Chapter 2

Chapter 2: Complex Numbers

(A) The Main Ideas

For all their usefulness, real numbers are limited in the sense that they do not provide solutions to
2
some mathematical equations. For example, the equation x = – 1 cannot be solved using real
numbers. The complex number system compensates for this apparent deficiency in the real num-
ber system, and is useful in many branches of mathematics and the physical sciences, such as
electronics and the study of fluids.

The imaginary number i is a symbol defined as follows:

i = –1

It immediately follows from this definition that

2
i = –1

In general, for any positive real number c we can write

–c = c  –1 = c –1 = ci

Example 1

(a) –5 = 5  –1 = 5 –1 = 5i

(b) – 36 = 36  – 1 = 36 – 1 = 6i

1
 Chapter 2

A complex number is defined to be an expression of the form

a + bi where a b are real numbers.

Complex numbers allow us to factorise any quadratic expression (and thus to solve any quadratic
equation), even if the quadratic expression has negative discriminant.

Example 2
2
Consider the quadratic equation z – 4z + 13 = 0 . By the quadratic formula, we see that
2
z – 4z + 13 = 0 if

4  16 – 4  1  13 4  – 36 4  36  – 1
z = -------------------------------------------------- = ---------------------- = --------------------------------
2 2 2
4  36 – 1 4  6i
= ------------------------------ = -------------- = 2  3i
2 2
That is,
2
z – 4z + 13 = 0 if z = 2 + 3i or 2 – 3i
2
We can therefore factorise the quadratic expression z – 4z + 13 as
2
z – 4z + 13 =  z –  2 + 3i    z –  2 – 3i  
=  z – 2 – 3i   z – 2 + 3i 
Alternatively, we can see this by completing the square, as follows:
2 2
z – 4z + 13 =  z – 2  + 9
2
=  z – 2  –  9  –1 
2 2
=  z – 2  – 9i
2 2
=  z – 2  –  3i 
=  z – 2 – 3i   z – 2 + 3i 
2
Note that z – 4z + 13 cannot be factorised within the real number system (since the discriminant
2 2
of z – 4z + 13 is negative). However, we showed that z – 4z + 13 could be factorised within the
complex number system.

2
 Chapter 2

Basic Notation

(a) We shall usually use the symbol z to represent a complex number. Thus, we will often write

our quadratics (and higher order polynomials) as functions with variable z (rather than x ) to indi-
cate that we are working in the complex number system. (For example, we wrote the quadratic in
2 2
Example 2 as z – 4z + 13 rather than as x – 4x + 13 .)

(b) Consider z = x + yi where x y  R . We say that the real part of z is x , and the imaginary

part is y . As an abbreviation, we write Re z = x and Im z = y .

For example, if z = 2 – 3i then Re z = 2 and Im z = – 3 .

(c) The symbol C is used to represent the set of all complex numbers.

Thus C =  z : z = x + yi, x y  R  .

Note that any real number is also complex. In particular, for any real number x , we can write

x = x + 0i . Thus R is a subset of C .

3
 Chapter 2

Basic Operations

Equality:
a + bi = c + di if and only if a = c and b = d .

3 3
For example, if x + yi = 5 – --- i then x = 5 and y = – --- .
2 2

Addition:
 a + bi  +  c + di  =  a + c  +  b + d i

For example, if z 1 = 4 + 5i and z 2 = 2 – 3i then

z 1 + z 2 = 4 + 5i + 2 – 3i
= 4 + 2 +  5 – 3 i
= 6 + 2i

Multiplication:
2
 a + bi   c + di  = ac + adi + bci + bdi
= ac +  ad + bc i + bd  – 1
=  ac – bd  +  ad + bc i
For example,
 4 + 5i   2 – 3i  = 8 – 12i + 10i + 15
= 23 – 2i

Complex Conjugates:
If z = x + yi then the complex conjugate of z is defined to be

z = x – yi

For example, the complex conjugate of 5 + 3i is 5 – 3i . We write 5 + 3i = 5 – 3i .

Similarly, 1 – 4i = 1 + 4i .

4
 Chapter 2

Note that the product of a conjugate pair of complex numbers is a real number, since if
z = x + yi (where x y  R ) then

zz =  x + yi   x – yi 
2 2
= x –  yi 
2 2 2
= x –y i
2 2
= x +y
That is,
2 2
zz =  Re z  +  Im z 

2 2
For example, if z = 4 + 3i then zz = 4 + 3 = 16 + 9 = 25 .

We use this fact to convert fractions with complex denominators into the form x + yi (with

x y  R ). In particular, if we multiply the denominator of the fraction with the complex conjugate
of that denominator, then we can get rid of any i’s in the denominator.

Example 3
z1
Simplify ---- , where z 1 = 2 – 7i and z 2 = 4 + 3i .
z2

Solution
z1 2 – 7i- 2 – 7i 4 – 3i
---- = ------------- = --------------  --------------
z2 4 + 3i 4 + 3i 4 – 3i
2
 2 – 7i   4 – 3i 
- = 8--------------------------------------------
– 6i – 28i + 21i
= -------------------------------------
4 +3
2 2 25
8 – 21 – 34i 13 34
= ----------------------------- = – ------ – ------ i
25 25 25

5
 Chapter 2

The Argand Plane

Complex numbers can be represented as points in a plane. In particular, we can identify a complex
number x + yi with the point  x y  . When we represent complex numbers on the plane in this

way, the x axis is referred to as the real axis, and the y axis is referred to as the imaginary axis.
The whole plane is then referred to as the Argand plane, or as the complex number plane.

Imaginary axis

x + yi
y

Real axis
O x

Example 4
Represent the complex numbers 3 + i and – 1 + 2i on the Argand plane.

Solution

Im

– 1 + 2i 2

1 3+i
Re
-1 O 3

6
 Chapter 2

(B) Polar Form

Complex numbers written in the form x + yi , where x y  R , are said to be in Cartesian form.

Often it is more convenient to work with complex numbers in an alternative form, called polar
form. Polar form is described below.
Consider the representation of a non-zero complex number z = x + yi on the Argand plane.
Imaginary axis

x + yi
y

Real axis
x

x + yi
y
r


x

r y


x

If we let r represent the distance between x + yi and the origin, then (using Pythagoras’s theo-
rem) we have
2 2
r = x +y

7
 Chapter 2

Furthermore, if  is the angle (measured anticlockwise, and in radians) as shown then

x y
cos  = -- and sin  = -- .
r r
That is,
x = r cos  and y = r sin  .

Thus we have
z = x + yi
= r cos  + ir sin 
= r  cos  + i sin  

The expression r  cos  + i sin   is called the polar form of z . As an abbreviation we write
z = rcis

Note that cis is an acronym consisting of the first three letters in cosine, i , sine.

The number r in the polar form z = rcis is called the modulus or absolute value of z , and is

often denoted z . That is,

2 2
r = z = x + yi = x +y

The number  in the polar form z = rcis is called an argument of z , and is often denoted by

arg(z) . Note that, as long as x  0 ,

y
tan  = --
x

We can easily see which quadrant  should be in by looking at the Cartesian form of z . Thus we

can find  .

8
 Chapter 2

Example 5
Express the complex number z = – 2 – 2i in polar form.

Solution
Im

-2
 O Re


-2
– 2 – 2i

Comparing our triangle

2


2
r

with the standard triangle

1

4
1
2

 5
we get r = 2 2 and  =   4 , so  =  +  =  + --- = ------ .
4 4

5 13 21
Therefore, z = rcis = 2 2cis ------ or 2 2cis --------- or 2 2cis --------- .
4 4 4

9
 Chapter 2

5
That is, z = 2 2cis  ------ + 2k , k  Z .
4 

Note that there are infinitely many values of  corresponding to each z , with any two arguments

of z differing by a multiple of 2 . In most circumstances it does not matter which of the argu-

ments we use (as long as it only differs from the given argument by a multiple of 2 ). The only
situation in which we must use a special argument is if we are specifically asked for the principal
value of the argument, which is defined below:
The principal value of arg(z  , denoted by P.V. arg(z ), is the unique argument which also satis-
fies
–   P.V. arg(z)  

Note that arg(z) and P.V. arg(z ) are not defined if z = 0 .

Example 6
Find P.V. arg(z ) for z = – 2 – 2i .

Solution
3 5 13 21
From Example 5 arg  z  =  – ------ ------ --------- --------- 
4 4 4 4

3 3
Therefore, PV arg  z  = – ------ since –   – ------   .
4 4

10
 Chapter 2

Example 7
Convert – 8i to polar form.

Solution
Im

O
Re


– 8i


r = 8 and  = – ---
2

 3 7
– 8 i = 8cis  – --- or 8cis ------ or 8cis ------ .
 2 2 2


That is, – 8 i = 8cis  – --- + 2k , k  Z .
 2 

Example 8


Convert 2cis  --- to Cartesian form.
6

Solution
Using the standard triangle


---
2 6
3


---
3
1

11
 Chapter 2

 
2cis --- = 2  cos --- + i sin 
3 1
--- = 2  ------- + i --- = 3+i
6 6 6 2 2

Multiplication and Division in Polar Form

Let z 1 = r 1 cis 1 and z 2 = r 2 cis 2 . Then

z 1 z 2 = r 1 r 2  cos  1 + i sin  1   cos  2 + i sin  2 

= r 1 r 2   cos  1 cos  2 – sin  1 sin  2  + i  sin  1 cos  2 + cos  1 sin  2  
= r 1 r 2  cos   1 +  2  + i sin   1 +  2  
= r 1 r 2 cis   1 +  2 

That is,

z 1 z 2 = r 1 r 2 cis   1 +  2 

Similarly,

z1 r
---- = ----1 cis   1 –  2 
z2 r2

Example 9

Let z 1 = – 2 – 2i and z 2 = 2 + 2 3i .

(a) Convert z 1 and z 2 to polar form.

z1
(b) Hence find z 1 z 2 and ---- . (Give your final answers in polar form.)
z2

12
 Chapter 2

Solution
(a) From Example 5 we have
5
z 1 = – 2 – 2i = 2 2cis ------ .
4

Im

2 3 z2

r
O 
2 Re

Comparing our triangle

r 2 3


2

with the standard triangle

2
3

3
1


we get r = 4 and  = --- .
3

13
 Chapter 2


z 2 = 4cis --- .
3
(b)

5  5 
z 1 z 2 =  2 2cis ------  4cis --- = 8 2cis  ------ + ---
 4  3  4 3
19
= 8 2cis  --------- + 2k  k  Z
 12 

and
5
z1 2 2cis ------
4 2 5  2 11
---- = ------------------------ = ------- cis  ------ – --- = ------- cis  --------- + 2k  k  Z
z2  2  4 3 2  12 
4cis ---
3

De Moivre’s Theorem

Consider z = rcis . Then (using the results of the previous section), we have
2 2
z = r cis  2 
3 3
z = r cis  3  etc.

In general, for any integer n we have

n n
z = r cis  n 

This formula is known as De Moivre’s Theorem.

Example 10

1 1 8
Find  --- – --- i . (Give your final answer in Cartesian form.)
2 2

14
 Chapter 2

Solution
1 1
First, we’ll convert --- – --- i to polar form.
2 2

Im

O 12
 Re

–1  2 1--- 1---
– i
2 2

Comparing our triangle

12

12
r

with the standard triangle

1

4

1
2

15
 Chapter 2

2 
we get r = ------- and  = – --- .
2 4
12 8
1 1 8 2 – 8 2 
 --- – --- i =  ------- cis ------ =  ---------- cis  8  – --- (using De Moivre’s Theorem)
2 2   2 4  2   4
4
2 –4 1 1 1
= ----8- cis  – 2   = 2 cis  – 2  = ------  cos  – 2  + i sin  – 2   = ------  1 + 0i  = ------
2 16 16 16

References
• Calculus, J. Stewart (Brooks/Cole).
• Calculus and Analytic Geometry, G.B. Thomas and R.L. Finney (Addison-Wesley 1988).
• Calculus: Concepts and Contexts (Single Variable), J. Stewart (Brooks/Cole).

16