Journal of

Manufacturing and
Materials Processing

Article
Local Shielding Gas Supply in Remote Laser Beam Welding
Klaus Schricker * , Andreas Baumann and Jean Pierre Bergmann

Production Technology Group, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Technische Universität Ilmenau,

Gustav-Kirchhoff-Platz 2, 98693 Ilmenau, Germany; Andreas.Baumann@ivw.uni-kl.de (A.B.);
jeanpierre.bergmann@tu-ilmenau.de (J.P.B.)
* Correspondence: klaus.schricker@tu-ilmenau.de; Tel.: +49-3677-69-3808

Abstract: The use of shielding gases in laser beam welding is of particular interest for materials
interacting with ambient oxygen, e.g., copper, titanium or high-alloy steels. These materials are often
processed by remote laser beam welding where short welds (e.g., up to 40 mm seam length) are
commonly used. Such setups prevent gas nozzles from being carried along on the optics due to the
scanner application and a small area needs to be served locally with inert gas. The article provides
systematic investigations into the interaction of laser beam processes and parameters of inert gas
supply based on a modular flat jet nozzle. Based on the characterization of the developed nozzle
by means of high-speed Schlieren imaging and constant temperature anemometry, investigations
with heat conduction welding and deep penetration welding were performed. Bead-on-plate welds
were carried out on stainless steel AISI 304 for this purpose using a disc laser and a remote welding
system. Argon was used as shielding gas. The interaction between Reynolds number, geometrical
parameters and welding/flow direction was considered. The findings were proved by transferring
the results to a complex weld seam geometry (C-shape).





 Keywords: laser welding; remote laser welding; shielding gas; laser material processing; high-alloy
Citation: Schricker, K.; Baumann, A.;
steel; Schlieren imaging
Bergmann, J.P. Local Shielding Gas
Supply in Remote Laser Beam
Welding. J. Manuf. Mater. Process.
2021, 5, 139. https://doi.org/ 1. Introduction
10.3390/jmmp5040139 Laser beam welding offers advantages regarding high welding speeds, narrow heat-
affected zones, high levels of automation and non-contact energy input into the workpiece.
Academic Editor: Steven Y. Liang In remote laser beam welding, a laser scanning module is combined with a handling unit,
e.g., a six-axis robot, resulting in shorter positioning times, a further reduction in the overall
Received: 12 November 2021
processing time and the possibility to carry out optimized welding sequences due to large
Accepted: 10 December 2021
working distances up to 1.6 m [1,2]. Laser beam sources of high beam qualities are used,
Published: 17 December 2021
which is why fiber and disk lasers are established choices for remote laser welding, due to
their wavelength of about 1 µm and the resulting advantages in beam guidance and higher
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
process efficiency.
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
Remote laser beam welding is used in the automotive industry for welding aluminum
published maps and institutional affil-
and steel, but its scope is broadening to other industries, applications and materials.
iations.
The advantages are convincing for applications that were previously processed using
conventional equipment technology or alternative joining processes, e.g., the welding of
high-alloy steels in white goods industry. A material-adapted remote welding process
requires the prevention of a reaction with oxygen, nitrogen or hydrogen from ambient
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
atmosphere. Depending on the materials, these can lead to oxidation, embrittlement or
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
pore formation and have a negative effect on weld quality [3].
This article is an open access article
For remote laser beam welding, a protection of the processing zone from surrounding
distributed under the terms and
atmosphere can be realized in two ways. On the one hand, the component can be covered
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
with gas globally, e.g., in shielding gas troughs [4,5] or closed booths [6–8]. The high
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
expense, high gas consumption, required space and accessibility of welding positions
4.0/). on the component are disadvantageous. On the other hand, a local gas supply can be

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5, 139. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp5040139 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/jmmp

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 20

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5, 139 2 of 19

high expense, high gas consumption, required space and accessibility of welding positions
on the component are disadvantageous. On the other hand, a local gas supply can be im-
plemented at the processing zone, realized by carrying the shielding gas nozzle along with
implemented
the processing at the processing
optics or by stationaryzone, realized by carrying
installations within the the fixture
shielding gas nozzle
[9–11]. Movedalongnoz-
withoffer
zles the processing optics or by
limited accessibility stationary
when installations
processing complexwithin the using
contours, fixturelarge
[9–11]. Moved
focal dis-
nozzles
tances oroffer
high limited
weldingaccessibility when processing
speeds. In comparison, complex contours,
a fixture-integrated usinggas
shielding large focal
supply
distances
offers or high welding
advantages, speeds.
particularly theIntargeted
comparison, a fixture-integrated
provision of shielding gas shielding gas supply
at different posi-
offers advantages, particularly the targeted provision of shielding
tions, a minimized effect of interfering contours on shielding gas coverage and by pre- gas at different positions,
a minimized
venting the metaleffecttooftarnish
interfering
during contours
cooling.on shielding gas coverage and by preventing the
metal to tarnish during cooling.
Different nozzle concepts are described in current research. A flat jet nozzle was ex-
amined Different
in [10,12] nozzle
to drawconcepts are described
conclusions about the in quality
currentofresearch.
shieldingAgas flatcoverage
jet nozzle was
based
examined
on oxygen in [10,12]Mixing
content. to drawwith conclusions about theatmosphere
the surrounding quality of shielding
was found, gasespecially
coverage in based
the
on oxygen content. Mixing with the surrounding atmosphere
sidewise shear layers [12] due to the high velocity difference between the shielding gas was found, especially in
the sidewise shear layers [12] due to the high velocity difference
and the atmosphere. With increased distance from the orifice, the lateral influence of the between the shielding
gas and
shear layertheincreased,
atmosphere. andWith
at theincreased
same time distance
there was from the orifice,
a rapid the in
increase lateral influence
the oxygen of
con-
the shear layer increased, and at the same time there was a rapid
tent [12]. The authors of [13] compared different nozzles regarding flow conditions (i.a., increase in the oxygen
content
slit [12]. The
die, Laval authors
nozzle, of nozzle,
flat jet [13] compared
open tube)different nozzlesthe
to describe regarding
quality of flow conditions
shielding gas
(i.a., slit die, Laval nozzle, flat jet nozzle, open tube) to describe
coverage by means of laminar length. According to [13], the most suitable nozzle in terms the quality of shielding
gas coverage by means of laminar length. According to [13], the most suitable nozzle in
of gas consumption and quality of coverage was an open tube that was used in a compa-
terms of gas consumption and quality of coverage was an open tube that was used in a
rable configuration (diameter: 6 mm, angle: 60° to the component surface) as the gas sup-
comparable configuration (diameter: 6 mm, angle: 60◦ to the component surface) as the
ply in various other studies [13–15]. A comparable configuration was considered by [16]
gas supply in various other studies [13–15]. A comparable configuration was considered
as a gas feed by means of numerical simulation, whereby an inflow perpendicular to the
by [16] as a gas feed by means of numerical simulation, whereby an inflow perpendicular
surface showed the best result in shielding gas coverage for Argon [16].
to the surface showed the best result in shielding gas coverage for Argon [16].
Comparative studies of different nozzles or nozzle arrangements (i.e., pan flute and
Comparative studies of different nozzles or nozzle arrangements (i.e., pan flute and
stationary flat jet nozzle) demonstrated advantages with respect to the removal of process
stationary flat jet nozzle) demonstrated advantages with respect to the removal of process
emissions [11]. It should be noted that the metal vapor reached velocities of more than 100
emissions [11]. It should be noted that the metal vapor reached velocities of more than
m/s by escaping from the keyhole [8], which is why a high disturbance was assumed re-
100 m/s by escaping from the keyhole [8], which is why a high disturbance was assumed
garding
regarding shielding
shielding gasgascoverage.
coverage.The Theauthors
authorsofof[15][15]investigated
investigatedthe theexisting
existinginteractions
interactions
in
in immediate vicinity of the keyhole by means of a model experiment usingan
immediate vicinity of the keyhole by means of a model experiment using anoutflowing
outflowing
gas
gasjetjetatat100
100m/s.m/s. TheThecorrect
correct adjustment
adjustment of the nozzle
of the andand
nozzle the the
small distance
small between
distance the
between
nozzle and the keyhole were identified as essential parameters
the nozzle and the keyhole were identified as essential parameters to limit mixing with to limit mixing with ambi-
ent atmosphere.
ambient atmosphere.
For
For aproper
a properunderstanding
understandingof ofthe
theprocesses,
processes,some someconsiderations
considerationsof offluid
fluidmechanics
mechanics
have
have to be made. The shielding gas supply is shown as a model concept in Figure
to be made. The shielding gas supply is shown as a model concept in Figure 1.1. Due
Due
to complex relationships and a large number of parameters, relevant
to complex relationships and a large number of parameters, relevant effects are explained effects are explained
for
fordifferent
differentsections
sections(a) (a)toto(e)
(e) based
based onon the
the model
model concept.
concept.

a: gas supply
b: diffusor
c: gas guidance after diffusor
a b c
d d: orifice
e
y e: boundary layer flow
x

shielding gas nozzle working area

Model concept
Figure1.1. Model
Figure concept of
offluid
fluidmechanics
mechanicsof of
shielding gasgas
shielding supply using
supply the example
using of a flat
the example ofjet nozzle.
a flat jet
nozzle.
The gas supply (a) transports the shielding gas from gas cylinder to nozzle. Due to
the changes in cross-sections
The gas supply on this
(a) transports the path and the
shielding gas resulting
from gas flow stall,toanozzle.
cylinder turbulent
Dueand
to
inhomogeneous flow is present that should not be used directly for shielding gas cover.
the changes in cross-sections on this path and the resulting flow stall, a turbulent and
Consequently, a diffuser is required (b) that increases the cross-section and homogenizes the
inhomogeneous flow is present that should not be used directly for shielding gas cover.
gas flow, i.e., decreasing flow velocity. The use of sieves or porous materials is advantageous
Consequently, a diffuser is required (b) that increases the cross-section and homogenizes
compared to vanes due to their limited installation sizes [17]. The relationships between
the gas flow, i.e., decreasing flow velocity. The use of sieves or porous materials is advan-
porous material properties, the viscosity of the fluid, volume flow and geometric conditions
tageous compared to vanes due to their limited installation sizes [17]. The relationships
are provided as the coefficient of permeability ψv and the coefficient of inertial permeability
ψi [18]. Information on the range of these key parameters for shielding gas supply systems
are not provided in available research.
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5, 139 3 of 19

The gas guidance (c) follows the diffusor, whereby changes in the cross-section should
be avoided or tapered without sharp-edged transitions and using sufficiently large radii or
cones [19,20]. This section can be considered as pipe flow or channel flow and described by
dimensionless numbers, e.g., Reynolds number (Re). Re is given in Equation (1) considering
density ρ, flow velocity u, characteristic length L and dynamic viscosity η. Turbulent flow
starts from Re = 3000 [21], which is why this value should not be exceeded for shielding
gas supplies.
Re = ρ·u·L·η −1 (1)
A homogeneous velocity distribution is present at the beginning of the pipe flow
(transition b–c) in case of a correctly utilized diffusor, that shortens the necessary length
to form a fully developed flow with a parabolic velocity profile (umax = 1.5·ū for pipe
flow, umax = 2·ū for channel flow) due to increasing boundary layer thicknesses over inlet
length. For a constant velocity at the beginning of the pipe flow, velocity distribution
and inlet length can be calculated [22]. Furthermore, a parabolic velocity distribution
is assumed to be present when the orifice (d) is reached [23]. Outside the nozzle, the
boundary layer theory (e) is to be considered due to the flow field consisting of inert gas
and atmosphere. It describes the laminar-turbulent transition after a certain propagation
length due to boundary layer growth [20,21]. The flow stall is relevant due to the backflow
regions enabling mass transport from atmosphere to the processing zone. A mixing of
shielding gas and atmosphere occurs in the shear layer in addition [10,12]. A parabolic
velocity profile can reduce a mixing due to minimized velocity gradients between resting
atmosphere and shielding gas [20,24].
Due to the momentum exchange at the shear layer to the surroundings or to the
wall (i.e., the metal surface), the velocity profile changes asymmetrically with increasing
propagation length [21]. Therefore, considerations of the wall jet and free jet [25] make it
possible to compare shielding gas supplies to flat jet or pipe nozzles. Wall jets provide a
significantly longer laminar flow and reduced turbulence for the same Re [24], indicating the
advantages of flat jet nozzles over other geometries. Depending on Re, stable (Re = 330) or
unstable (Re = 370 . . . 750) wall jets appear [24], whereby flow stall occurs earlier for higher
velocities [26] and is susceptible to external disturbances [19,20]. In order to characterize
the occurrence of turbulence in a flow, turbulence intensity is used. Values below 1% are
considered laminar, whereas values above 5% are regarded as highly turbulent [27].
These findings from fluid mechanics can significantly support the design of inert gas
supply systems, but are only partially taken into account in the current state of the art.
This paper addresses fundamental investigations regarding shielding gas coverage
for remote laser welding. A description of shielding gas supply and its key parameters,
the effect of heat conduction welding and deep penetration welding in combination with
variable flow conditions and the transfer to complex seam geometries are given based on
systematically performed trials.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Design of Shielding Gas Nozzle
Figure 2 depicts the developed modular flat jet nozzle. The design allows the manipu-
lation of flow conditions. The width b of the nozzle outlet is set to 50 mm to minimize the
influence of the lateral shear layer on the shielding gas coverage (see Section 1) for typical
weld lengths in remote welding up to 40 mm. The nozzle outlet height H is adjustable in
.
steps of 1 mm up to 5 mm. The volume flow rate V can be adjusted freely up to 32 L/min.
The gas inlet is followed by a sintered metal working as part of the diffusor to reduce flow
velocity and homogenize the gas flow. Different materials and approaches were considered
to obtain a nearly uniform flow velocity behind the sintered metal. The considerations
were carried out by means of numerical simulation in Comsol Multiphysics 5.6 and based
on Brinkman equations and Forchheimer correction for flow through porous media [28].
The area simulated in 2D is also shown in Figure 2. The flow is described by stationary and
incompressible Navier–Stokes equations; walls without slip, inlet velocity of the shielding
 reduce flow velocity and homogenize the gas flow. Different materials and approaches
were considered to obtain a nearly uniform flow velocity behind the sintered metal. The
considerations were carried out by means of numerical simulation in Comsol Multiphys-
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5, 139 ics 5.6 and based on Brinkman equations and Forchheimer correction for flow4 ofthrough
19
porous media [28]. The area simulated in 2D is also shown in Figure 2. The flow is de-
scribed by stationary and incompressible Navier–Stokes equations; walls without slip, in-
let velocity of the shielding gas (Argon) and outlet as pressure without viscous stresses
gas (Argon) and outlet as pressure without viscous stresses were considered as boundary
were considered
conditions [28]. as boundary conditions [28].

flow rate numerical

simulation
changeable modules
for adjusting inlet length

sintered metal Schlieren images

radius laser welds

at different positions /
adjustable height H in different directions

metal sheet
adjustable inlet length lh

Figure2.2.Schematic
Figure Schematiccross-sectional
cross-sectional view
view of shielding
of shielding nozzle.
nozzle.

Two
Twodifferent
differentsintered
sintered materials
materials (see Table
(see 1) and
Table vanes
1) and according
vanes according to [29] werewere
to [29] con- con-
sidered
sidered as diffusor elements. Figure 3a shows the flow velocity within the diffusora for a
as diffusor elements. Figure 3a shows the flow velocity within the diffusor for
maximum flow rate of 32 L/min. The porous materials were positioned 20 mm below the
maximum flow rate of 32 L/min. The porous materials were positioned 20 mm below the
cross-section enlargement. The realization of a homogeneous velocity profile is clearly seen
cross-section enlargement. The realization of a homogeneous velocity profile is clearly
by means of the false color plot. Two different sintered materials were compared by the
seen by means of the false color plot. Two different sintered materials were compared by
velocity along the cutline below the sintered metal in Figure 3b. Additionally, the result of
the velocity
simulated along
vanes the cutline
according to [29]below the sintered
was added. metal in
The sintered Figure
metals 3b. Additionally,
achieve a better homog- the re-
enization of the flow than vanes in a much more compact space. The homogenization ofbetter
sult of simulated vanes according to [29] was added. The sintered metals achieve a
homogenization
velocity of the flow
flow is improved as the than vanes indecreases,
flowability a much more compact
as seen space. The homogeniza-
by the advantageous results
tion of velocity flow is improved as the flowability decreases, as
of sintered metal 2 compared to sintered metal 1. This material reaches a uniform velocityseen by the advantageous
results of sintered
distribution metal
even in the 2 compared
center to sintered
of the material metalwidth
(at diffusor 1. This
0 inmaterial reacheswhere
the simulation), a uniform
velocity
the highest distribution
flow velocity even in the at
prevails center of theSintered
the inlet. materialmetal
(at diffusor width as
2 was chosen 0 in the simula-
a porous
tion), where
material in thethediffusor
highest(sintered
flow velocity
bronze prevails
CA100atbythe GGTinlet. Sintered metal
Gleit-Technik AG).2 was chosen as
Sufficient
harmonization
a porous material is provided by the presented
in the diffusor (sintered velocity profilesby
bronze CA100 to GGT
affectGleit-Technik
the flow beforeAG). the Suf-
gas leaves the nozzle through different inlet heights H
ficient harmonization is provided by the presented velocity profiles to and inlet lengths l .
h affect the flow be-
fore The inletleaves
the gas lengththe lh can be varied
nozzle through from 50 mm inlet
different to 140heights
mm. AHradiusand inletof 3 mm
lengthsensures
lh.
the transition of the flow cross-section to the adjustable height H without edges (see radius
in Figure
Table 2). The properties
1. Material limitation of ofsintered
the inletmetals.
length is based on practical considerations, since
even 140 mm is only achievable in exceptional cases with regard to the installation space
in clamping devices. It can Coefficient
be assumed that the parabolic flowCoefficient
of Permeability (PF) increases of Inertial
with the
Material
increasing inlet length but is not required ψv/m2 to be complete (PF =Permeability 100%) for reaching ψi/m a
sufficient inert
sintered metal 1gas coverage, since the velocity
200 × 10 −12 at the wall is reduced faster
150 × 10 than
−7 in the
center of the channel
sintered metal 2 due to the growing boundary
2000 × 10−12 layer. Figure 4a shows the
1500 × 10−7 velocity
profile with increasing PF for a standardized coordinate, where 0 is the centerline of the
channel and 1 the boundary. This outer region as shear layer is expected to be crucial for
the mixing with the atmosphere. Within the bounds for the geometric parameters and the
volume flow different flow regimes for the flat jet nozzle can be investigated by varying
.
the height H, nozzle width b, inlet length lh and volume flow rate V. Nozzle height and
width can be combined into the hydraulic equivalent diameter dgl (see Equation (2)).

2Hb
d gl = (2)
H+b
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5, 139 5 of 19

Table 1. Material properties of sintered metals.

Coefficient of Permeability Coefficient of Inertial

Material ψv /m2 Permeability ψi /m
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5, x FOR PEERsintered
REVIEW metal 1 200 × 10−12 150 × 10−7 5 of 20
sintered metal 2 2000 × 10−12 1500 × 10−7

0.5
vanes according to [29]

velocity u over cut line / m∙s–1

sintered metal 2
0.4
sintered metal 1

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25
diffusor width / mm
(a) (b)
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 20
Figure
Figure 3. 3.
(a)(a) magnitude
magnitude of flow
of flow velocity
velocity for for
the the sintered
sintered material
material (dimensions
(dimensions in mm);
in mm); (b) effect
(b) effect of different
of different diffusor
diffusor de-
designs
signs on harmonization of flow
on harmonization of flow velocity. velocity.

The inlet length lh can be varied 20 from 50 mm to 140 mm. A radius of 3 mmArgon ensures
limited by
the transition of the flow cross-section to the adjustable height H without edges (see radius
16 (Re = 1370)
in Figure 2). The limitation of the inlet length is based on practical considerations, since
limited by
even 140 mm is only achievable12in exceptional cases with regard to the installation space
um / m∙s-1

in clamping devices. It can be assumed that the parabolic flow PF < 100
(PF) % increases with the

increasing inlet length but is not 8required to be complete (PFlimited = 100%)

by
for reaching a suffi-
cient inert gas coverage, since the velocity at the wall is reduced faster than in the center
4
of the channel due to the growing boundary layer. Figure 4a shows the velocity profile
with increasing PF for a standardized 0 coordinate, where 0 is the centerline of the channel
and 1 the boundary. This outer region 0 2 layer is4expected 6
as shear 8 10
dglgl in mm to be crucial for the mix-
/ mm
ing with the atmosphere. Within the bounds for the geometric parameters and the volume
(a) flow different flow regimes for the flat jet nozzle can be investigated (b) by varying the height
Figure
Figure 4. (a) H, nozzle
(a) Velocity distribution
distribution withinwidth
within the flatb,
theflat jetinlet
jet length
nozzle
nozzle for lh and volume
fordifferent
different flow
parabolic
parabolic rate
flow
flow 𝑉 . Nozzle
profiles
profiles from from height
tophat
tophat and
(PF
(PF width
= 0%)
= 0%) upupto can be
to completely parabolic flow combined
(PF = 100%) into the
(calculationhydraulic
accordingequivalent
to [22]); diameter
(b) achievabled (see
glRe and Equation
limits of
completely parabolic flow (PF = 100%) (calculation according to [22]); (b) achievable Re and limits of the adjustable flat (2)).
the adjustable flat
jet
jet nozzle
nozzle. 2𝐻𝑏
𝑑 = (2)
The experiment was carried out mainly by a set𝑏of dimensionless numbers in order
Figure 4b shows the possible working range𝐻of the designed flat jet nozzle and names
the boundary
to reduceFigure 4bconditions
the number showsofthe depending
possibleInworking
variables.
on mean spatial
additionrange
to the theflow
ofreduceddesigned flat ujet
velocity
parameter
and equivalent
m nozzle and
space, the names
gener-
diameter dgl . A turbulent flow at Re 3000 cannot be reached due to the maximum flow rate
the boundary
alization conditions
of the results depending
to similar on mean
but slightly spatialnozzle
different flow velocity
designs ushould
m and equivalent
be possible.di-
of 32 L/min is forming the main boundary. It should be noted that for high Re and high
Theameter dgl. Anumber
Reynolds turbulent Re flow at Re 3000
is of special cannot
interest be reached
because dueintoaddition
it allows, the maximum flow rate
to a combined
values of dgl , a fully developed parabolic flow cannot be reached (PF < 100%) due to the
of 32 L/min is forming the main boundary. It should be noted that
consideration of variables, an estimate for the flow regime laminar/turbulent. Re is thereby for high Re and high
maximum inlet length lh of 140 mm. The maximum value of dgl is limited by the maximum
values
varied byofthedglhydraulic
, a fully developed
equivalentparabolic
diameterflow cannot
dgl and meanbespatial
reached flow(PFvelocity
< 100%)umdue to the
, result-
gap height H of the nozzle of 5 mm.
ingmaximum
from the inlet lengthquantities
geometric lh of 140 mm. and The
the maximum
volume value
flow. of dgl is Re
Identical limited
numbers by the maximum
are exam-
The experiment was carried out mainly by a set of dimensionless numbers in order
gapfor
ined height H of valuesthe nozzle
of uof 5 mm.
to reducedifferent
the number of variables. m and dIngl addition
depending on the
to the different
reduced inlet lengths.
parameter It should
space, the gener-
be noted that
alization of the a fully parabolic
results to similar flow
butcannot
slightlybedifferent
reachednozzle
for large valuesshould
designs of dgl (P
be <possible.
100%),
due
The to unpractical
Reynolds number values
Re is . Three interest
foroflhspecial differentbecause
Re (150,it 447, 1300)
allows, in were
addition considered in the
to a combined
investigations to address different flow conditions of the flat jet nozzle.
consideration of variables, an estimate for the flow regime laminar/turbulent. Re is thereby
In addition to Re, dimensionless numbers were calculated according to [30] consid-
ering the parameters shown in Table 2. The parameters were selected to take all the rele-
vant mechanisms into account. Six dimensionless numbers could be determined, includ-
ing well-known quantities such as Re and Froude number. The dimensionless number
shown in Equation (3) was utilized during the study in addition to Re, combining the inlet
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5, 139 6 of 19

varied by the hydraulic equivalent diameter dgl and mean spatial flow velocity um , resulting
from the geometric quantities and the volume flow. Identical Re numbers are examined
for different values of um and dgl depending on the different inlet lengths. It should be
noted that a fully parabolic flow cannot be reached for large values of dgl (P < 100%), due
to unpractical values for lh . Three different Re (150, 447, 1300) were considered in the
investigations to address different flow conditions of the flat jet nozzle.
In addition to Re, dimensionless numbers were calculated according to [30] consider-
ing the parameters shown in Table 2. The parameters were selected to take all the relevant
mechanisms into account. Six dimensionless numbers could be determined, including
well-known quantities such as Re and Froude number. The dimensionless number shown
in Equation (3) was utilized during the study in addition to Re, combining the inlet length
and hydraulic equivalent diameter, i.e., solely geometric variables of nozzle design.

lh
π= (3)
d gl

Table 2. Parameters considered for calculation of dimensionless numbers.

Parameter Symbol
dynamic viscosity shielding gas ηs
dynamic viscosity air ηa
density shielding gas ρs
density air ρa
inlet length lh
gravity g
length of laminar flow L
mean spatial flow velocity ū
hydraulic equivalent diameter dgl

2.2. Experimental Setup

The experiments were carried out using a Trumpf TruDisk 5000.75 disc laser with
a maximum output power of 5000 W and an optical fiber with a diameter of 75 µm. A
laser scanning module (Scanlab IntelliWeld 30 FC) was mounted on a six-axis robot (Kuka
KR 60 HA) and controlled by a Blackbird RobotSyncUnit SCU-2. The welding process
was performed on high-alloy steel sheets of AISI 304 with a thickness of 2 mm. The
width of the sheets was 80 mm. The length of the sheets was set to 220 mm to be able to
implement different inlet lengths of the flat jet nozzle with the same sheet geometry. This
alloy is known for its high susceptibility to form-annealing colors and is, therefore, a good
choice to identify the oxygen contamination of the shielding gas atmosphere. To increase
complexity stepwise, the experiments were carried out on spot welds and line welds.
Heat conduction welding and deep penetration welding were considered as processes to
determine the effects of contour, temperature and escaping metal vapor from the keyhole.
The experiments were carried out as bead on plate welds with partial penetration because
the shielding gas supply is considered on the top side of the weld in this study. Table 3
presents an overview of the parameters used.

Table 3. Welding parameters for heat conduction and deep penetration welding.

Weld Laser Beam Joining Time tL /ms

Process Regime
Geometry Power PL /W Welding Speed/m·min−1
heat conduction welding 800 50 ms
spot weld
deep penetration welding 2500 50 ms
line weld deep penetration welding 2800 7 m·min−1

High-speed Schlieren imaging is based on the density gradient normal to the optical
path within the optical path and was used for visualizing the flow pattern between Argon
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5, 139 7 of 19

and ambient atmosphere. The area analyzed by Schlieren imaging is depicted in Figure 2.
Further details on measurement principle were provided in [31]. Schlieren imaging was
performed with and without laser welding processes at 10,000 Hz utilizing a Photron SA-X2
high-speed camera. Further information regarding the setup is given in Appendix A.
Flow velocity was measured by constant temperature anemometry using a hot-wire
anemometer Dantec StreamLine 90N10 with sensor Probe Type 55PH. The sensor could
not be calibrated for Argon which is why measurements were carried out with air. Com-
parability to shielding gas Argon was achieved by setting identical Reynolds numbers Re.
The measurement frequency was set to 1 kHz and the measurement time to 10 s to evaluate
the mean flow velocity u over time. An evaluation was carried out over the nozzle width
and along the outflow direction. The high-resolution signal also allows the turbulence
intensity Tu to be determined (see Equation (4)), where uRMS is the standard deviation
and u is the mean velocity [32]. The degree of turbulence can serve as a measure of the
quality of a disturbance-free laminar flow. It should be noted that purely laminar flows are
almost impossible to realize in practice, which is why values for Tu smaller than 1–2% are
considered as low in turbulence [33].
u RMS
Tu = (4)
u

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Description of Nozzle and Flow Properties
The achieved properties of the designed flat jet nozzle are described first. The mean
velocity u was measured by constant temperature anemometry for minimum and maxi-
mum Re of 150 and 1300 over time (see Figure 5a). Both Re showed different velocities, i.e.,
8.0 m/s for 1300 and 0.9 m/s for 150. However, a decrease in mean velocity u with increas-
ing distance from the orifice was determined for both Re. Momentum transfer to ambient
air, wall friction and internal fluid friction may have caused this effect. The deceleration of
the gas flow with increasing distance could be relevant for shielding gas applications, since
contaminations caused by the welding process and associated turbulences are transported
away more slowly and the risk of oxidation may increase. Large distances between the
welding process and the orifice may be disadvantageous even for laminar shielding gas
flows because further transport phenomena are present, e.g., diffusion.
A consideration of the turbulence intensity in Figure 5b provides further information.
For Re 150, the turbulence intensity is less than 2%, i.e., laminar flow can be assumed.
A significant change in Tu over the 25 mm considered could not be detected, i.e., no
transition from laminar to turbulent flow was seen. For Re 1300, Tu is already 4% directly
at the orifice, which reflects a slightly turbulent flow already in this area. The turbulence
intensity increases strongly after approximately 10 mm and reaches 10% after 17.5 mm,
i.e., the turbulences increased with rising distance. Since Argon and air feature different
but comparable properties (difference in density approx. 30%, difference in dynamic
viscosity approx. 19%), Schlieren images of Argon are compared at identical Re. No
laminar-turbulent transition is discernible for Re 150 as seen in the measurements for air.
For Re 1300, a strong change to turbulent flow due to mixing with air is evident between 10
and 15 mm.
Another interesting aspect discernable from Figure 5b is a small concentration gradient
right from the moment the wall jet leaves the orifice. With respect to diffusion time for
any given cross-section moving along the surface the lower velocity might allow gas
molecules to travel further into the two zones. The increased effect of diffusion could be
the reason for a smaller gradient in case of Re = 150 and henceforth lead to less contrast in
the Schlieren image.
 plications, since contaminations caused by the welding process and associated turbu-
lences are transported away more slowly and the risk of oxidation may increase. Large
distances between the welding process and the orifice may be disadvantageous even for
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5, 139 laminar shielding gas flows because further transport phenomena are present, e.g., diffu-
8 of 19
sion.

8 gas: air

Re=1300
mean velcocity ū / m∙s-1

nozzle

4
x
x=0
2

Re=150
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
x direction / mm

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 5.5. (a)
(a) Mean
Mean velocity
velocity of
of flow
flow depending
depending on
on distance
distance to
to orifice
orifice (x
(x == 0);
0); (b)
(b) turbulence
turbulence intensity
intensity depending
depending on
on distance
distance
to orifice and related Schlieren images for Argon
to orifice and related Schlieren images for Argon.

A consideration
Figure 6 depictsofthe themean
turbulence
velocity intensity in Figure
depending on the5b nozzle
provides further
width forinformation.
Re 150. The
For Re
velocity
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5, x FOR
150, the turbulence intensity is less than 2%, i.e., laminar
is almost constant over the width of the nozzle. However, the large difference
PEER REVIEW
flow can be assumed. A
9 of in
20
significant
velocity betweenchangeshielding
in Tu overgas theand25 mm considered
stationary could not
atmosphere be detected,
causes a shear i.e.,
layernoattransi-
y = 0,
tion from in
resulting laminar to turbulent
a reduced velocity,flow was seen.
but limited to For
a few Remillimeters
1300, Tu is already
in width. 4%The
directly at the
turbulence
orifice,
intensity which reflectsreaches
measured a slightly turbulent flow
its maximum of 2%already
in the in this layer,
shear area. The
i.e., turbulence
a laminar flowinten- is
reached
sity increases
reached over
over the nozzle
strongly
the nozzleafterwidth for Re
Re 150.
approximately
width for 150. It can
It10
canmmbe
be stated
and that
that laminar
reaches
stated or
or slightly
10% after
laminar 17.5 mm,
slightly turbulent
i.e., the
turbulent
flows
flows cancan be
turbulences set with the
beincreased
set with the nozzle
withnozzle
risingandand aa good
good
distance. agreement
agreement
Since Argon and between
between measurements
measurements
air feature different butin air
in air
com- as
as
well
well as
parable Schlieren
as Schlieren recordings
propertiesrecordings
(differencein in Argon
inArgon
densitycancan be observed.
be
approx. observed. The laminar
The laminar
30%, difference length of the
the shear
lengthviscosity
in dynamic of shear
ap-
layer in
layer 19%),
prox. Schlieren
in Schlieren images
images
Schlieren imagesis well
is well reflected,
reflected,
of Argon which is
which is why
are compared why it can be
it can beRe.
at identical used
used for
Nofor quantifying
quantifying the
laminar-turbulent the
length of
length of the
transition the laminar flow.
laminar flow.
is discernible for Re 150 as seen in the measurements for air. For Re 1300, a strong
change to turbulent flow due to mixing with air is evident between 10 and 15 mm.
1 5
AnotherRe=150 interesting aspect discernable from Figure 5b is a small ūconcentration gradi-
gas: air
ent right from the moment the wall jet leaves the orifice. With respect to diffusion time for
Tu
any given
0.8 cross-section moving along the surface the lower velocity 4 might allow gas mol-
turbulence intensity Tu / %

ecules to travel further into the two zones. The increased effect of diffusion could be the
mean velocity ū / m∙s–1

reason for a smaller gradient in case of Re = 150 and henceforth lead to less contrast in the
0.6 image. nozzle y 3
Schlieren
y=0
Figure 6 depicts the mean velocity depending on the nozzle width for Re 150. The
velocity
0.4
is almost constant over the width of the nozzle. However, 2
the large difference in
velocity between shielding gas and stationary atmosphere causes a shear layer at y = 0,
resulting in a reduced velocity, but limited tox=5 a few millimeters in width. The turbulence
0.2
intensity measured reaches its maximum of 2% in the shear1 layer, i.e., a laminar flow is

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25
y direction / mm

Figure 6. Mean
Mean velocity
velocity of flow over nozzle width.

Figure 7 shows the length of the laminar flow depending on the height H of the noz-
zle for a constant inlet length of 50 mm and a constant Re of 1300. Since small Tu are
reached in this area, the length of the laminar flow L is defined as the length until turbu-
lences appear within the shear layer in the transition area shielding gas-atmosphere.
 0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25
y direction / mm
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5, 139 9 of 19
Figure 6. Mean velocity of flow over nozzle width.

Figure 7 shows the length of the laminar flow depending on the height H of the noz
Figure 7 shows the length of the laminar flow depending on the height H of the nozzle
zlea for
for a constant
constant inletoflength
inlet length 50 mm ofand50 mm and
a constant Reaofconstant
1300. SinceResmall
of 1300.
Tu areSince small
reached in Tu ar
reached
this in this
area, the area,
length thelaminar
of the lengthflow
of the
L islaminar flow
defined as the Llength
is defined as the length
until turbulences until turbu
appear
lencesthe
within appear
shear within
layer inthe
the shear layer
transition in shielding
area the transition area shielding gas-atmosphere.
gas-atmosphere.

Figure7.7.Dependance
Figure Dependance of laminar
of laminar flowflow length
length on adjustable
on adjustable heightsheights H and
H and ratio lh /dratio
gl . lh/dgl.

It should be noted that the brighter the area in the Schlieren images, the higher the
density gradient at this position. Close behind the nozzle, a small area of the shielding
gas is contaminated with atmosphere. With increasing outflow length, this area grows
and the contrast decreases. The flow is in a quasi-stationary state, only the formation of
turbulent structures causes time-dependent fluctuations. In the transition region from
laminar to turbulent flow, a continuous change between both conditions occurs. This
intermittency of turbulence is typical for the transition region [21]. The chosen procedure
(lh = const., H = var.) also varies the ratio between lh to dgl (see Equation (4)). Therefore,
different heights H also provide information on the effect of the reached parabolic flow.
The measured length of the laminar flow is indicated as L in every picture and decreases for
increasing heights H because a less parabolic velocity profile is achieved based on the same
inlet length. At the same time, with increasing height H, the area covered by shielding gas
increases before turbulences reach the metal surface—even if the length of laminar flow
is lower.
Figure 8a compares the measured laminar length L with the ratio of lh to dgl . As
qualitatively seen from the Schlieren images, the length of laminar flow increases with
increasing lh /dgl . L reaches maximum values of approx. 7 mm, i.e., it seems unreasonable
that laminar shielding gas coverage can be achieved for longer welds or larger distances to
the nozzle in practical set-ups. Figure 8b depicts the correlation of L with the percentage
of fully developed parabolic flow (PF) based on the same data set. PF = 100% is achieved
when umax reaches twice the mean velocity u (umax = 2·u) for the channel flow. It is
observed that the length of laminar flow thus also depends on the inlet length lh . The
 itatively seen from the Schlieren images, the length of laminar flow increases with increas-
ing lh/dgl. L reaches maximum values of approx. 7 mm, i.e., it seems unreasonable that
laminar shielding gas coverage can be achieved for longer welds or larger distances to the
nozzle in practical set-ups. Figure 8b depicts the correlation of L with the percentage of
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5, 139
fully developed parabolic flow (PF) based on the same data set. PF = 100% is achieved 10 of 19
when umax reaches twice the mean velocity 𝑢 (umax = 2∙𝑢) for the channel flow. It is observed
that the length of laminar flow thus also depends on the inlet length lh. The reason is a
reduced velocity between shielding gas and air in the shear layer for increasing PF after
reason
the is leaves
fluid a reducedthe velocity between
nozzle. Due to theshielding
fact thatgasPF =and
100%air is
in advantageous,
the shear layer further
for increasing
inves-
PF after the
tigations werefluid leaves
carried out the nozzle.
in this respectDue
for to the fact
different Re.that PF =
Figure 8c100%
showsisthe
advantageous,
relationship
further
for investigations
experiments carriedwere carried
out at out in Lthis
PF = 100%: respect with
decreases for different
increasingRe.Re,
Figure
even8c if shows
a fully
the relationship for experiments carried out at PF = 100%: L decreases
developed parabolic flow is present. The reason is again postulated to be increased veloc- with increasing
Re, even
ities of theif flow
a fully
fordeveloped parabolic
higher Re that causesflow is present.
a transition from The reasontoisturbulent
laminar again postulated
flow more to
be increased
rapidly. For thevelocities
sake of of the flowafor
simplicity, higher
linear Re that causes
relationship a transition
was assumed from
for the laminar to
relationships
turbulent
found. Thisflow morethe
reflects rapidly. For the
behavior wellsake
dueoftosimplicity, a linearofrelationship
the coefficients wasof
determination assumed
0.92 to
for the relationships found.
0.98 presented in Figure 8a–c. This reflects the behavior well due to the coefficients of
determination of 0.92 to 0.98 presented in Figure 8a–c.

8 length of laminar flow L / mm 8 8

length of laminar flow L / mm

length of laminar flow L / mm

7 7 7
R² = 0.95
6 R² = 0.98 6 6
R² = 0.92
5 5 5
4 4 4
3 3 3
Re = 1300 Re = 1300 Re = var.
2 lh = 50 mm 2 lh = 50 mm 2 PF = 100 %
1 gas: Argon 1 gas: Argon 1 gas: Argon
n=1 n=1 n=1
0 0 0
0 10 20 30 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% 0 500 1000 1500
lh/dgl / 1 percentage of fully developed Reynolds number Re / 1
parabolic flow PF / %

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 8.
Figure 8. Length of
of laminar
laminar flow
flow depending
depending on:
on: (a)
(a) llhh/dglgl;; (b)
(b) percentage
percentage of
of fully
fully developed
developed parabolic
parabolic flow; (c) Re.

Characterization of Shielding Gas Coverage Depending on Process Regime and Re

3.2. Characterization
different welding regimes (heat conduction
Spot welds were performed for different conduction welding,
welding,
deep penetration
penetration welding)
welding)andandthe
theparameters
parametersofofthe
theshielding
shielding gas supply. In addition
gas supply. In addition to
to the
the findings
findings of the
of the nozzle
nozzle in Section
in Section 3.1,temperature
3.1, the the temperature
of theofmolten
the molten poolthe
pool and and the
metal
metal vapor plume can affect the shielding gas coverage. It should be noted that
vapor plume can affect the shielding gas coverage. It should be noted that a height H of 2a height
H of 2 mm and the maximum inlet length lh of 140 mm were chosen to investigate general
interrelationships. The distance between the orifice and the spot welds was varied in
steps of 5 mm and evaluated regarding the presence of annealing colors. Figure 9 shows
the results for both welding regimes depending on Re = 150, 447, 1300. Thereby, heat
conduction welding shows the influence of temperature, while deep penetration welding
extends this to the effect of metal vapor.
The best shielding gas coverage was reached at larger Re of 447 and 1300. In deep
penetration welding, annealing color free welds were reached for distances up to 25 mm.
For distances of 30 or 40 mm, annealing colors increased (see A – C ) due to the increased
mixing between the shielding gas and the ambient atmosphere. Heat conduction welding
showed that longer distances of sufficient shielding gas coverage were reached at large
Re in comparison to deep penetration welding. Gradually increasing tarnish colors were
determined with increasing distance to the nozzle. While D was tarnish-free, the annealing
colors increased from E and F due to the heating of the shielding gas and the increasing
intermixing because of buoyancy. The higher distances without tarnish compared to deep
penetration welding can be explained by the absence of a metal vapor plume. Metal vapor
escaped from the keyhole at high temperatures and high velocities during deep penetration
welding that led to additional disturbances of the shielding gas coverage.
For Re = 150, the area of sufficiently supplied shielding gas was reduced significantly
down to 10 mm for both welding regimes, i.e., minor disturbances hindered the shielding
gas coverage for small Re.
 mm and the maximum inlet length lh of 140 mm were chosen to investigate general inter
relationships. The distance between the orifice and the spot welds was varied in steps o
5 mm and evaluated regarding the presence of annealing colors. Figure 9 shows the result
for both welding regimes depending on Re = 150, 447, 1300. Thereby, heat conduction
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5, 139 11 of 19
welding shows the influence of temperature, while deep penetration welding extends thi
to the effect of metal vapor.

Figure9.9. Occurrence
Figure Occurrenceofofannealing
annealingcolors
colorsdepending
dependingonon distance
distance to to orifice
orifice forfor deep
deep penetration weld
penetration
ing andand
welding heatheat
conduction welding.
conduction welding.

Figure
The best 10 shows the corresponding
shielding gas coverageSchlieren
was reached images at for bothRe
larger process
of 447regimes
and 1300.at a In deep
distance of 20 mm between weld and nozzle. The effect of increasing
penetration welding, annealing color free welds were reached for distances up to 25 mm Re was well illustrated
by the example of heat conduction welding (Figure 10a). The temperature of the molten
For distances of 30 or 40 mm, annealing colors increased (see Ⓐ–Ⓒ) due to the increased
pool caused heating of the shielding gas and, thus, buoyancy, which can cause suction.
mixingforms
Tarnish between the shielding
if insufficient gas and
shielding gas the ambientThe
is supplied. atmosphere.
height of the Heat conduction
buoyant plume welding
showed
can that in
be traced longer distancesimages
the Schlieren of sufficient shielding
and is strongly gas coverage
limited for high were reached
Re = 1300. Evenat large R
if a laminar-turbulent transition occurred, as was clearly visible for Re = 1300, it did notwere de
in comparison to deep penetration welding. Gradually increasing tarnish colors
termined
hinder with increasing
the shielding distance
gas coverage. The to the nozzle.
turbulences While
started Ⓓ shear
at the was layer
tarnish-free, the annealing
to the ambient
atmosphere,
colors increased from Ⓔdidand
but obviously not Ⓕ
reach theto
due melt
thepool surface
heating of at
thethis position. gas
shielding If theand
kinetic
the increas
energy of the shielding gas is insufficient, the buoyancy leads
ing intermixing because of buoyancy. The higher distances without tarnish compared to to sucking in atmosphere,
as is visible
deep in the annealing
penetration welding can colors
be for Re = 150.byThe
explained theheat
absencetransfer
of atometal
the shielding
vapor plume.gas Meta
and the resulting buoyancy might be another factor, which could be related to the kinetic
vapor escaped from the keyhole at high temperatures and high velocities during deep
energy of the shielding gas in future investigations. This implies that an extended set of
penetration welding
dimensionless parameters thatis led to additional
necessary to capture disturbances
the effects ofof the shielding
changing Froude gas coverage.
numbers
through Forheating
Re = 150, theshielding
of the area of sufficiently
gas at the hot supplied shielding gas was reduced significantly
metal surface.
down Thetosituation
10 mm for wasboth welding
comparable forregimes, i.e., minor
deep penetration disturbances
welding (Figure 10b),hindered the shielding
where metal
gas coverage
vapor for small Re.
caused additional disturbances. An insufficient gas flow contributed to suction
again Figure
and occurred10 showsbehind thethe weld seam (as Schlieren
corresponding viewed from inflowfor
images direction) and thus
both process to
regimes at
mixing with the ambient atmosphere. Stronger turbulences were
distance of 20 mm between weld and nozzle. The effect of increasing Re was well illus present behind the weld
at higher
trated byRethe butexample
did not have
of heata detrimental
conductioneffect on the(Figure
welding shielding gasThe
10a). coverage at the of th
temperature
processing zone. For the line welds, the effect is discussed again in Section 3.3. A backflow
molten pool caused heating of the shielding gas and, thus, buoyancy, which can caus
region or suction of ambient atmosphere was present for Re = 150, leading to annealing
suction. Tarnish forms if insufficient shielding gas is supplied. The height of the buoyan
colors. It should be noted that the inclination of the metal vapor plume, recognizable as a
plumecone,
bright can wasbe traced
affectedinby thetheSchlieren images
inert gas flow onlyand is strongly
for very high Re,limited
visible at forRehigh
= 1300,Re = 1300
Even if a to
compared laminar-turbulent
the other images shown. transition occurred, as was clearly visible for Re = 1300, it did
not The
hinder the shielding
previous gas coverage.
considerations were carried Theout turbulences
for a constant started
height, atHthe= 2shear
mm. The layer to th
results shown in Section 3.1 and Figure 7 suggested the beneficial effect
ambient atmosphere, but obviously did not reach the melt pool surface at this position. I of increasing values
of H on shielding gas coverage. Based on this assumption, H was varied in three steps,
from 1 to 5 mm, while Re was kept constant at 447. Figure 11a shows the effect of the
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5, 139 12 of 19

gap height H for both welding regimes. It was confirmed that an increasing height H
was advantageous for the shielding gas coverage. A sufficient coverage was determined
for gap heights of 3 and 5 mm even beyond 45 mm, i.e., the entire distance investigated
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 20
was successfully served with inert gas for both process regimes. Only 10 or 15 mm were
safely covered for H = 1 mm due to the reasons mentioned before. The Schlieren images
in Figure 11b illustrate the effect of different gap heights H at constant Re. The dashed
the kinetic energy of the shielding gas is insufficient, the buoyancy leads to sucking in
line visualizes the area approximately covered with shielding gas. A reliable shielding
atmosphere, as is visible in the annealing colors for Re = 150. The heat transfer to the
gasshielding
coverage at the sheet surface was achieved due to the large gap. Despite the fact
gas and the resulting buoyancy might be another factor, which could be related
thattomixing started in the
the kinetic energy shear
of the layer and
shielding increased
gas in over distance,
future investigations. a sufficiently
This implies thathigh
an gap
ensured
extended set of dimensionless parameters is necessary to capture the effects of changing and
that the metal surface was protected from the ambient atmosphere sufficiently
avoided
Froudeannealing colors. heating of the shielding gas at the hot metal surface.
numbers through

(a) (b)
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 20
FigureFigure 10. Schlieren
10. Schlieren images
images at aatdistance
a distance
to to nozzleofof20
nozzle 20mm
mm for
for different
differentReRetoto
consider thethe
consider effect on shielding
effect gas coverage
on shielding gas coverage
for: (a) heat conduction welding; (b) deep penetration welding.
for: (a) heat conduction welding; (b) deep penetration welding.
The situation was comparable for deep penetration welding (Figure 10b), where
5 mm gap height
metal vapor caused additional disturbances. An insufficient gas flow contributed to suc-
3 mm gap height
tion again and
deepoccurred
welding behind the weld seam (as viewed1 from inflow
heightdirection) and thus
process regime

mm gap
to mixing with the ambient atmosphere. Stronger turbulences were present behind the
weld at higher Re but did not have a detrimental effect on the shielding gas coverage at
(a) the processing zone. For the line welds, the effect is discussed again in Section 3.3. A back-
heat conduction nozzle
flow region welding
or suction of ambient atmosphere was present for Re = 150,without
distance leading to anneal-
ing colors. It should be noted that the inclination of the metal vapor annealing colors recognizable
plume,
in nozzle center
as a bright cone, was affected by the inert gas flow only for very high Re, visible at Re =
0 10 20 30 40 50 (distance between
1300, compared to the other images shown.
Re = 447 welds: 5 mm)
distance were
The previous considerations to nozzle withoutout for a constant height, H = 2 mm. The
carried
gas: Argon annealing colors / mm
results shown in Section 3.1 and Figure 7 suggested the beneficial effect of increasing val-
ues of H on shielding gas coverage. Based on this assumption, H was varied in three steps,
from 1 to 5 mm, while Re was kept constant at 447. Figure 11a shows the effect of the gap
height H for both welding regimes. It was confirmed that an increasing height H was ad-
vantageous for the shielding gas coverage. A sufficient coverage was determined for gap
heights of 3 and 5 mm even beyond 45 mm, i.e., the entire distance investigated was suc-
cessfully served with inert gas for both process regimes. Only 10 or 15 mm were safely
(b)covered for H = 1 mm due to the reasons mentioned before. The Schlieren images in Figure
11b illustrate the effect of different gap heights H at constant Re. The dashed line visualizes
the area approximately covered with shielding gas. A reliable shielding gas coverage at
the sheet surface was achieved due to the large gap. Despite the fact that mixing started
in the shear layer and increased over distance, a sufficiently high gap ensured that the
metal surface was protected from the ambient atmosphere sufficiently and avoided an-
nealing colors.
(a)(a)
Figure11.11.
Figure Effect
Effect of gap
of gap height H on H
height on shielding
shielding gas coverage;
gas coverage; (b) Schlieren
(b) Schlieren images inimages in heat conduc-
heat conduc-
tion
tionwelding
welding at at
different gapgap
different heights H. H.
heights

3.3. Interaction between Welding Direction and Shielding Gas Coverage

Further investigations were carried out on the effect of the welding direction on the
shielding gas coverage based on the findings of the spot welds. Based on the three selected
Re, Figure 12 shows the behavior of the line-shaped stitch welds carried out perpendicular
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5, 139 13 of 19

3.3. Interaction between Welding Direction and Shielding Gas Coverage

Further investigations were carried out on the effect of the welding direction on the
shielding gas coverage based on the findings of the spot welds. Based on the three selected
Re, Figure 12 shows the behavior of the line-shaped stitch welds carried out perpendicular
to the shielding gas flow. The formation of annealing colors was avoided for Re = 1300.
Again, turbulences were visible in the Schlieren images during the process (t = 80 ms), but
the metal surface was covered reliably. The interaction with the hot weld was clearly visible
after the process (t = 120 ms) and results comparable to the heat conduction welds were
obtained. A reliable gas coverage was observed for Re = 1300, despite the turbulence of the
shear layer. Tarnishing occurred for Re of 150 and 447. It can be assumed that the overlap
A at the beginning of the weld seam supported a detachment of the flow for Re = 447,
while the end of the weld appeared flatter and safely covered. Sufficient shielding gas
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW
coverage was not achieved at any point for Re = 150. Even after the process (t = 120 14 of 20
ms), a
strong effect of buoyancy and backflow areas was visible.

Figure
Figure 12.
12. Shielding
Shielding gas
gas coverage
coverage of
of stitch
stitch welds
welds perpendicular to flow
perpendicular to flow direction.
direction.

Figure 13 shows the results for the stitch welds, welded with or opposite to the flow
direction
direction ofof the
the shielding gas. ⓈS marks the
shielding gas. the starting
starting point and Ⓔ
point and the end
E the end point of each
weld. If the welding direction and flow direction were identical, tarnish did not occur for
Re 447 and 1300 for 20 mm or beyond. Beyond this distance, it was no longer possible to
reliably cover the
the weld
weldseam,
seam,i.e.,
i.e.,the
theatmosphere
atmospherereached
reachedthe thesurface
surface duedueto to turbulence.
turbulence. A
longer distance was covered at a Re of 447 compared to 1300, which
A longer distance was covered at a Re of 447 compared to 1300, which can be explained can be explained by
thethe
by reduced turbulence
reduced turbulencebehind
behindthe seam based
the seam on the
based on Schlieren images.
the Schlieren This This
images. can be
canseen
be
fromfrom
seen the onset of tarnishing
the onset marked
of tarnishing by AC
marked byinAC Figure 13. Even
in Figure if theifonset
13. Even of tarnishing
the onset is
of tarnish-
sometimes
ing hard tohard
is sometimes discern, it is clearitfrom
to discern, the coloring
is clear from the that the oxygen
coloring that content
the oxygendownstream
content
of AC is muchofhigher
downstream AC is for Re =higher
much 1300 compared to Recompared
for Re = 1300 = 447. This toisRevisible
= 447.by theisseam
This going
visible by
from metallic blank to dark grey much more rapidly for Re = 1300. The
the seam going from metallic blank to dark grey much more rapidly for Re = 1300. The gas gas had been seen
rising
had above
been seenthe hot weld
rising aboveinthe
both hotcases
weld before
in boththecases
interaction
before zone of the laserzone
the interaction beam ofwas
the
laser beam was reached. No sufficient coverage was achieved for Re = 150 as the disturb-
ances from the process exerted a great influence on the shielding gas flow. The Schlieren
images showed a high refractive index gradient in the area between the nozzles and the
seam, which is why it appears black and it was not possible to provide a statement as to
the mechanisms in this area due to the high presence of ambient atmosphere in this region.
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5, 139 14 of 19

reached. No sufficient coverage was achieved for Re = 150 as the disturbances from the
process exerted a great influence on the shielding gas flow. The Schlieren images showed a
high refractive index gradient in the area between the nozzles and the seam, which is why
it appears black and it was not possible to provide a statement as to the mechanisms in
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW
this
15 of 20
area due to the high presence of ambient atmosphere in this region. However, a transport
of gas beyond the process zone was not detectable, in contrast with the Re of 447 and 1300.

Figure 13.
Figure 13. Effect
Effectof
ofwelding
weldingdirection
directiononon shielding
shielding gas gas coverage
coverage and Schlieren
and Schlieren images
images at weldatseam
weldcenter.
seam
center.
When the welding direction and flow direction were opposed, generally, shorter areas
Thistarnishing
without illustratedwere
that found
the flow directiontohad
compared the areversed
significant influence
welding on theTurbulence
direction. achievable
shielding gas coverage. Contrary to the assumptions of [9], no positive
occurred behind the processing zone for Re of 447 and 1300; the flow contaminated effect of opposite
with
welding and shielding gas flow direction was determined.
atmosphere reached the metal surface and caused annealing colors. This area was iden-
tified as critical, i.e., the contamination with atmosphere occurred in the area of already
3.4. Effect
welded of Complex
material andWeld Seam
reacted Shapes
with the oxygen from the environment due to its increased
temperature. The flow
The findings werealso reached
applied the surface
to complex weldatgeometries.
a certain distance behind
C-shaped weldsthethat
laser beam
include
for Re of 150, which explained why a short area without tarnish was
several changes of direction in a single weld seam were used as an example and Figurerecognizable in the
top
14a–cview
showat the
the end of the
welds seam.
investigated. The gas flow direction was always from the left to the
right,This
andillustrated that end
the start and the flow direction
positions of thehad a significant
weld are marked with Ⓢ
influence onand Ⓔ, respec-
the achievable
shielding
tively. Thegas coverage.zone
interaction Contrary
betweento the
theassumptions
laser beam and of [9],
theno positive effect
workpiece shouldofalways
opposite
be
welding
in front ofand shielding
the directiongas
of flow
flow direction
to ensurewasthatdetermined.
turbulences, caused by the interaction be-
tween shielding gas, process zone and atmosphere, do not reach the hot weld metal.
 J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5, 139 15 of 19

3.4. Effect of Complex Weld Seam Shapes

The findings were applied to complex weld geometries. C-shaped welds that in-
clude several changes of direction in a single weld seam were used as an example and
Figure 14a–c show the welds investigated. The gas flow direction was always from the
left to the right, and the start and end positions of the weld are marked with S and E ,
respectively. The interaction zone between the laser beam and the workpiece
nuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW
should always
16 of 20
be in front of the direction of flow to ensure that turbulences, caused by the interaction
between shielding gas, process zone and atmosphere, do not reach the hot weld metal.

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 14. Tarnishing

Figure 14.on C-shapedon
Tarnishing weld seamsweld
C-shaped depending on weldingondirection:
seams depending (a) weld direction
welding direction: opposite to flow
(a) weld direction
direction; (b) weld direction perpendicular to flow direction; (c) weld direction equal to flow direction.
opposite to flow direction; (b) weld direction perpendicular to flow direction; (c) weld direction
equal to flow direction.
If the start of the weld was opposite to the direction of flow, the expected tarnishing
colors occurred
If the start of the weld was dueopposite
to the turbulence generated
to the direction (Figure
of flow, 14a). For
the expected a welding direction
tarnishing
mainly perpendicular to the inflow direction, tarnish was avoided
colors occurred due to the turbulence generated (Figure 14a). For a welding direction over large areas if the
turbulence
mainly perpendicular tooccurred
the inflow outside the tarnish
direction, weld. However,
was avoidedwelding the radius
over large after
areas if the the start (in
the flow direction of the shielding gas) caused turbulences and
turbulence occurred outside the weld. However, welding the radius after the start (in the resulted in a tarnished
area around S , as depicted in Figure 14b. By contrast, a tarnish-free seam was produced
flow direction of the shielding gas) caused turbulences and resulted in a tarnished area
if the seam geometry, welding direction and inflow direction were correctly arranged
around Ⓢ, as depicted in Figure 14b. By contrast, a tarnish-free seam was produced if the
(Figure 14c).
seam geometry, welding direction and inflow direction were correctly arranged (Figure
14c). 4. Conclusions
In this study, a flat jet nozzle was designed and utilized to carry out trials on shielding
4. Conclusions
gas coverage in remote laser beam welding. The remote laser welding process motivated
In this study,
the use a flat
of ajet nozzle was
stationary designed
shielding gasand utilized
nozzle. Theto carry design
nozzle out trials
andonworking
shield- range were
ing gas coverage in remote laser beam welding. The remote laser welding
described based on geometrical parameters and flow parameters. Based process moti-
on different Re
vated the use(150,
of a 447,
stationary shielding gas nozzle. The nozzle design and working range
1300), the shielding gas flow was characterized using constant temperature
were described based on geometrical
anemometry parameters
and high-speed andimaging.
Schlieren flow parameters. Based onbetween
The interactions differentthe Reynolds
Re (150, 447, number
1300), the Re,shielding gas flow wasH,characterized
inlet length lusing constant temperature
nozzle outlet height h and hydraulic equivalent diameter dgl
anemometry and high-speed Schlieren imaging. The interactions between the Reynolds
number Re, nozzle outlet height H, inlet length lh and hydraulic equivalent diameter dgl
were identified and allowed the realization of a sufficient shielding gas coverage. Higher
Re and increasing H led to a faster transition from laminar to turbulent flow. By contrast,
rising ratios lh/dgl and, thus, a greater number of parabolic velocity profiles, led to an in-
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5, 139 16 of 19

were identified and allowed the realization of a sufficient shielding gas coverage. Higher
Re and increasing H led to a faster transition from laminar to turbulent flow. By contrast,
rising ratios lh /dgl and, thus, a greater number of parabolic velocity profiles, led to an
increase in the length of the laminar flow. The effect of heat conduction welding and
deep penetration welding was considered by spot welds and stitch welds to separate the
effects of temperature and metal vapor. It was shown for spot welds that metal vapor
escaping from the keyhole can negatively affect shielding gas coverage due to disturbances,
high temperatures and high velocities. In general, higher Re of 447 or 1300 compared to
150 proved to be beneficial. At the same time, shielding gas coverage was improved for
higher values of H. Both aspects proved that a laminar flow did not necessarily need to
be present for sufficient shielding gas coverage. The effect of the inflow direction of the
shielding gas and welding direction was observed on the stitch welds. The simultaneous
orientation of welding and flow direction is advantageous to ensure that turbulences
behind the processing zone do not cause a contamination of the shielding gas with oxygen
from the ambient atmosphere. It should further be noted that high Re = 1300 caused further
turbulences that led to slightly increasing tarnish compared to Re = 447 for an identically
arranged direction of shielding gas flow and welding speed. The transfer to a C-shaped
weld seam geometry demonstrated the findings based on a complex weld seam geometry.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, K.S., A.B. and J.P.B.; methodology, K.S. and A.B.; formal
analysis, K.S. and A.B.; investigation, A.B.; writing—original draft preparation, K.S.; writing—review
and editing, A.B. and J.P.B.; visualization, K.S. and A.B.; funding acquisition, K.S. and J.P.B. All
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the federal ministry of economic affairs and energy within the Ger-
man Federation’s industrial research associations (AiF Arbeitsgemeinschaft industrieller Forschungsvere-
inigungen), via the research association of the German Welding Society DVS (Forschungsvereinigung
Schweißen und verwandte Verfahren e.V. des DVS), based on a resolution of the German parliament,
grant number 22010 BR.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author. The data are not publicly available.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Appendix A
A more detailed view of the experimental setup is provided in Figure A1. The
Schlieren imaging setup was mounted to a welding table and the flat jet nozzle was
positioned between the illumination part and the imaging part. A setup gauge was used
for the alignment between the flat jet nozzle and the laser beam process. The scanner was
positioned via the Kuka KR 60 HA. The high-speed camera was adjusted to the beam path
of the Schlieren setup by means of a tripod.
A z-type Schlieren setup was used during the experiments to minimize the space
requirements of the setup due to the beam folding, as described in [31]. Figure A2a depicts
the illumination part and the imaging part of the z-type Schlieren setup. A light source (1)
with an aperture (2) is aligned to a parabolic mirror (3) that collimates the beam. A plane
mirror (4) directs the beam through a protective glass (5) onto the laser beam process, acting
as a Schlieren object (6). The beam is directed to the knife-edge (7) via another protective
glass, plane mirror and parabolic mirror. A lens (8) focuses the beam onto the focal plane of
the high-speed camera sensor (9). The imaging part and the illumination part are housed
(10) due to the welding process emissions.
The setup allowed the clamping device to be positioned and the laser beam process
to be performed between the illumination part and imaging part of the Schlieren setup.
The flat jet nozzle was integrated into the clamping device to simplify the experimental
procedure, as shown in Figure A2b. Two pneumatic cylinders were connected to the flat
jet nozzle and performed the clamping together, with a support structure as a counter
bearing. The single-sided clamping ensured high accessibility for the Schlieren imaging and
 Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author. The data are not publicly available.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5, 139 Appendix A 17 of 19

A more detailed view of the experimental setup is provided in Figure A1. The Schlie-
ren imaging setup was mounted to a welding table and the flat jet nozzle was positioned
between the illumination part and the imaging part. A setup gauge was used for the align-
simplified the execution of trials. The flat jet nozzle was sealed by a circumferential groove
ment between the flat jet nozzle and the laser beam process. The scanner was positioned
with a gasket. A material thickness of 2 mm is stiff enough to counteract the distortion
via the Kuka KR 60 HA. The high-speed camera was adjusted to the beam path of the
of the short welds, which can be seen in the Schlieren images (e.g., Figures 12 and 13 in
Schlieren setup by means of a tripod.
Section 3.3) due to the constantly horizontal position of the metal sheet.
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 20

mirror (4) directs the beam through a protective glass (5) onto the laser beam process,
acting as a Schlieren object (6). The beam is directed to the knife-edge (7) via another pro-
tective glass, plane mirror and parabolic mirror. A lens (8) focuses the beam onto the focal
plane of the high-speed camera sensor (9). The imaging part and the illumination part are
housed (10) due to the welding process emissions.
The setup allowed the clamping device to be positioned and the laser beam process
to be performed between the illumination part and imaging part of the Schlieren setup.
The flat jet nozzle was integrated into the clamping device to simplify the experimental
procedure, as shown in Figure A2b. Two pneumatic cylinders were connected to the flat
jet nozzle and performed the clamping together, with a support structure as a counter
bearing. The single-sided clamping ensured high accessibility for the Schlieren imaging
and simplified the execution of trials. The flat jet nozzle was sealed by a circumferential
groove with a gasket. A material thickness of 2 mm is stiff enough to counteract the dis-
tortion of the short welds, which can be seen in the Schlieren images (e.g., Figures 12 and
Figure
Figure A1.
13 inA1. Experimental
Experimental
Section setup
3.3) due tosetup withlaser
with laserhorizontal
the constantly system,Schlieren
system, Schlieren setup
positionsetup and
of theand flatsheet.
flat
metal jetnozzle.
jet nozzle.

Schlieren setup
A Schlieren
z-type setup
Schlieren setup was used during the experiments to minimize the space
illumination part requirements
imagingofpartthe setup due circumferential
to the beam folding, as described in [31]. Figure A2a depicts
groove with gasket
the illumination part and the imaging part of the z-type Schlieren setup. A light source (1)
3 3
with an aperture (2) is aligned to a parabolic mirror (3) that collimates the beam. A plane
flat jet nozzle
connecting connecting
element element

support

pneumatic pneumatic
cylinder
beam optical axis

cylinder
clamping

circumferential
groove with gasket
7
2 8
flat jet nozzle
connecting
6 element
4 4
9
1 support specimen
10 5 10 (80 x 220 x 2 mm³)

80
1 light source 6 Schlieren object
2 aperture 7 knife-edge pneumatic pneumatic
cylinder cylinder
3 parabolic mirror 8 lens
4 plane mirror 9 high-speed camera sensor
5 protective glass 10 housing

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure A2.z-type
A2. (a) (a) z-type Schlieren
Schlieren setup
setup used
used duringthe
during theinvestigations;
investigations; (b)
(b) schematic
schematicdepiction
depictionof of
clamping device
clamping withwith
device flat flat jet
jet nozzle and specimen.
nozzle and specimen.
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2021, 5, 139 18 of 19

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