and food demand of fish following
increased metabolism. Associated rise in gill ventilation In aquaculture, research and development initiatives
rates can lead to increased uptake of aquatic pollutants, should respond to the impact of climate change. In
rendering the fish unfit for human consumption. Higher particular, assessment of culture media to the effect of
water temperatures can also favor the multiplication and climate change and development of adaptation strategies
survival of bacteria and parasites. In addition, the frequent should be encouraged. Current researches should also
change in water parameter is likely to create increased gear towards culture stocks/strain development focusing
turbulence hence higher cost to install or maintain on wider tolerance stocks to environmental changes.
infrastructures to hold the fish. Alternative feed sources for aquaculture should be sought
to lessen dependence to fishmeal. In particular, to lessen
6.4 Adaptation Strategies the impact of climate change on aquaculture activities,
countries could implement appropriate action plans to
SEAFDEC has been implementing programs for safeguard the respective national aquaculture industry.
adaptation and mitigation of the effects of climate change Such action plans could include: a) regular monitoring
in the Southeast Asian region, while the SEAFDEC of water quality parameters within aquaculture zones; b)
Member Countries have also initiated individual efforts study the impact of water parameter change to dynamic
to lessen the impacts of climate change. In order to assess of growth and survival of traditional aquaculture
the individual country’s efforts specifically focusing on the organisms; c) conduct programs on domestication and
emerging regional policy issues related to climate change, selective breeding for aquaculture species; d) highlight
SEAFDEC in close collaboration with the Member and encourage land-based and indoor-closed system
Countries through ASEAN Fisheries Consultation Forum aquaculture operations; and e) implement surveillance and
(AFCF) has consolidated all activities to be implemented coordinating with meteorological department on weather
that are aimed at mitigating the impacts of climate changes for early warning adaptation and improve safety
change. The countries in the region have also widely at sea standards for fishing operations.
recognized the concept of Climate Change Adaptation
and that development of mitigation strategies should at 6.5 Reducing Carbon Footprints from
all time be integrated in every fishery related programs Fisheries
and frameworks. Participatory approach in vulnerability
assessment of climate change in coastal communities It has been a global consensus and concern that dependence
should be considered a simple device yet practical on fossil fuels/non-renewable energy sources should be
technology in the conduct of vulnerability assessment and significantly reduced in the coming decades by tapping
simulations. Since environmental changes and seasonal alternative and renewable energy sources. In addition, it
variations are best observed at the people’s level, local has been widely and universally recognized that emerging
knowledge would come handy and helpful in formulating climate change issues need immediate actions. At the
strategies for adaptation. global scene, technologies in fishing operations as well as
reliance to fossil fuel had advanced in leaps and bounds,
Furthermore, awareness programs on the short- and thus it may be deemed necessary to consider the impacts
long-term effects of climate change to the environment of climate change and the mitigation structures/strategies
should also be taken into consideration, and efforts in the context of the fisheries sector. Through SEAFDEC,
should be solicited to mitigate such effects. Programs the fisheries and aquaculture sectors could strengthen
for livelihood diversification to lessen dependence on their efforts to reduce carbon footprints to mitigate
current income sources among fisherfolks should also be environmental impacts which lead to climate change.
considered. Provision of other means of income among As reported, there are various ways of reducing fishing
artisanal/subsistence fishers gives them opportunities boats’ carbon footprints: reduce fossil fuel consumption
and lessen their dependence on fishing, thus, lessen their and/or offset footprint by compensating with other fishing
vulnerability to environmental changes. Risk reduction activities (Bundit, 2011). Moreover, it is as well recognized

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that reducing fossil fuel dependence in fishing operations 7. HUMAN RESOURCES IN FISHERIES
would entail several measures that include the development
and promotion of cost effective technologies, backed up by 7.1 Status of Human Resources in Fisheries
appropriate policy structures for the management of energy
use in fisheries in the region. In addition, fuel and energy While moving towards global competitiveness, countries
source alternatives should be identified, while R&D on in the Southeast Asian region have confronted with issues
environment-friendly and efficient capture technologies and challenges that threatened sustainable development
should be pursued (SEAFDEC, 2011b). of fisheries. In view of such challenges, the availability
of qualified human resources in relevant subjects and
Specifically, several projects have already been initiated in disciplines is envisaged to be one of the very crucial
the Southeast Asian region concerning measures to reduce prerequisites for sustainable development and management
fossil energy dependence in capture fisheries. The project of fisheries. In order to obtain information on the current
of SEAFDEC on Responsible Fishing Technologies and status and gaps in human resources of countries in the
Practices or “Fishing in Harmony in Nature” has been region particularly in the government sector, a survey on
promoting the use of sails in fishing operations. Moreover, the “Existing Human Resources and Expertise in Fisheries
SEAFDEC/TD has been conducting studies to determine in the ASEAN Member Countries” was undertaken by
the ways and means of reducing the use of fossil fuel in SEAFDEC in early 2010. The questionnaire used during
fisheries which include improvement of designs of boats/ this survey primarily sought information on the availability
vessels, and increasing engine efficiency which also entails of expertise in the areas of fisheries biology, capture
gear modifications. In terms of alternative/less inflicting fisheries, fisheries management, aquaculture, fisheries
energy sources, the use of biofuels which have lesser post-harvest, laws and legislations, cross-cutting issues,
impact than other fossil fuel has also been considered for etc., in different gender and age groups. The inputs from
promotion in the region’s capture fisheries. countries, although doesn’t cover the whole dimension
of human resources profile, indicated the tendency in
Concerns related to energy use in fisheries had become inadequate human resources in several subject areas
critical in the region, thus, policy intervention at the (Box 4).
regional level would be necessary to address common
interests in sustaining the fisheries industry in the midst It could be said that during the past decade, human resource
of environmental challenges. In an attempt to address expertise in fisheries in most countries have been moving
these concerns, the ASEAN developed the Plan of Action towards those that provide higher economic benefits, such
in Regional Energy Policy and Planning (APAREPP): as aquaculture, post-harvest and processing enterprises,
2010-2015, which aims to enhance national policy and etc.; as well as subjects that caught attention from policy
planning activities of the ASEAN countries for integration makers/planners such as fisheries management and
into a cohesive and effective regional policy analysis and governance. In contrary, there are tendencies in shortage
planning towards sustainable development. Moreover, of human resources in some fundamental subjects, such as
SEAFDEC on its part would continue to promote fisheries biology, laws and legislation, as well as the cross-
alternative energy sources for both capture fisheries cutting and emerging issues/challenges. It is therefore
and aquaculture, support the use of energy savings and necessary for countries in the region to further review and
environment-friendly fishing technologies and sustain its form a clear picture of the current availability and gaps of
projects on the reduction of the use of fossil fuel in fisheries relevant expertise and human resources, and come up with
(SEAFDEC, 2010d). Involvement of and awareness strategies to balance the availability of human resources in
raising in the private sector should also be enhanced which wide ranges of disciplines in responding to their respective
will ultimately reduce the impacts while relevant programs future requirement.
should be promoted in collaboration with other institutions
including the academe, NGOs, research institutions, In addition to the tendency in shortage of expertise in some
especially in developing advocacies relative to minimizing fundamental fisheries-related subjects, many countries
the contribution of fisheries to climate change. To list a few, in the region also faced the problem that most of the
some specific strategies that could be adopted to address young generations had shown no interest to engage in the
climate change could include: 1) reduce heavy dependence activities, particularly capture operations. The situation is
on oil by tapping alternative energy sources; 2) promote specifically more serious under the situation where fishery
energy efficiency among industries and the private sector; production and catch has continuously declined with the
3) implement public awareness programs by government degradation of fishery resources, and the drastic increase
agencies and NGOs towards promoting energy efficiency, in fuel price. In some localities, only those that have no
recycling and use of public transport; and 4) maintenance better job opportunity choose to become fishers, resulting
effective forest management and conservation. in a tendency in increasing average age of fishers. These

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Box 4. Fisheries Human Resource: insufficient human resources situation if continued are
Gaps and Requirements of Southeast Asia envisaged to eventually create extensive impacts to the
From the survey conducted by SEAFDEC in 2010, based on the capacity of the fisheries sector in providing food supply
information provided by countries, namely Brunei Darussalam, and sustaining the future food security requirement.
Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines
Singapore and Thailand, the available human resources in
fisheries in the region and the gaps and areas where expertise 7.2 Strategy for Human Resource
were limited had been identified. In general, observation could Development in Fisheries in the ASEAN
be made that the available expertise in fisheries was higher for Region
men than women in all countries; and there are only few areas
where expertise was higher for women, specifically on post-
harvest and trade. However, this was mainly due to the nature In order to clarify the role of human resource development
of most of the tasks that may suit more for men, particularly for sustainable fisheries development, the ASEAN Member
those on capture fisheries, aquaculture and fisheries biology.
Countries in 2004 in the midst of the implementation of
In most countries, the areas where very high number of human the Resolution and Plan of Action adopted in 2001,
resources with expertise was observed were aquaculture, also approved the “Strategy for Human Resource
fisheries management and capture fisheries; while the areas
where scarcity of expertise was clearly found especially in the Development in Fisheries in the ASEAN Region” (Box
government sector were fish taxonomy, population dynamics, 5). The development of the “HRD Strategy” was based
ecology, limnology, etc. Other important areas where expertise on principles that: 1) the promotion of HRD in fisheries
is available at certain levels but inadequate were laws and
legislation, particularly on international cooperation and
marine affairs and fisheries laws/regulation, especially for the Box 5. Strategy for Human Resource Development in
less developed countries such as Cambodia and Lao PDR; and Fisheries in the ASEAN Region
the cross-cutting issues, such as those on fisheries information
To ensure long-term support to human resource development
and statistics, fisheries and food security and poverty (HRD) in fisheries in the ASEAN region, recommendations were
alleviation, and climate change. The limited availability of made as follows:
human resources in these areas is envisaged to create impact 1) Regional collaboration should be strengthened to improve
to the development of fisheries in a long-term basis, especially HRD activities at the national level;
under the situation where several issues and challenges have 2) Scope of HRD requirements including objectives, target
emerged from the global arena. groups/areas and levels will be identified in accordance
with the Resolution and Plan of Action;
Under the same survey, countries also provided 3) The development of human resource capacity should
recommendations on actions that should be taken in order to not only be on technical issues but also integrate social,
enhance the capacity of existing human resources and ensure environmental, legal, and other issues as identified in the
the availability of human resources in fisheries in the future. Resolution and Plan of Action;
4) The ASEAN Member States should conduct awareness
The recommendations could be summarized as follows: building activities to obtain cooperation/compliance
of private sector on the issues, including national
At national level, governments should: requirements for sustainable fisheries;
• Establish clear policy and plans in ensuring long-term 5) The ASEAN Member States may conduct HRD activities
sustainability of human resources; to introduce new technology to private sector, through
• Encourage officials to be involved in relevant national/ consultation/collaboration with the intended beneficiaries;
international workshops, conferences to enhance their 6) HRD activities directed towards competency/skill-based
knowledge and expertise; training relevant to the current fisheries situation and
• Carry out measures to acquire expertise in areas where demands of industry can be promoted where resources and
there are currently gaps, by supporting the existing staff mechanisms are available;
in building up their knowledge and capacity in the areas 7) Each ASEAN-SEAFDEC Member Country should conduct
outside their current expertise; and consider recruiting new an inventory of programs for HRD in fisheries that
staff with relevant expertise; and contain essential and usable information from fisheries-
• Ensure the future availability of qualified human resources related agencies and HRD programs operated by relevant
particularly for the areas where shortages of expertise institutions, including universities. Based on this inventory,
are envisaged, through the development of appropriate a regional database can be established and regularly
curriculum in collaboration with fisheries-related academe, updated to provide a basis for networking in HRD in
and provision of scholarship or research funds on the fisheries;
required scopes. 8) The ASEAN-SEAFDEC Member Countries and international/
regional organizations should use the inventory and
At the regional level, organizations relevant to fisheries should: networking to identify gaps, avoid duplication of effort and
• Conduct regional training programs to support human ensure complementarity of HRD activities;
resources development activities for the existing fisheries- 9) Partnership and regional cooperation, including South-South
related officials of countries based on their priorities and Cooperation, exchange of expertise at national and regional
needs; levels, international/regional organizations, among external
• Convene technical events such as consultations, workshops, funding agencies, government authorities and academe,
symposia and conferences to provide opportunities for should be developed by fully mobilizing the inventory and
officials from countries to exchange views and expertise; networking;
• Develop and facilitate exchange programs for the region’s 10) Cost-sharing mechanisms (either cost-recovery or cost-
researchers and national/regional experts; sharing) should be encouraged to enhance the ownership
• Conduct research activities of mutual interest in and effectives of HRD programs in the ASEAN Member
collaboration with Member Countries; and States; and
• Arrange study visits for government/non-governmental 11) Regular monitoring and assessment of regional
sectors and other related stakeholders to enhance their HRD activities should be conducted as part of the
experiences and knowledge in the required disciplines. implementation of programs under the ASEAN-SEAFDEC
Fisheries Consultative Group (FCG) mechanism.
Sources: SEAFDEC, 2011

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is primarily a national concern, and national capacity and Box 6. Observation and recommendations from the Project
resources are mobilized for maximum impact; 2) where on HRD on Fisheries for Poverty Alleviation
there is insufficient capacity and/or resources available at Recommendations were made to ensure success in extending
the national level, bilateral and regional, and/or external HRD program at the local/national levels as follows:
• Training materials should be simplified and translated into
supports should be sought; and 3) Regional HRD activities national languages (or local languages), and the successful
could be conducted on common needs to maximize the participants should be invited as resource persons to share
use of resources and benefits of the countries. their experiences with others;
• Close communication among resource persons and
participants should be encouraged to ensure that the
Along the line with the “HRD Strategy”, and recognizing training topics and arrangements would address the
that disparity of the social and economic well-being problems and predicaments;
• Sufficient time should be allocated for both lecture and
among/within the most of the Member Countries can be hands-on sessions;
the one of the serious constraints to further promote the • On-site training course should be followed-up by a series
countries’ development; SEAFDEC during 2008-2010 of training courses facilitated by extension officers in the
fishing community;
undertook a project on “Human Resources Development • Fishery extension officers should strive to improve their
on Poverty Alleviation and Food Security by Fisheries knowledge and skills, not only in the technical fisheries
Intervention in the ASEAN Region”. The project aimed to aspects but also in extension techniques and strategies;
• National fishery agencies should have a vibrant extension
enhance human capacity of fishers of selected rural fishery program that include all aspects of responsible fishing
communities as well as relevant fisheries government and aquaculture, post-harvest and fish processing, fishery
officials and those working at the local level in support resources management, market development and trends,
environmental issues, and socio-economic attributes of
of fishery communities in order to alleviate the identified rural fishery development;
poverty status through fisheries intervention. • National fishery agencies should coordinate with the
provincial and local government units in disseminating
up-to-date information related to aquaculture technology,
Under different thematic areas, i.e. Local/indigenous market, environment especially on climate change, and
institution and co-management; Responsible fishing government policies; and
technologies; Backyard fishery post-harvest and • HRD initiative should be expanded into institutional
capacity building activity where the staff of local
processing; Rural aquaculture; and Inland fisheries institutions is regularly trained on the latest technologies.
development, activities were undertaken to identify
technical issues that were critical for the poverty modules in collaboration with fisheries-related academes,
alleviation, develop HRD modules/materials, and conduct and provision of scholarships or research funds specifically
train-the-trainers as well as on-site training activities. on the required scopes, etc.
Through the implementation of these activities, the post-
training observations and recommendations were made In addition to the initiatives at national levels, in the
to ensure success in extending future HRD program as regional perspective, regional training programs,
shown in Box 6. consultations, workshops, etc., should also be initiated
to support human resources development activities and
7.3 Way Forward facilitate the exchange of views and expertise, based on
the countries’ priorities and needs. Exchange program
In order to ensure the long-term sustainability of or collaborative researches could also be promoted to
fisheries development initiatives, it is recognized that the facilitate the collaboration and exchange of expertise,
availability of human resources in wide ranges of fisheries- particularly in the areas where expertise may be strong
related subjects and disciplines is very crucial. Taking into and available in some, but insufficient and weak in other
account the recommendations made during the survey countries.
conducted by SEAFDEC, countries in the region should
therefore consider establishing clear policy and plans in Human resources development in fisheries is an important
ensuring long-term sustainability of human resources, and area that every country and relevant organization should
exerting efforts to ensure the future availability of qualified not overlook. It is very crucial that cooperation and
human resources particularly for the areas where shortages concerted efforts are made to ensure the availability of
of expertise are envisaged. These could be done through capable and knowledgeable people, and the long-term
the development of appropriate curriculum and training sustainability of fisheries in the region.

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PART III
Outlook of Fisheries and Aquaculture
for the Southeast Asian Region

The launching of an ambitious task to build the ASEAN Equally, this also implies the need to maintain a resources-
Community by 2015 had been supported jointly by based equilibrium between the growing demand for
the Southeast Asian countries. Being aware of the fisheries and aquatic products with the available supply,
consequences and advantages that could emanate from in other words, to balance conservation needs with
the integration of the fisheries sector into the three pillars sustainable exploitation levels of the fishery resources.
of the ASEAN Community, the ASEAN countries should It is very important consider the contribution of fisheries
have to ensure that socio-economic considerations are to economic growth and to food security and livelihood
being dealt with accordingly within the fisheries sector. of the people. Attaining food security is tantamount to
Moreover, policy mechanisms for national institution ensuring sustainability in fisheries, which requires that
building should also be put in place considering that by countries in the region should put together their efforts in
2015 the ASEAN would be transformed into a region improving fisheries governance and sustained endeavors
with free movement of goods, services, investments, in conservation and rehabilitation of the natural resources,
and skilled labor as well as free flow of capital. In where people will not go hungry if they know how to fish
so-doing, the countries should be able to address the responsibly.
prevailing issues which could include social, economic,
environmental, and political considerations through the Looking towards the establishment of the ASEAN
implementation of programs and activities guided by the Community by 2015, the ASEAN countries should
Resolution and Plan of Action on Sustainable Fisheries strengthen national institutional and policy mechanisms
for Food Security for the ASEAN Region Towards 2020. to be able to incorporate the requirements of the three
“pillars” as indicated in the three “Blueprints” developed
1. Rising to the Challenges and by Member States which are meant to facilitate the efforts
Opportunities from the Establishment needed to establish the ASEAN Community by 2015.
of the ASEAN Community: Fisheries and These three pillars are the ASEAN Political-Security
the People Involved Community, ASEAN Economic Community, and the
ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community. The requirements
Management of the natural resources including aquatic for Member States, and information to the “global
resources, fisheries management and the importance community”, are further defined in three “Blueprints”,
of properly managing important coastal and inland namely ASEAN Political-Security Community
environments/habitats as well as maintaining protective Blueprint, the ASEAN Economic Community Blueprint,
geographical features remain key important concerns that and the ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community Blueprint.
should be addressed now and in the foreseeable future,
especially in the Southeast Asia region and among the As anticipated, by 2015 the ASEAN region would
ASEAN countries. These concerns should be considered be characterized by having a single market and
from the perspective of poverty reduction and the need production base with free flow of goods, services,
to maintain a socially sound, economically balanced capital investment, and skilled labor; being a highly
and sustainable development, based on a healthy and competitive economic region with equitable economic
productive environment in the ASEAN region while development; and being fully integrated into the global
living up to the expectations of an ASEAN Community economy. This is therefore an opportune time for the
by 2015. This would mean reversing the present trend countries of the region to boost the performance of their
of environmental degradation and depletion of aquatic respective fishery sector by enhancing connectivity in
resources, and enhancing the social well-being and terms of physical infrastructures such as land and marine
working conditions of people involved in fisheries and transportation systems in order to facilitate the flow of
related activities, where specific attention should be given goods like fishery products within and outside the region,
to management of fishing capacity (large- and small- and promote cross border trade thereby improving their
scale operations) including labor and safety aspects as respective economies. However, some of the adverse
well as the status of migratory fishworkers comprising impacts of the integration of fisheries into the ASEAN
both men and women. Community should be taken into account, which could

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include increased competition of fishery products, trans- The tendency of the fisheries sector to maximize the
boundary transfer of aquatic resources, and increased exploitation of resources should be perceived as means of
pressure to the fishery resources. The countries should increasing the supply of fish to cater to the rising global
therefore take a closer look at these issues in order to demand for food fish and other aquatic products brought
mitigate the possible impacts that could take place in the about by the increasing global population and enhanced
fisheries sector in the coming decades. capacity of more people to purchase high value and
quality food including food fish. As a result, the sector has
2. Growing Demands of Fisheries that gone through a very fast pace of development risking its
Challenge Food Security ability to continue providing stable livelihood to fishing
communities while at same increasingly over-fishing the
In June 2011, the ASEAN and SEAFDEC organized the important resources with increasing difficulties to, in
ASEAN-SEAFDEC Conference on Sustainable Fisheries sustainable way, supply the requirements of the fishing
for Food Security Towards 2020 “Fish for the People industry and post-harvest sector. These concerns should
2020: Adaptation to a Changing Environment” with the be mitigated in order to achieve food security in the
main objective of paving the way for the sustainable Southeast Asian region.
development of fisheries and enhance the contribution of
fisheries to food security of the Southeast Asian region As defined by FAO, food security is attained and is in
towards the coming decade. During the Conference, the place when food is available for everybody’s access,
ASEAN-SEAFDEC Ministers responsible for fisheries when people do not go hungry or do not fear of possible
adopted the “Resolution” and “Plan of Action” on starvation, and when all people have physical and
Sustainable Fisheries for Food Security for the ASEAN economic access to sufficient and safe food at all times.
Region Towards 2020”, as important direction in The main aspects of food security could therefore be
formulating and implementing programs, projects, and associated with the availability of nutritionally adequate
activities through the appropriate ASEAN-SEAFDEC and safe food including food fish, and the accessibility to
mechanisms. These two instruments, the “Resolution” such foods through socially acceptable means. Fisheries
and “Plan of Action”, therefore serve as policy guidance in the Southeast Asian region had always played the
for the countries in the region in developing priority major role of accelerating economic development and
actions aimed at attaining sustainability of the fisheries generating livelihood opportunities, and in many ways,
sector in support of international demands. contributing to the region’s food security, considering that

Table 60. Population, fish production and consumption of the Southeast Asian countries
Population (millions) %
Population
GNI PPP 4 Ave per capita fish 2009 Fish
below
Countries Per capita consumption 5 Production 6
20091 Mid-20112 20253 20503 US$2/day 7
(US$: 2009) (kg/person/year) (metric tons)
PPP 2000/2009
Brunei 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.6 - 44.04 2,418 -
Darussalam
Cambodia 14.8 14.7 18.0 22.3 1,820 32.97 515,000 57.0
Indonesia 240.3 238.2 273.2 309.4 3,720 31.43 10,064,140 51.0
Lao PDR 6.3 6.3 7.9 10.3 2,200 24.86 105,000 66.0
Malaysia 28.3 28.9 35.3 43.6 13,710 54.40 1,729,002 2.0
Myanmar 50.0 54.0 61.7 70.8 - 42.75 3,491,103 -
Philippines 92.0 95.7 120.2 150.1 3,540 53.49 5,084,674 45.0
Singapore 5.0 8 5.2 5.8 6.1 49,780 23.0 8 5,687 -
Thailand 65.0 69.5 72.9 71.0 7,640 37.97 3,137,672 27.0
Vietnam 88.1 87.9 100.4 109.3 2,790 41.47 4,782,400 38.0
Southeast Asia 590.6 600.8 696.3 793.2 4,490 27.00 26,917,096 42.0
World 6,705 6,987 8,084 9,587 10,240 145,000,000 9 48.0
Sources:
1
2009 World Population Data Sheet, Population Reference Bureau, Washington DC, USA
2
Mid-2011 Populations: estimates are based on recent census and official national data. The effects of refugee movements, large numbers of foreign workers, and
population shifts due to contemporary political events are taken into account to the extent possible
3
Projected Populations 2025 and 2050: Based on reasonable assumptions on the future course of fertility, mortality and migration
4
GNI PPP per capita 2009 US$: Gross national income (GNI) in purchasing power parity (PPP) divided by mid-year population. GNI PPP refers to gross national
income converted to “international” dollars using a PPP conversion factor. Based on World Bank data
5
Fishery Statistical Bulletins for the South China Sea Area (SEAFDEC, 2010); Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia (SEAFDEC, 2011)
6
Fishery Statistical Bulletin of Southeast Asia (SEAFDEC, 2011)
7
Percent of population below US$2 per day: Percentage of population living in less than US$2 per day at 2005 international prices. Based on World Bank data
8
Agri-Food & Veterinary Authority of Singapore
9
The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2010 (FAO, 2010a)

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the peoples in the region are fish eating by tradition and 3. Increasing Demands for Environmentally
habits. However, pressure from the growing population and Socially Sustainable Development
and demand for food together with the shifting paradigm of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources in
in food consumption (fish and other products) could lead Southeast Asia
to food insecurity in the future. When such situation is not
improved, food insecurity in the Southeast Asian region Fisheries, marine and coastal habitats, and inland flood
could get worse considering that the region’s average per plains and wetlands are recognized priority areas for
capita gross national income of below US$ 5,000 falls socially just and sustainable development, for the ASEAN
short by about one-half of the world’s average of more and Southeast Asian countries. The common objective of
than US$ 10,000. such development is for fisheries and aquatic resources
to continue to cater to the needs and requirements of the
Table 60 shows that the world’s population increased rapidly growing population including the need to provide
from 6,705 million in mid-2008 to 6,987 million in mid- broad and diversified income and livelihood opportunities
2011 and is expected to hit more than 8,000 million in while ensuring future food security for the people. For
mid-2025 and about 9,590 million in mid-2050. For the more than a decade, initiatives have been undertaken
Southeast Asian region, the total population increased to promote the FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible
from 590 million in mid-2008 to 600 million in mid-2011, Fisheries (CCRF), a global voluntary instrument that
and by mid-2025 the region’s population could reach 700 provides a broad framework and guidance for national
million and about 800 million by mid-2050. These figures and international efforts towards sustainability of
seem to suggest that the demand for food would increase the fisheries sector. The importance of the CCRF in
in the next five or so decades with subsequent increasing promoting food security and fisheries sustainability is
pressure on most food items, including fisheries and well recognized by all countries in the Southeast Asian
other aquatic products. Considering also the increased region.
capability of more people to spend more on food fish
and for health concerns as well as the availability of fish In the 2011 Resolution and Plan of Action which
supply, consumption pattern for food fish worldwide has is heavily hinged on the CCRF and in the ASEAN
already shifted where more people are now consuming Community Blueprints, several aspects have been
more fish protein than other animal protein – the negative identified as priority areas to be promoted in the region.
side of this is that poorer groups of people would have These include sustainable use of fishery and aquatic
less access to fish and aquatic products to sustain food resources with specific attention which should be given
security and their well-being. to the importance of integrating or coordinating fisheries
management and habitat management. In the process,
From the point of view of the Southeast Asian region, the the importance of managing fishing capacity (large- and
rapid growth of its population and increasing demand for small-scale) should be recognized as top priority since
food is expected to add pressure on the natural resources this could result in reduced over-capacity, curtailed
and increase the dynamism and competitiveness of the destructive and illegal fishing, and eventually no IUU
multiple uses of water and terrestrial resources. Thus, fishing.
it will be increasingly necessary for the countries in
Southeast Asia to maintain a resources-based equilibrium Many development actions recommended for the coming
between fish and aquatic resources and the available decade clearly point towards increased attention to
resources in order to attain food security. Therefore, the social matters and aspects related to poverty reduction,
need to balance conservation and exploitation of the and maintaining a healthy and productive environment.
aquatic resources through sustainable development of Efforts to mitigate the impacts of climate change and to
habitat and fisheries should be continued. In addition, in build up adaptive capacity are cutting across all activities
the development and management of fisheries and aquatic in the region and relate to all sectors. Therefore, all
resources there is also a need for countries to strike a sectors and all segments of society in the region should
balance between the contribution of improved fisheries work together in reversing the trends of environmental
to national economic growth and to food security and degradation and loss of biodiversity, and in securing the
improved livelihood among coastal and inland groups of means of maintained livelihood for rural (coastal and
people throughout the Southeast Asian region. inland) communities. In addition, improving the working
conditions and status of migratory workers/fishers should
be addressed with emphasis on the important role of
women in local and national development perspectives,
the latter being one of the key priorities in the ASEAN
Blueprints.

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In the entirety of the 2011 Resolution and Plan of Action, sustainable utilization of the resources. In addition, since
and the ASEAN Economic Community Blueprint, it is these new fishing areas may not be easily accessible,
necessary to enhance governance in fisheries, promote the returns that could be derived from exploiting these
sustainable aquaculture development, and improve resources might not be able to cover the operations costs,
the utilization, and safety and quality of fish while not even to mention the cost for undertaking the research
at the same time also promote trade and compliance and exploration activities in the first place.
with international trade requirements (quality, equity,
traceability, legal status). In other words, all these sum Improving Governance and Management for
up to the need to undertake initiatives that would reduce Sustainable Fisheries
practices that impede the sustainable development of
fisheries and the aquatic environment, in order that in the The rapid and largely uncontrolled development of
coming decades food security could be achieved. fisheries throughout the region during the past decades
where especially the larger scale fishing operations have
Sustainability of Marine and Aquatic Resources increased their share of production, are often in conflict
with the needs and rights of smaller fishing communities
Marine capture fisheries in the Southeast Asian region to fish and maintain their livelihoods as well as their
have been the major contributor to total fishery production share of the aquatic resources. There is now a substantial
in the region where contributions come from both the over-capacity among larger fishing vessels as a result
larger and smaller scale segments of the sector. The of the uncontrolled expansion in the sector. Moreover,
larger vessels which are more urban-based are landing at an increasing number of people are getting involved in
fishing harbors while the smaller vessels predominantly coastal small-scale fisheries and the number of vessels
land at smaller coastal landing sites or on the shore. also increased which in turn lead to over-capacity in
The smaller scale fishing efforts contribute to the basic many coastal areas. Increased fishing efforts, including
livelihood, food security and job opportunities along encroachment of larger vessels in coastal waters,
coasts throughout the region, while contributing a vital comprise threats to the sustainability of the fisheries in
part of the rural/coastal social and livelihood structure. coastal areas.
Fisheries and the fishing industry are major contributors
to income generation, job opportunities and economic Fishery resources are common property and belong to no
development. The larger vessels employ large groups of one and no country, unless caught. This signifies special
migratory crewmembers including migrants from other challenge for government agencies in each country and
countries. In a similar way, the processing industry in the region as a whole, to adopt sustainable fisheries
Southeast Asian countries is a major employer with a management measures with clear mandates on their
majority of them constitutes the female workers. roles and responsibilities, including the proclamation
of restricted areas, conservation zones which should be
However, sustainability which at present necessitates complied with by those involved in fishing operations
high level of involvement of people along the coasts and (large-, as well as small-scale). One of the big challenges
in urban areas is being questioned due to diminishing that lie ahead is to manage fishing capacity (reduce
fishery resources and degradation of stocks coupled with over-fishing), combat IUU fishing, and curb resource
the deterioration of natural habitats which had led to degradation, where the latter is a special challenge
decreased total production from marine capture fisheries as it requires cooperation across sectors including
in many countries of the region over the past decade. As a non-fisheries activities that are equally damaging the
consequence, some countries like Thailand for example, environment and coastal habitats. In Southeast Asia,
imports large quantities of fish and aquatic products to there is a growing recognition that in order to have good
keep canneries and other processing industries going at chances to succeed, the countries in the region should
high capacity. cooperate either as part of the whole region or as part of
sub-regional arrangements.
Under the circumstance where deterioration of fishery
resources has taken place, attempts have been made by A growing concern has been made known at global
several countries and relevant organizations in the region level and regional levels such as in Southeast Asia, on
to explore new potential fishery resources including the need to manage fishing capacity to reduce over-
demersal and deep-sea resources in order to cope up with fishing and to combat illegal and destructive fishing to
the ever-increasing demand for fish. Careful consideration ensure sustainable utilization of the fishery resources. In
should be given on the fact that fishery resources in these responding to such concern, countries in the region have
areas could be very scarce in nature. Without adequate increased their efforts in the promotion of responsible
information on the status of these resources, effective fishing technologies and practices in order to improve
management mechanism could not be put in place for the fisheries management and to manage fishing capacity.

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There is also an increasing strong consensus in the region workers) should be imposed. On the other hand,
on the need to strengthen measures to combat Illegal, improving governance in coastal fishing operations
Unreported and Unregulated (IUU) fishing, particularly and the well-being of communities, could be achieved
through port state measures, flag state measures and by enhancing the participation of the communities in
other measures as practical. The FAO Legally-binding fisheries and environmental management, and promoting
Instrument on Port State Measures to Prevent, Deter and effective accountability of the resources by the users.
Eliminate IUU Fishing and the European Commission
Regulation to Establish a Community System to Prevent, Improving local organizations based on “rights” as
Deter and Eliminate IUU Fishing are indications that specified in local regulations, is increasingly recognized
increased emphasis is being given to strengthen the role as a key element in strengthening the communities
of port states in monitoring fish and fishery products, not only within fisheries but also to a broader aspect,
check the validity of catch documents, vessel records, the livelihood base which includes other sectors. This
crew lists and any other documents that could verify implies that initiatives should be undertaken to strengthen
the legal status of the catch. In order to provide proper local institutions and enhance the roles and functions
documentations, flag states should improve their records of community members, including those of women,
as the port states are carefully inspecting the documents in rural development as well as in fisheries and habitat
issued by the flag states to verify that fish and fishery management. This approach is expected to strengthen
products are derived from legal fishing operations. the position of coastal communities in ensuring their
continued existence and the sustainable utilization
Further efforts to manage fisheries to combat IUU of fisheries products and other resources, especially
fishing, as indicated above, should also be pursued by in situations where there is increasing pressure from
flag states, particularly through the intensification of other resource users including encroachment of other
vessel registration and record systems, development of sectors in coastal areas. Another important impact when
appropriate catch documentation system and mechanism, communities are strengthened would be their improved
and strengthening of monitoring, control and surveillance adaptive capacity and resilience to respond to the effects
measures to improve management of fishing capacity of climate change.
and to combat IUU fishing. Local communities, fishing
industry and relevant stakeholders should, as relevant Fisheries cannot be managed in isolation but through
in each area, be involved throughout the processes. The the integration of fisheries and habitat management
need to develop the harmonized catch certification system considered from the broader point of view in terms of
for countries in the Southeast Asian region has recently improved governance and sustained efforts to combat
been recognized and will continue to be on the agenda, illegal and destructive fishing. In an effort to improve
not only to enhance the competitiveness of countries in management and social well-being in a broader context,
trading their fish and fishery products to the international FAO has launched the Ecosystems Approach to Fisheries
markets, but also to ensure the sustainable utilization of (EAF), which in general refers to efforts to increase the
fishery resources in the region. Concerted actions are contribution of fisheries to sustainable development,
therefore growing among the Southeast Asian countries the promotion of ecological pursuits such as habitat
with the objective of enhancing capacity to develop the protection and conservation, and the ways of maximizing
legal framework for fisheries management that could socio-economic benefits including increased and
address among others, such concerns as excess fleet equitably distributed wealth and sustainable livelihoods.
capacity; significant amount of by-catch and discards; Looking at the socio-economic benefits, the adoption of
monitoring, control and surveillance (MCS) networks EAF should be pursued by the countries in the region.
for fishing operations; and collection of fishery data and
information. Habitat Conservation, Restoration and Rehabilitation:
There is an increasing commitment among fisheries
Governance: It is important to have different approaches agencies in the Southeast Asian region to give more
in improving governance with regards to large-scale attention to initiatives that support the management of
fishing and coastal fishing operations, considering habitats and important ecosystems in order to sustain
that the large-scale or commercial fishing is to a large fisheries production and conserve aquatic resources
extent urban-based, while the coastal fisheries which in coastal areas. Several initiatives had been put into
are considered to be the “traditional” fisheries sector are practice in the region, including the establishment of
available all over the region in coastal/rural areas. For conservation zones such as Marine Protected Areas,
the large-scale segment, stricter rules for registration of fisheries refugia, wildlife sanctuaries and other “fisheries
vessels, rules to issue licenses to fish and regulations resource conservation areas”. These initiatives are going
with regards to the working conditions of crew members to increase and thus, should be promoted giving due
including proper documents for all (including migratory considerations to the linkage between specific locations

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and critical life-cycle of important aquatic species, and depend on upstream/downstream migration. In the like
eventually improve cooperation among countries and manner, other structures and developments such as roads,
relevant agencies. In addition to habitat conservation and urban and industrial estates, and filling up of flood-plains,
restoration, resources enhancement should be carried out, rice fields and wetlands, also create impacts to the aquatic
particularly in areas where the fishery resources/stocks resources. In this regard, mitigation measures appropriate
have fallen below the ecosystems’ carrying capacity. for the region which could include as appropriate, the
This could also include deployment of artificial reefs development of fish pass models and installation of
(ARs) as means of addressing the concern on fish habitat culverts under road systems that could provide channels
degradation and overfishing, taking into consideration for the migration of inland aquatic species should also be
the real purpose of ARs whether these are for fisheries explored.
or for coastal resource enhancement, which should be
clarified. Sustainability of Aquaculture Development

Sustainability of Inland Fisheries Over the past decade, reduction of fishery resources/
stocks and deterioration of habitats in many countries
Although coastal marine capture fisheries have been had led to declining trend in the total production from
providing very significant portion of the region’s total capture fisheries. On the contrary, the contribution of
fisheries production, the substantial importance of inland the aquaculture sub-sector to the sustainability of fish
fisheries in Southeast Asia in terms of its contribution production in the Southeast Asian region has significantly
to livelihood and food security should be recognized. increasing. Such development has been brought about
Very large groups of people depend on the availability of by the fast development of culture technologies and
natural resources such as freshwater resources, for their introduction of new or genetically improved aquaculture
livelihood. In Cambodia alone, more than eight million species with promising future. As a result, production
people are dependent on the country’s freshwater aquatic from aquaculture has almost doubled over the past
resources. Even if statistics on inland fisheries production decade.
are available in most countries in this region, but it has
been generally recognized that such figures could be In order to support the sustainable development of
very much under-reported as large portion of the catch aquaculture in the region, research and development
from inland fisheries goes directly to local or household (R&D) on appropriate culture technologies for all culture
consumption, since there are not many stations near stages of important aquatic species should be undertaken.
inland water bodies that do the information gathering. Specifically, R&D to improve technologies that ensure
steady supply of good quality seeds should be backed
The unavailability of accurate data on inland capture by necessary supportive national policies that aim to
fisheries make it difficult to value its importance promote better hatchery management practices as well as
as well as those of related ecosystems (wetlands), responsible collection and use of wild broodstocks and
and hence, it is quite improbable to point out that the seeds.
inland fishery resources have been exploited above the
maximum sustainable yields. Countries in the region In addition, priority should be given on the development
should therefore strengthen their efforts to improve data of technologies that minimize the dependent of culture
collection on inland fisheries as the information could activities on fishmeal and fish oils as ingredients for
serve as basis for evaluating the extent of exploitation fish feeds, e.g. by exploring appropriate plant-based
of their respective inland fishery/aquatic resources, and meal substitution and enhancing the digestibility of
for enhancing the awareness of stakeholders on the plant-based feeds. In controlling the occurrence of new
importance of inland fisheries, especially the planners, and emerging aquatic diseases, surveillance of disease
policy makers and other resource users in order to transfer into wild populations should be enhanced by
minimize cross-sectoral conflicts. embarking on regional initiatives that aim to harmonize
disease control standards and implementing contingency
The largest threat to inland aquatic resources and plans to handle the incidence of diseases. In this regard,
wetlands includes the numerous construction activities the concept of healthy and wholesome aquaculture,
and infrastructure developments that are prominent in which includes curtailing irresponsible culture practices
the region. Structures being developed such as dams that threaten food safety and create negative impacts on
and reservoirs, weirs among others, could endanger the the ecosystem, should be promoted. More particularly,
aquatic resources due to the disrupted inter-connectivity the use of efficient feeds to optimize production of quality
of inland habitats and threaten the extinction of certain farmed aquatic species with the least negative impact on
aquatic species, particularly those whose life cycles the environment should also be pursued.

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During the past decade, a growing number of certification Furthermore, significant improvements in terms of
requirements (quality, health, hygiene) including those improving and developing post-harvest facilities, have
developed by the private sector for the trading of also taken place in the region over the past decades, which
aquaculture products in the international markets had involved the construction of more cold storage and ice
emerged. This has created additional constraints to most plant facilities as well as infrastructures for fish handling,
aquaculture farms in the region in complying with all distribution and marketing, and the development and
the requirements. With the recent development of the adoption of techniques to improve fish handling onboard
FAO Technical Guidelines on Aquaculture Certification, fishing vessels in order to maintain the quality of
requirements for certification could be harmonized catch. Modern fish processing factories have also been
by making these more straightforward, to ease any established in many countries for generating high-value
unnecessary burden on the part of aquafarmers. Although and high-quality fish and other fishery products.
the FAO Technical Guidelines is voluntary in nature,
countries in the region should explore the possibility In the midst of the increasing demand for fish for human
of developing their respective national certification consumption in the region, the present supply and the
systems which should be harmonized with the FAO pressures from the markets lead to more quantity of
Guidelines, to facilitate trade and to make the countries fish being diverted for non-human use. It is feared that
more proactively prepared for any new requirements on over the next decade, more low-value fish would be
trading of aquaculture products that could come to light diverted from direct human consumption due to the rapid
in the future. expansion of the aquaculture sub-sector. Meanwhile,
catch of the so-called low-value fish could include
Improving Safety of Fish and Fisheries Products: juveniles of high-value species, while high-value species
ASEAN Requirements could be transformed into low-value fish due to poor
handling onboard fishing vessels, particularly in the
The importance of improving the safety of fishery products case of small fishing vessels. Onboard fish handling
for regional utilization is rapidly gaining recognition technologies that are appropriate for small fishing boats
especially with respect to the integrated economic status should therefore be developed to improve the quality of
which is being established under the ASEAN Community catch and minimize discards. Parallel to proper onboard
framework. In spite of the difficulties encountered in handling, onshore technologies should also be promoted
enhancing the safety of fish and fishery products due to for efficient handling and maximizing the utilization of
scarce resources, considerable efforts had been gradually catch so that more fish and fishery products could be used
carried out in the region especially on the development for human consumption.
of HACCP plans for fish and fishery products, adoption
of GMP/SSOP plans for SMEs producing traditional Moreover, the development of value-added products
products, establishment of regional methodologies from low-value fish should also be pursued with much
for analyzing chemical residues in fish products, intensity. Considering that technological innovations in
harmonization and validation of laboratory methods, transforming low-value fish into value-added products
and implementation of proficiency testing. Given all are already available, for example in the development
these means, the countries in the region should be able of the surimi industry, assessment of such innovations
to enhance their capacity to monitor food safety and food throughout the entire supply chain should be continued,
quality, although efforts should also be re-focused to take with the objective of developing more appropriate
into consideration additional requirements that could technologies that are aimed at producing higher quality
arise in the next decades. fishery products to improve economic returns, reduce
wastage, and enhance processing by-product utilization.
Initiatives have also been undertaken by the countries
in the region to enhance their capacities especially in Enhancing Trade in Fish and Fishery Products
validating analytical methods of detecting important
chemical and drug residues in aquaculture products, In 2007, the Southeast Asian countries exported 7.4
which together with the promotion of appropriate million metric tons of fish and fishery products valued
aquaculture technologies, aim to minimize chemical at US$ 14.4 billion (SEAFDEC, 2010), accounting for
residues and prevent possible technical barriers to trade about 30% of the region’s total fish production in terms
of the region’s fish and fishery products. In addition, of quantity and 60% in terms of value, with Thailand
efforts to assure the quality and safety of fish and fishery and Vietnam among the top ten exporting countries. The
products for domestic and local consumption, particularly annual growth rate of food fish exported from Southeast
the traditional fish products that are widely produced and Asia was recorded at 7% as of 2009 (WTO, 2010). With
consumed by local populace, should be sustained. this record, it could be gathered that export of fish and

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fishery products from the region continued to increase, understanding of the status of fishery resources/stocks,
implying further that the fisheries sector has been including information on species that are considered
producing more fish and thus, has continued to provide to be endangered and receiving special international
employment opportunities for more peoples in the region. attention. Identifying the data required and strengthening
the capacity of countries in the collection, analysis and
The demand for fish and fishery products has increased utilization of fisheries data and information for science-
together with the increased concerns of consumers for based policy formulation and management of fisheries,
good quality and safety of the products, prompting the constitute additional areas of concern for countries in
call for sustainable utilization and harvesting as well as the region. More particularly, in order to obtain time-
proper management of the fishery resources. Exporting series data for understanding the status and trend of
countries have to comply with the demand, requirements fisheries and for the sustainable management of fisheries,
and other trade-related measures in order to maintain collection of fishery information and statistics should be
their niche in the markets and boost their respective improved and strengthened at the national and district
economies. Meanwhile, importing countries continue to levels since such information could also serve as basis
enforce several measures as conditions for trading of fish for national planning and management, and eventually
and fishery products, which include voluntary instruments for compilation and analysis at regional and global
and non-voluntary agreements. In particular, important levels. Considering however, that collection of sufficient
measures and requirements imposed by importing statistics requires sufficient human resources and budget,
countries include those on traceability, certification, appropriate non-conventional methodologies should be
labeling, fisheries subsidies, and welfare of fishing explored and applied, since the results could also be used
crew and fishing labor. In order to strengthen the export by the countries in deriving better statistical data in the
of fish and fishery products from the Southeast Asian future. In addition to scientific and statistical data, the
region, countries should examine carefully and consider importance of traditional/local knowledge should also be
complying with the relevant measures and instruments recognized and appropriately compiled and utilized.
which are now commonly practiced in international trade
and has also been increasingly becoming part of the basic Climate Change: Considerable attention has now been
requirements for trade among the ASEAN countries. focused on the potential impacts of climate change and
on the need for countries to take up measures to adapt
The drive towards sustainability has also taken an and mitigate such impacts to fisheries and aquaculture,
important angle in the ambitions to protect and conserve and the people involved in and dependent on the aquatic
the aquatic biodiversity. Increasing attention had already resources and wetlands. While scientific ability to
been given on specific species such as cetaceans, several predict changes in weather, climate and water circulation
tuna species, marine turtles, and sharks among others. remains limited, the magnitude of the potential impacts
Therefore, conservation and management measures of such changes on fish stocks and the ecosystem is even
had been put in place to protect the endangered species more difficult to foresee. The nature of impacts which is
while trade regulations had been imposed under the fairly well-known could be used in building up adaptive
UN Conventions to ensure sustainable exploitation of capacity in coastal and inland communities, which
the species. The Convention on International Trade in are already well adapted to respond to any “climate
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) is variability”. Since seasonal patterns never look the same
one of the conventions that regulate international trading to the extent that people now need to cope with longer the
of species that are threatened to extinction. While the dry season and large amount of rainfall in the wet season
regulations imposed by CITES had been under debate in including large accumulation of water in various areas,
many countries in the Southeast Asian region, countries countries would need to develop appropriate adaptation
should continue to undertake measures to ensure the and mitigating initiatives, and establish precautionary
sustainable exploitation of endangered aquatic species. approach which should be built upon their capability
to cope with the changes. Research and inventory of
Addressing Emerging Challenges and Cross-cutting relevant data and information especially focusing on
Issues local/traditional knowledge should be pursued, since the
results could provide better understanding on the extent
Data and information: The growing requirements for of climate change and the potential impacts. Furthermore,
sustainable development and management of fisheries the fact that the impacts of climate change are very much
require the availability of adequate, improved and reliable area specific should be well recognized as there could
data and information. To keep up with the fast pace of be no common approach applicable for each and every
development in fisheries, real-time fisheries data will area of the region. Furthermore, measures on safety at
increasingly be required, especially for providing better sea (and on land) including improved working conditions

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should also be adhered to. In addition, fisheries and become very noticeable, particularly in fisheries biology,
aquaculture sectors should also exert efforts in reducing laws and legislation, as well as in emerging concerns
carbon footprints to mitigate environmental impacts such as social and migration aspects. The countries
from the sectors which lead to climate change. should therefore review the availability of expertise
in order to establish a clear picture of their respective
Working Conditions of Fishers Including Migratory current available human resources and be able to nail
Work Force: The ASEAN Community Blueprints the important gaps in the existing expertise. This also
give high priority to the improvement of working implies the need to match the existing available human
conditions and the status of migratory workforce, resources in wide-ranging disciplines and the demand to
especially applicable to vessel crew members and fill up future requirements.
fishers as well as those working in processing industries.
Recommendations from countries in the ASEAN region 4. Future Direction and Way Forward
dovetail towards the development of a regional standard
which should be in accordance with international There is no doubt that the fisheries sector of the Southeast
requirements, especially on health and safety standards Asian region could continue to play the vital role of
for crew members on fishing vessels as well as for safety ensuring food security and improving the economies of
at sea of small fishing boats. In the like manner, improved the region. However, this goal can only be achieved if
standards should also be applied in the fish processing the prevailing issues in the fisheries sector are addressed,
industry. While initiatives have been undertaken by the while the possible adverse impacts of emerging issues
Southeast Asian countries to comply with the health that come to light in the coming decade are mitigated.
and safety standards, consideration should be given to This requires that the countries should continue to muster
ensuring good employment practices in fishery-related their collective efforts for the next decade in accordance
activities in line with respective domestic laws and with the region’s mission of achieving Fish for the People
regulations, while adhering to regional and international 2020.
requirements. Efforts should therefore be exerted to
mainstream and integrate the safety issues into the It could therefore be foreseen that by 2020 and beyond,
respective national policies on management of fisheries the region would attain the age of golden fish harvest,
and post-harvest industries, taking into account the fact and with much optimism, fish produced from the region
that in the Southeast Asian region, coastal and inland would be among the high value food commodities of the
fisheries are mainly small-scale and artisanal that include world or even the best of its kind. What is necessary to
subsistence activities, and involve children and women, boost such confidence is to maintain a level of equilibrium
particularly in the post-harvest activities and trading of where in the fish demand and supply equation, the
fish and fishery products. Similarly for the larger-scale exploitation and utilization of the fishery resources
segment of the fisheries and related activities in the should not outweigh the increasing demand for food
region, where large numbers of migrant laborers could fish as enhanced by capacity of consumers to buy fish
be involved, possibly reaching several millions although for health reasons, notwithstanding the fair benefits that
the official/accurate data are not available. This could could be reaped by the fishers to sustain their livelihoods.
also mean that there could be several millions of workers
specifically in the processing industry which comprise Meanwhile, it is very likely that in the midst of a very
mostly women. competitive fish market, the number of international and
even regional instruments would continue to increase for
Human Resources Development: While progressing the sustainable development and management of fisheries
towards global and regional competitiveness, countries in worldwide. Such situation makes it necessary for the
the region should ensure that qualified human resources countries in the region to get together and come up with
are available in relevant disciplines (fisheries and non- common means of complying with such instruments,
fisheries). This concern has increasingly become crucial taking into consideration the uniqueness of fisheries
with the approaching establishment of the ASEAN in the region which remain small-scale and exploiting
Community in 2015. During the past decade, the areas of the multi-species resources, by beefing up fisheries
human resource expertise in fisheries of most countries governance and measures to conserve and rehabilitate
are moving towards those that provide higher economic the natural resources. While requirements for safety,
benefits, such as capture fisheries and aquaculture, as welfare and sound working conditions of fishers would
well as in post-harvest and processing enterprises. While prevail in the international arena, countries in the region
attention is now shifting towards economics and areas should adopt good employment practices in line with
that could generate higher returns (for fewer people), the their respective domestic laws and regulations, which
scarcity of expertise in several fundamental subjects has also complying with the international requirements.

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Therefore, in the perspective of achieving the goal for terms of quantity, quality and variety, is available for all
regional economic integration by 2015, countries in the peoples at all times, which in turn also addresses poverty
region should also consider the adoption of resource especially in rural areas. In a broader sense, a well-
audit schemes to make the resource users accountable balanced demand and supply of food fish should be set
for the natural resources that they have been exploiting. as the ultimate goal to reach the age of golden harvest
This also implies that the countries should educate in fisheries. After all, when all factors come into reality,
the stakeholders on how to fish responsibly and adopt it could be surmised that the region’s fisheries would be
traceability of fish and fishery products. Considering that one sector which could take care of food security for the
the peoples in the region are fish-eating, countries should future generations of the Southeast Asian region.
ensure that food fish which is nutritionally adequate in

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PART IV
Appendices
APPENDIX 1. SEAFDEC PROGRAMS ON SEA TURTLES IN SOUTHEAST ASIA

Project Activities/Objectives Accomplishments

1998-2004: Conservation and Management of Sea Turtles in Southeast Asia
Sea Turtle Hatchery Management “A guide to Set and Manage Sea Turtle Hatcheries in the Southeast Asian
To develop a common tool in conserving sea turtles through sustainable Region” was published. The book provides useful information and guidelines
hatchery management focusing on the green turtle, Chelonia mydas in setting up and management of sea turtle hatcheries based on knowledge
established on-site in Malaysia and experiences of other countries.
Using this book as guide, turtle hatcheries in the region would be able to
continuously produce hatchlings in order to enhance sea turtle conservation
activities.
Tagging Survey “Conservation and Enhancement of Sea Turtles in the Southeast Asian
To gather information on migration pattern, growth and mortality rates, Region” was published. The book highlights on the measures undertaken by
reproduction and population estimates, among others. the ASEAN countries in conserving and managing sea turtles including laws
and enforcements on conservation, establishment of sea turtle training and
public awareness.
“A Guide for Tagging Sea Turtles in the Southeast Asian Region” was also
published to help the countries in the region in standardizing their own turtle
tagging activities.
Development of Turtle Excluder Devices Awareness of the region’s fishers on TEDs was promoted through a series
To develop Turtle Exclude Devices (TEDs) suitable for the ASEAN countries of demonstrations conducted in Thailand, Malaysia, Philippines, Brunei
in response to the US embargo on shrimps caught by gear not equipped Darussalam, Indonesia, Myanmar, Cambodia, and Vietnam. The use of
with means to prevent sea turtle by-catch, which was also imposed on the TEDs has already been advanced by many countries in the region.
Southeast Asian countries posing threat to the livelihood of fishers in the
region.
Collaboration and Partnerships MOU on ASEAN Turtles Conservation and Protection was adopted at the
To enhance regional collaboration and partnerships in sea turtle AMAF Meeting in 1997.
conservation and management The ASEAN Network on Sea turtles was established as a regional taskforce
to promote the conservation and management of sea turtles in the region.
Development of Turtle Research Database System was promoted by the
Western Pacific Regional Fisheries Management Council in collaboration
with Department of Fisheries Malaysia.
Cooperation with SEASTAR2000 was finalized for the satellite tracking of
sea turtles.
2005-2009: Stock Enhancement of Sea Turtles in the Southeast Asia
Tagging and Satellite Telemetry Tracking Tagging of sea turtles (green turtles, hawksbill and olive ridley) using Inconel
To enhance sea turtle migration studies in the region, specifically in tag, Passive Integrated Transponder tag (PIT)/microchip and Platform
countries where turtle rookeries are concentrated. Terminal Transmitter (PTT)/satellite telemetry tracking was conducted in
participating ASEAN countries.
Posters highlighting the SEAFDEC tagging program were distributed for
public awareness.
Results indicated that sea turtles are sharing resources and their foraging
has been confirmed in certain areas in the Southeast Asian region.
Head Starting Technique Information collection on head starting programs in the region and other
To collect information and conduct analysis on head-starting, a technique countries outside Southeast Asia was initiated.
for raising sea turtles in captivity for release later to improve survival during
their early years, which is still relatively new in the region.
Sea Turtles- Fisheries Interaction Assessment/evaluation of lessons learned from the introduction and
To mitigate the interaction between sea turtles and fisheries and minimize promotion of TEDs in shrimp trawls was carried out taking into account
mortalities of sea turtles from fishing operations. the 2004 “FAO Guidelines to Reduce Sea Turtle Mortality in Fishing
Operations”.
“Collection of Information on Sea Turtle Interaction with Fishing Operations
in Southeast Asia”.
Result of the comparative study on the efficiency of the Circle hook and the
J-hook in pelagic and bottom long lines indicated that the use of Circle hook
(with larger hook width which the sea turtles could not swallow) was the
most suitable device for the conservation of sea turtles.
“Mitigation of Fishery- Sea Turtles Interactions: Efficiency of The Circle Hook
in Comparison with J-hook in Longline Fishery” was published containing
the outcomes of the studies on mitigation of sea turtles and fisheries
interaction.
When sea turtles are caught by the Circle hook, hooking position is only
around their jaws thus, the hook could be easily removed.
Results also showed that sea turtles caught by the Circle hook have no
serious injury and could be release safely back to the sea.

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Project Activities/Objectives Accomplishments

DNA Study “The Standard Operating Procedure: Sampling Tissue of Sea Turtles in the
To identify stock/population of sea turtles from the ASEAN region and detect Southeast Asian Region” was published to guide the countries in collecting
multiple paternities for estimation of stock size of male sea turtles. tissue samples.
For green turtles, the genetic study by using mitochondria (mtDNA) analysis
had identified 11 genetically distinct breeding stocks (Management Units/
Units stock) throughout Southeast Asia Region.
For hawksbill turtle, due to the small number of its population, the samples
also small (88 samples/10 locations) and no breeding stock can be
concluded.
Pilot study on Determination of Multiple Paternity of Green Sea Turtles
from Mak Kepit, Redang Island, Terengganu, Malaysia found that multiple
paternity occur at that population with 5 clutches are single paternity and 4
clutches are multiple paternity.
Symposium on Cloning of Sea Turtle was convened in March 2006 in
collaboration with the DoF Malaysia to discuss and compile methodologies
and techniques for cloning sea turtles.
The “Conceptual Framework on Cloning of Sea Turtles and Master Plan:
Cloning of Sea Turtles” was published. The Master Plan describes the
establishment of advanced reproductive biotechnology and captive breeding
for the sustainable management of sea turtles.
Sea Turtle Information Dissemination Five volumes of “Sea Turtle Information Kit” were published in 2006:
To enhance awareness, knowledge and understanding of the public on sea Volume 1 : Sea Turtle Evolution and Biology
turtles and spread awareness on the need to protect and conserve the sea Volume 2 : Sea Turtle Distribution
turtles as well as the environment as a whole. Volume 3 : Sea Turtle Hatchery
Volume 4 : Conservation Genetics of Sea Turtle
Volume 5 : Public Awareness on Sea Turtle
2010-2014: Research and Management of Sea Turtles in Foraging Habitats in the Southeast Asian Waters
Genetic study Colleting on tissue samples of sea turtles in Lawas, Sarawak foraging
To study population structures of sea turtles in the region by genetic analysis habitat was conducted. A total of 28 tissue samples of green turtles were
for conservation of the sea turtle populations in the region. collected.
The range size of curve carapace length (CCW) of the specimens was
between 61 cm to 102 cm and the weight between 25 kg to 105 kg.
Training for scientific survey on foraging habitats Scientific survey of ecological parameters in a pilot foraging habitat of sea
turtles (Brunei Bay) was conducted.
Fauna and flora on the sea bottom of the habitat were surveyed by divers.
Water quality, such as salinity, temperature, turbidity, and chlorophyll
content, was monitored.
Technical Officers from Brunei and Malaysia (Sabah) were invited for the
training on ecological survey.
Tagging of sea turtles Implementation of inconel tagging was continued at the focused nesting
To study population structures of sea turtles in the region by conventional sites of sea turtles in participating Member Countries and tag recovery had
tagging for conservation of the sea turtle populations in the region. been monitored.
A total of 40 green turtles were tagged in Peninsular Malaysia, 30 green
turtles were tagged in Sarawak, Malaysia and 60 green turtles were tagged
in Sabah, Malaysia.
Satellite Telemetry One juvenile green turtle was released in Lawas foraging habitat of Sarawak
To study population structures of sea turtles in the region by satellite tracking waters on 12 February 2011.
for conservation of the sea turtle populations in the region. From 12 February until 30 April 2011 the turtle with ID No.67589 is still
swimming in Lawas waters of Brunei Bay with the distance between 5 and
34 km from the shore.
This indicates that Lawas waters with seagrass bed are foraging habitats of
this turtle.
Sea Turtles- Fisheries Interaction Continuation of the study was made for modification of responsible fishing
gears to reduce the sea turtles by-catch.
Promotion and awareness raising on the use of C-hook in hook-and-line
fishing in SEAFDEC Member Countries was also conducted.

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APPENDIX 2. AQUATIC SPECIES FARMED IN SOUTHEAST ASIAN COUNTRIES AND SOURCES OF SEEDSTOCKS

Country Species Sources of Seedstock

Brunei Darussalam Tilapia (Nile, red), giant freshwater prawn, sea bass, grouper, • Hatchery-bred for most species except for trevally, but if
snapper, shrimps (P. monodon, L. stylirostris), trevally insufficient, certified seedstocks are imported from Malaysia,
Indonesia, Thailand and Philippines (Metali, 2011)
Cambodia Thai silver barb (Puntius gonionotus), common carp, Chinese • Hatchery-bred especially for most of the indigenous
carps, catfish (Clarias sp.), Nile and Mozambique tilapia freshwater species
Snakehead* (Channa striata) and pangasid catfishes* * wild seedstock since none are as yet available from
hatcheries (Da, 2011)

Indonesia Catfish (C. batrachus, Pangasius sp.), tilapia, carp, gourami, • Hatchery bred but supply still insufficient hence some
giant freshwater prawn, shrimps (P. monodon, P. vannamei), seedstocks are imported or collected from the wild
milkfish, grouper (Epinephelus sp., Cromileptis altivelis, • 240 grouper backyard hatcheries; 1820 milkfish backyard
Plectropomus sp.), sea bass/barramundi (Lates calcarifer), hatcheries (Sugama, 2011)
crabs (Scylla sp., Portunus sp.), shellfish (abalone, pearl
oyster), seaweeds (Eucheuma cottonii and Gracilaria sp.)
Lao PDR Chinese carps (bighead carp, silver carp, grass carp), Indian • Fingerlings produced in 30 government stations and 33
major carps (rohu, mrigal), common carp, catfish (Clarias small-scale private hatcheries (Roger, 2011)
macrocephalus), barb (Puntius gonionotus) and indigenous
species, e.g. Cirrhinus microlepis, Morulius chryzophecadion
Malaysia 16 marine fish species, 4 marine shrimp species, mollusks • Hatchery bred
(blood cockles, green mussels, oysters)*, seaweeds, giant * Wild sourced (Hassan et al., 2011)
freshwater prawn*, mudcrabs*, 15 freshwater fish species,
Nile and red tilapia,
Myanmar Tilapia (O. mossambicus), rohu, striped catfish (Pangasius • Hatchery bred
sutchi), sea bass (Lates calcarifer)**, red snapper**, ** wild sourced prior to 2004 (Win, 2011)
grouper** and seaweeds (Eucheuma cottonii), mud crab
Philippines Nile tilapia, red tilapia, Chinese carps, catfish, milkfish, • Hatchery-bred; some wild-sourced (Adora, 2011); hatcheries
shrimp, mud crab, grouper, sea bass, red snapper, pompano, usually dominated by the private sector
rabbitfish, abalone, sea cucumber, seaweeds
Singapore Marine species include: Asian sea bass, grouper • Hatchery bred for some species
(Epinephelus and Plectropomus spp.), snapper (Lutjanus • Seedstocks are also imported from Indonesia, Malaysia,
spp.), pompano, trevally, mullet, milkfish, marine tilapia, Philippines and Taiwan
Pacific oyster, lobster and green-lipped mussel
Freshwater species include: giant snakehead, tilapia, marble
goby and catfish
Thailand Tilapia, common carp, silver barb, snakeskin gourami, striped • Private hatcheries especially for freshwater aquaculture
snakehead, striped catfish, giant freshwater prawn, marine seedstocks
shrimps (P. vannamei, P. monodon, P. merguensis), green • Sea bass seeds from government and private hatcheries
mussel, arc shell, oyster, sea bass, groupers (Epinephelus • Grouper, snapper mostly from wild seeds (Yashiro et al.,
spp.), snappers (Lutjanus spp.) 2011)
Vietnam Black tiger shrimp, Mekong Pangasius, tilapia, Chinese and • Seeds produced by breeders from five national broodstock
Indian carps, giant freshwater prawn centers (under research institutes : RIA 1,2,3) and provincial
hatcheries (Luu, 2011)
• Sometimes imported seeds used but imported stocks
undergo strict quarantine and quality control (Hishamunda
et al., 2009)

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APPENDIX 3. GENETIC METHODS EMPLOYED IN VARIOUS SOUTHEAST ASIAN COUNTRIES FOR PRODUCTION OF
QUALITY SEEDS FOR AQUACULTURE

Genetic Program/Method Technology/ Southeast Asian Countries

Product Generated where developed*/available
NILE TILAPIA
Genetically improved farmed tilapia (GIFT) program GIFT technology and strain Philippines*, Malaysia
• Combined family and within family selection for improved
growth
Genomar Project Genomar Supreme tilapia (GIFT- derived stock) • Philippines*, China
• Combined selection for improved growth
GET-Excel Program GET Excel stocks • Philippines*
• Out-crossing two fast-growing strains (FAST and GIFT)
for improved growth
Genetically Male Tilapia (GMT) Program GMT or YY supermale technology and strain Philippines*, Thailand
• Selective breeding, sex reversal methods
Brackishwater Enhanced Selected Tilapia (BEST) Program Salt-tolerant BEST tilapia strain Philippines*
• Hybridization and outcrossing
RED TILAPIA
• Originally through interspecific hybridization; Red tilapia strains (Philippine, Thai, Taiwan) • Philippines*, Malaysia
conventional breeding for strain propagation • Indonesia, Taiwan*
• Thailand*
CATFISHES (Clarias spp)
• Interspecific hybridization (between C. macrocephalus, Clariid catfish hybrids • Philippines, Thailand
and C. gariepinus)
OTHER FRESHWATER SPECIES: Probarbus jullieni
• Molecular biology and genetic engineering techniques Cryopreserved sperm for planned breeding • Malaysia*
GIANT FRESHWATER PRAWN
• Broodstock management Best or improved strain with good growth • Philippines*, Malaysia
• Strain evaluation and reproductive ability (in progress/ already • Thailand*
developed)
• Selective breeding GI-MACRO (genetically improved • Indonesia*
Macrobrachium)
MARINE SHRIMPS
• Selective breeding (marker assisted) High health shrimp stock (SPF/SPR) (on-going • Brunei Darussalam*
for P. monodon, L. stylirostris) • Indonesia
Markers related to disease resistance
High health P. monodon and P. merguensis • Malaysia*, Philippines*
(development in progress)
MARINE FISHES (Lates calcarifer)
• Selective breeding for disease resistance High health Lates calcarifer stock to be • Malaysia*
developed
• Sperm cryopreservation Cryopreserved sperm for planned breeding • Malaysia*
ABALONE
• Interspecific hybridization Better (hybrid) stocks that are fast growing • Philippines*, Thailand*
and have good carcass quality (in progress or
developed)
OYSTER
• Triploidy induction Triploid oysters produced • Malaysia*
SEAWEEDS
• Genetic manipulation Disease resistant seaweeds • Malaysia*, Philippines*
• Conventional selection for disease resistance Seaweeds with improved carrageenan quality
• Tissue culture
• Marker-assisted selection
MUDCRABS
• Selective breeding Fast growing mud crabs with improved • Philippines*
reproductive ability (in progress)

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APPENDIX 4. TECHNICAL AND NON-TECHNICAL ISSUES IN THE PRODUCTION OF QUALITY SEEDSTOCKS FOR
AQUACULTURE IN THE SOUTHEAST ASIAN REGION

Species
Problems
Tilapia, carp, catfish, milkfish FW prawn, marine shrimps, High-value marine fish species
mud crabs, seaweeds, abalone (e.g. grouper), emerging species
STOCK AVAILABILITY
1) Inadequate seed supply  especially for Clariid catfishes  especially for mud crabs  true for most species as
(hatchery-bred seeds) domestication and hatchery
protocols are currently being
verified
2) Poor quality of hatchery-  true for milkfish especially  (slow growth of hatchery No indications as yet
bred seeds those produced from ageing produced seeds)
broodstock
3) Inadequate or no  slightly inadequate  (inadequate)  (inadequate for grouper; none
domesticated broodstock domesticated milkfish or very few for emerging
species)
4) Poor broodstock quality  especially for ageing stocks of  matures at small size for mud No indications as yet;
domesticated milkfish crab and FW prawn; low PL early stages of broodstock
survival for FW prawn and low domesticated
fecundity for mud crabs
5) inadequate or no supply  especially for catfish and  selection programs on-going  none to date; no selective
of genetically improved milkfish breeding program as yet
seeds
6) Poor/difficult/expensive  poor access particularly for  expensive especially for NA
access to genetically carps specific pathogen-free (SPF)
improved stocks shrimp stocks
R&D ISSUES AND GAPS
1) Domestication and broodstock  continue especially with  need to implement efficient  need to domesticate and
management broodstock management broodstock management follow efficient broodstock
management scheme
2) Genetic improvement  continue producing improved  start developing; continue  could commence after
breeds strain development in successful domestication
seaweeds
3) Quality assessment method  no efficient practical method for  mainly for abalone; already  no method for quality
quality assessment developed especially assessment developed
for shrimps, prawns and
seaweeds
4) Disease management  especially for catfish and carps 
5) Feeding management  continue research to address  continue research to address  intensify research on feed
(especially for broodstock and gaps gaps especially in abalone management
larval stages)
6) Environment management   
(need to adopt better
management practices,
biosecurity in farms)
7) Socio-economic and legal   
issues (especially marketing
of unselected and/or better
seeds, formulate seed
certification guidelines)

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APPENDIX 5. IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE

Changes Biophysical Effects Implication for fisheries and aquaculture

Increased CO2 and ocean Effects on calciferous animals e.g. molluscs, Potentially reduced production for calciferous marine
acidification crustaceans, corals, echinoderms and some resources and ecologically related species and declines in
phytoplankton yields
Changes in sea surface Warm-water species replacing cold-water species Shifts in distribution of plankton, invertebrates, fishes and
temperature birds towards the North or South poles, reduced species
Plankton species moving to higher latitudes diversity in tropical waters; Impacts on availability on seed
for aquaculture
More frequent harmful algal blooms; Less dissolved For aquaculture, changes in infrastructure and operating
oxygen; Increased incidence of disease and parasites; costs from worsened infections of fouling organisms, pests,
Altered local ecosystem with changes in competitors, nuisance species and/or predators. For capture fisheries,
predators and invasive species impacts on the abundance and species composition of fish
stocks
Timing of phytoplankton blooms changing Potential mismatch between prey (plankton) and predator
(fish populations) and reduced production and biodiversity
Changing zooplankton composition and increased variability in yield
Damage to coral reefs that serve as breeding habitats Reduced recruitment of fishery species. Worsened wave
and also help protects the shore from wave action damage to infrastructure or flooding from storm surges
Changes in sex ratios Altered timing and reduced productivity across marine and
Altered time of spawning fresh water systems
Altered time of migrations
Altered time of peak abundance
Higher inland water temperature Increased stratification and reduced mixing of water in Reductions in fish stocks
lakes, reducing primary productivity and ultimately food
supplies for fish species.
Raised metabolic rates increase feeding rates and Possibly enhanced fish stocks for capture fisheries or else
growth if water quality, dissolved oxygen levels, and reduced growth where the food supply does not increase
food supply are adequate, otherwise possibly reducing sufficiently in line with temperature. Possible benefits for
feeding and growth. Potential for enhanced primary aquaculture, especially intensive and semi-intensive pond
productivity systems
Shift in the location and size of the potential range for a Aquaculture opportunities both lost and gained. Potential
given species loss of species and alteration of species composition for
capture fisheries
Reduced water quality, especially in terms of dissolved Altered stocks and species composition in capture fisheries;
oxygen; Changes in the range and abundance of For aquaculture, altered culture species and possibly
pathogens, predators and competitors; Invasive species worsened losses to disease (and so higher operating costs)
introduced and possibly higher capital costs for aeration equipment or
deeper ponds
Changes in timing and success of migrations, spawning Potential loss of species or shift in composition for capture
and peak abundance fisheries; Impacts on seed availability for aquaculture
Changes in ocean currents Increased invasive species, diseases and algal blooms Reduced productivity of target species in marine and fresh
water systems
Changes in fish recruitment success Abundance of juvenile fish affected leading to reduced
productivity in marine and fresh water
Changes frequency of El-Nino- Changes in timing and location of upwelling and ocean Changes in the distribution and productivity of pelagic
Southern Oscillation (ENSO) currents alters nutrient supply in surface waters and fisheries
events consequently primary production
Changed ocean temperature; bleached and die-off coral Reduced productivity of coral reef fisheries
Sea level rise Coastal profile changes, loss of harbours, homes Increased vulnerability of coastal communities and
infrastructure to storm surges and sea level
Increased exposure of coastal areas to storm damage Costs of adaptation lead to reduced profitability, risk of storm
damage increases costs of insurance and/or rebuilding
Loss of land Reduced area available for aquaculture; Loss of freshwater
fisheries
Changes to estuary systems Shifts in species abundance, distribution and composition of
fish stocks and aquaculture seed
Salt water infusion into groundwater Damage to freshwater capture fisheries; Reduced
freshwater availability for aquaculture and a shift to brackish
water species
Loss of coastal fish breeding and nursery habitats e.g. Reduced recruitment and production and yield of coastal
mangroves, coral reefs and related fisheries for capture fisheries and seed for
aquaculture; Worsened exposure to waves and storm
surges and risk that inland aquaculture and fisheries
become inundated

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Changes Biophysical Effects Implication for fisheries and aquaculture

Increased frequency and / or More days at sea lost to bad weather, risks of accidents Increased risks associated with fishing, making it less viable
intensity of storms increased livelihood options for the poor
Aquaculture installations (coastal ponds, sea cages) Reduced profitability of larger-scale enterprises, insurance
more likely to be damaged or destroyed premiums rise
Large waves and storm surges. Inland flooding from Loss of aquaculture stock and damage to or loss of
intense precipitation. Salinity changes. Introduction of aquaculture facilities and fishing gear. Impacts on wild fish
disease or predators into aquaculture facilities during recruitment and stocks. Higher direct risk to fishers; capital
flooding episodes. costs needed to design cage moorings, pond walls, jetties,
etc. that can withstand storms; and insurance costs.
Changing levels of precipitation Where rainfall decreases, reduced opportunities Reduced diversity of rural livelihoods; greater risks
and water availability for farming, fishing and aquaculture as part of rural in agriculture; greater reliance on non-farm income.
livelihood systems Displacement of populations into coastal areas leading to
influx of new fishers
Changes in fish migration and recruitment patterns and Altered abundance and composition of wild stock. Impacts
so in recruitment success on seed availability for aquaculture
Lower water availability for aquaculture. Lower water Higher costs of maintaining pond water levels and from
quality causing more disease. Increased competition stock loss. Reduced production capacity. Conflict with other
with other water users. Altered and reduced freshwater water users. Change of culture species
supplies with greater risk of drought
Changes in lake and river levels and the overall extent Altered distribution, composition and abundance of fish
and movement patterns of surface water stocks. Fishers forced to migrate more and expend more
effort
Less predictable rain/dry Decreased ability to plan livelihood activities – e.g. Increasing vulnerability of riparian and floodplain households
seasons farming and fishing seasonality and communities
More droughts or floods Damage to productive assets (fish ponds, weirs, rice
fields, etc.) and homes
Lower water quality and availability for aquaculture. Loss of wild and cultured stock. Increased production costs.
Salinity changes Loss of opportunity as production is limited
Changes in lake water levels and river flows Reduced wild fish stocks, intensified competition for fishing
areas and more migration by fisher folk
Source: Adapted from Allison et al. (2008) and WFC (2007)

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PART V
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PART VI
Acknowledgement

The SEASOFIA Production Team is very thankful to especially to MFRDMD Chief Ms. Mahyam Mohd. Isa and
those who have contributed valuable inputs for the Deputy Chief Dr. Masaya Katoh, and also to Mr. Abu Talib
preparation of the SEASOFIA and to those who reviewed Ahmad, Mr. Ahmad Ali, Mr. Raja Bidin Raja Hassan, Mr.
the first draft and gave comments and constructive Mohammad Faisal Md. Saleh, Mohd Fariduddin Othman,
criticism to improve the publication. Specifically, much Mr. Ku Kassim Ku Yaacob, Ms. Mazalina Ali and also to
gratitude goes to the SEAFDEC Secretary-General Dr. Dr. Gazi Md. Nurul Islam (Research Fellow at the Institute
Chumnarn Pongsri; Deputy Secretary-General Mr. Kenji of Agricultural and Food Policy Studies of the Universiti
Matsumoto; Senior Advisor Dr. Magnus Torell; and Policy Putra Malaysia); the Program Manager of SEAFDEC-
and Program Coordinator Dr. Somboon Siriraksophon Sida Project Ms.Pattaratjit Kaewnuratchadasorn and
for their support and kind words that encouraged us the Members of the Regional Fisheries Policy Network
to carry on the gigantic task of compiling information (RFPN) in 2011: Mr. Hort Sitha (Cambodia), Dr. Ahmadi
that went into the publication, and also to the rest of the (Indonesia), Mr. Akhane Phomsouvanh (Lao PDR), Ms.
staff of the SEAFDEC Secretariat for their patience and Halimah Mohamed (Malaysia), Dr. Aung Naing Oo
understanding. (Myanmar), Mr. Pierre Easter Ladrido Velasco and Mr.
Joeren Yleaña (Philippines), Ms. Nopparat Nasuchon
Special thanks for keeping the supply of inputs coming and (Thailand), and Ms. Ngo Thi Thanh Huong (Vietnam). The
for serving as critics, also go to the officers of SEAFDEC/ list of contributors to particular topics of the publication
TD especially to the Head of Information and Training Mr. appears in the following page.
Bundit Chokesanguan and his staff, the Head of Coastal
and Small-scale Fisheries Management Division Dr. We are also very thankful to a number of external
Yuttana Theparoonrat and his staff; the Head of Capture reviewers and critics who offered suggestions gratis et
Fishery Technology Division, Dr. Worawit Wanchana and amore that made the publication more complete, and to
his staff; the Chief of MFRD, Mr. Yeap Soon Eong and Mr. those whom we might have failed to mention especially
L.G.Limpus (Consultant); the officers of SEAFDEC/AQD those who have been assisting us behind the scene, we
especially to the AQD Chief Dr. Joebert Toledo, Deputy cannot thank you less.
Chief Dr. Teruo Azuma, and also to Ms. B.O. Acosta, Mr.
R.F. Agbayani, Mr. S.B. Alayon, Ms. R.T. Bautista, Ms. To the readers and users of this publication, we thank you in
S.M. Buen-Ursua, Ms. M.T. Castaños, Dr. M.R. Catacutan, advance for bearing some redundancies or inconsistencies
Dr. R.M. Coloso, Ms. K.G, Corre, Dr. L. de la Peña, Dr. in the text, which we might have overlooked. We promise
M.J.Hazel Lebata-Ramos, Dr. M.R.R. Romana-Eguia, and to improve and do better next time.
Dr. N.D. Salayo; the officers of SEAFDEC/MFRDMD

The SEASOFIA Production Team

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 Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS TO SEASOFIA 2012

Part I. Status and Trends of Capture Fisheries and Aquaculture in Southeast Asia
Ms. Nualanong Tongdee, Ms. Saivason Klinsukhon, and Ms. Virgilia Sulit
(Secretariat)
Part II. Issues and Challenges in Sustainable Fisheries Development of the Southeast Asian Region
• Pelagic Fishery Resources Dr. Somboon Siriraksophon (Secretariat)
Mr. Abu Talib Ahmad, and Mr. Mohammad Faisal Md. Saleh (MFRDMD)
• Deep Sea Fishery Resources Dr. Natinee Sukramongkol (TD)
• Sharks and Rays Dr. Worawit Wanchana (TD)
Mr. Ahmad Ali (MFRDMD)
• Tunas Ms. Penchan Laongmanee (TD)
Mr. Raja Bidin Raja Hassan (MFRDMD)
• Sea Turtles Ms. Wahidah, Ms. Noorul Azliana Jamaludin and
Mr. Syed Abdullah Syed Abdul Kadir (MFRDMD)
• Sea Cucumber Ms. Nualanong Tongdee (Secretariat)
• Seahorses Dr. Teruo Azuma and Ms. Shelah Mae Buen-Ursua (AQD)
• Inland Fishery Resources Dr. Chumnarn Pongsri and Ms. Nualanong Tongdee (Secretariat)
• Utilization of Fishery Resources Mr. Yeap Soon Eong and Dr. L.G. Limpus (MFRD)
• Management of Fishing Capacity and Combating IUU Ms. Pattaratjit Kaewnuratchadasorn (Secretariat)
Fishing Ms. Nopparat Nasuchol (RFPN Member from Thailand)
Mrs. Halimah Mohamed (RFPN Member from Malaysia)
Mr. Pierre L. Velasco (RFPN Member from the Philippines)
Mr. Joeren Yleana (RFPN Member from the Philippines)
Mr. Sutee Rajruchithong (TD)
• By-catch Reduction and Management Mr. Bundit Chokesanguan (TD)
• Community-based Fishery Management Approach in Dr. Gazi Md. Nurul Islam and Mr. Ahmad Ali (MFRDMD)
the Southeast Asian Region
• Habitats Protection and Coastal Fishery Resources Mr. Ahmad Ali and Mr. Raja Bidin Raja Hassan (MFRDMD)
Enhancement
• Responsible Fishing and Practices in Southeast Asia Mr. Issara Chanrajchakij (TD)
• Optimizing Energy Use in Fisheries Mr. Bundit Chokesanguan (TD)
• Safety at Sea and Standards for Fisheries in Southeast Mr. Bundit Chokesanguan, Dr. Worawit Wanchana (TD)
Asia
• Integration of Aquaculture in Rural Development Dr. Nerissa D. Salayo and Mr. Renato F. Agbayani (AQD)
• Good Quality Seeds for Aquaculture Dr. Rowena Romana-Eguia (AQD)
• Disease Diagnosis, Control, Monitoring and Surveillance Dr. Leobert de la Peña (AQD)
of Aquatic Animals
• Development of Sustainable Aquaculture Feeds Dr. Mae Catacutan and Dr. Relicardo Coloso (AQD)
• Minimizing Impacts of Aquaculture on the Environment Dr. Ma. Junemie Hazel Ramos (AQD)
• Adaptation and Mitigation of the Impacts of Climate Ms. Pattaratjit Kaewnuratchadasorn (Secretariat)
Change Mr. Pierre L. Velasco (RFPN Member from the Philippines)
Mr. Joeren Yleana (RFPN Member from the Philippines)
Mr. Bundit Chokesanguan (TD)
• Human Resources in Fisheries Dr. Chumnarn Pongsri and Ms. Nualanong Tongdee (Secretariat)
Mr. Renato F. Agbayani (AQD)
Part III. Outlook of Fisheries and Aquaculture for the Southeast Asian Region
Dr. Chumnarn Pongsri, Dr. Magnus Torell, Ms. Virgilia Sulit and
Ms. Nualanong Tongdee (Secretariat)

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 SEAFDEC Addresses

Secretariat
P.O. Box 1046
Kasetsart Post Office
Bangkok 10903
Thailand
Tel:(66-2)940-6326
Fax: (66-2)940-6336
E-mail:secretariat@seafdec.org
http://www.seafdec.org
Training Department (TD)
P.O. Box 97
Phrasamutchedi
Samut Prakan 10290
Thailand
Tel:(66-2)425-6100
Fax:(66-2)425-6110 to 11
E-mail:td@seafdec.org
http://www.seafdec.or.th
Marine Fisheries Research Department
(MFRD)
2 Perahu Road
off Lim Chu Kang Road
Singapore 718915
Tel: (65)6790-7973
Fax: (65)6861-3196
E-mail: ava_mfrd@ava.gov.sg
http://www.seafdec.org
Aquaculture Department (AQD)
Main Office: Tigbauan,
5021 Iloilo, Philippines
Tel: +63 33 511 9171
Fax: +63 33 511 8709, 511 9170
Manila Office: Rm 102 G/F
Philippine Social Science Center (PSSC)
Commonwealth Avenue, Diliman
Quezon City 1101 Philippines
Tel & Fax : (63-2) 927-7825
E-mail: aqdchief@seafdec.org.ph
http://www.seafdec.org.ph
Marine Fishery Resources
Development and Management
Department (MFRDMD)
Taman Perikanan Chendering,
21080 Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia
Tel: (609)616-3150
Fax:(609)617-5136
E-mail: mfrdmd@seafdec.org.my
http://www.seafdec.org.my