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Topical Notes (READ ME)

About These Notes
• Updated for 2024 O Level Pure Biology Syllabus (6093)
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Topical Notes
• Helps you Revise Efficiently
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That's why I made simple, concise notes for my students to cut through the clutter.
The stuff in here is what you need to focus on in your syllabus, so use this if you want
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• Memory Hacks
◦ In here, you'll see: [Memory Shortcut] / [Memory Hack]. These are my own
acronyms/mnemonics/memory hacks, so you can memorise content faster AND recall
easier in exams.
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5
1. Cells
Learning Outcomes:
1. Identify and state the functions of plant and animal cell organelles
2. State the relationship between cell structure and function (w.r.t. RBC, xylem, root hair cell)
3. Compare structures of plant and animal cells

Keywords:
• Organelle, membrane, cellular activities
• Steroids, detoxification, protein synthesis
• Small and temporary, large central, cell sap
• Modifies, sorts and packages
• Partially permeable, fully permeable
• Biconcave, surface area to volume ratio, flexible, bell-shaped, long, narrow protrusion

If you're my student:Cells Crash Course Clips

1. Identifying structures

6
 Visible
Component/ under Light
Function
Organelle Microscope
?

• Contains DNA (in the form of chromatin)

Nucleus Y
• Controls cellular activities

Nuclear envelope Separates nucleus from cytoplasm Y

Rough • Studded with ribosomes

Endoplasmic • Synthesises proteins (for transport out of N
Reticulum the cell)

• Synthesises fats and steroids*

Smooth *Pro Tip: A class of molecules, including sex
Endoplasmic hormones N
Reticulum • Carries out detoxification: where harmful
substances are converted to harmless ones

• Place where most cellular activities occur

Cytoplasm • Contains organelles Y
• Site of anaerobic respiration

Animals:
• Several small and temporary vacuoles
• Store food and water
Plants: Y (plants)
Vacuole
• Have a large central vacuole N (animals)
• Stores cell sap (water + dissolved
substances such as: sugars, amino acids,
mineral salts)

Golgi • Modifies, Sorts and Packages substances

N
body/apparatus into vesicles for secretion out of cell

• Site of aerobic respiration, where food

Mitochondria substances (such as glucose) are broken N
down to release energy

7
 Chloroplast
• Site of photosynthesis Y
(plants only)

Cell surface
• Partially permeable
membrane/
• Controls movement of substances in and Y
plasma
out of the cell
membrane

• Fully permeable
Cell wall
• Made of cellulose Y
(plants only)
• Gives cell its shape

Ribosomes • Protein synthesis N

[Memory Hacks]
• Golgi Body:
◦ When receiving vesicles from ER, says "Majulah SingaPura"
◦ Modifies, Sorts and Packages substances into vesicles for secretion out of cell
• Rough ER:
◦ Proteins --> Meat. When you bite into meat patty, has a rough texture
◦ Rough ER synthesises proteins
• Smooth ER:
◦ Lipids --> Oil. Oil is smooth and slippery.
◦ Smooth ER synthesises lipids

2. Linking Structure to Function

*Pro Tip: These are repeated/explained more in their later respective topics.

8
 Cell structure How it is adapted to its function

Red Blood Cell • Biconcave, increases surface area to volume

ratio, so oxygen can diffuse in/out of it faster
• Lacks a nucleus hence has more space for
more haemoglobin, to transport more oxygen
• Flexible, so it can squeeze through tiny capillaries
• Can become bell-shaped in capillaries, further
increasing surface area to volume ratio

Root hair cell

• Has a long, narrow protrusion (root hair), that
increases surface area to volume ratio, for faster
absorption of water and mineral salts

• Have many mitochondria to generate a lot of

energy via aerobic respiration
◦ As they need to pump in mineral salts from the
surrounding soil into their large central
vacuoles via active transport

3. Comparing Plant and Animal Cells

Comparison Animal Cell Plant cell

Chloroplasts No Yes (sometimes)

Cell wall No Yes (always)

Mitochondria Yes (mostly) Yes (mostly)

Vacuole Small, temporary Large, permanent

Size Relatively smaller Relatively bigger

9
Need personalised guidance for O Level Pure Bio? Learn more here: www.thatbiotutor.com

10
2. Movement of Substances
Learning Outcomes:
1. Define Diffusion, Osmosis and Active Transport
2. Movement of substances in nutrient uptake and gas exchange
3. Effects of osmosis on plant and animal tissues
4. Bonus: Factors affecting rate of diffusion.

Keywords:
• Diffuse, osmosis, active transport
• Water potential, down/against concentration gradient, steepness
• Partially permeable membrane
• Crenated, lyse/burst
• Plasmolysed, flaccid, turgid, turgor pressure

If you're my student: Movement of Substances Crash Course Clips

1. Definitions

1. Diffusion: The net movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a

region of lower concentration, down a concentration gradient.

2. Osmosis: The net movement of water molecules from a region of higher water
potential to a region of lower water potential, through a partially permeable
membrane.

3. Active Transport: The movement of particles, using energy, from a region of lower
concentration to a region of higher concentration, against a concentration gradient,
through a partially permeable membrane.

*Pro Tip: When explaining these processes in contexts of questions, replace' substances' with the
molecule in the question, e.g. CO2

11
 Process Diffusion Osmosis Active transport

Type of molecule Any Water Any

Partially permeable
No Yes Yes
membrane needed?

Energy needed? No No Yes

Direction w.r.t. Concentration Down (higher to Down (higher Against (lower

gradient lower) to lower) to higher)

2. Movement of substances in nutrient uptake and gas exchange

12
Example How substances are moving

• Digested food substances such as glucose, and amino

acids diffuse into epithelial cells of villi in the small
intestine
• After diffusion no longer occurs, these substances are
transported in via active transport

• Mineral salts are transported from the soil into root hair
cells via active transport, to maintain a high
concentration of mineral salts in their vacuoles
• This creates a region of lower water potential than the
surrounding soil, so that water flows in by osmosis

• O2 dissolves into the thin film of moisture lining the

alveolar air space, then diffuses into the blood plasma
• Conversely, CO2 diffuses from the blood plasma into the
alveoli air space

• O2 diffuses from the intercellular air spaces of the leaf

to the surrounding air, through the stomata
• CO2 diffuses from the surrounding air into the
intercellular air spaces of the leaf, through the stomata

13
3. Effects of osmosis on plant and animal tissues

Water potential of
High Low Very low
solution

Crenated
Bursts/lysed Crenated

Effect on Animal cell

Turgid Flaccid
Plasmolysed

Effect on Plant cell

*Pro Tip: Turgidity in plant cells is important as it allows the plant to remain upright and reach
for sunlight, especially if it has a non-woody stem.

4. Bonus: Factors affecting rate of diffusion

• Surface area to volume ratio: The higher the SA:V, the higher the diffusion rate
• Temperature: Higher temperature, molecules have more kinetic energy, hence move
faster and diffuse down the concentration gradient faster
• Steepness of concentration gradient: The steeper the gradient, the higher the diffusion
rate
• Distance: The shorter the distance that molecules need to travel/diffusion distance, the
higher the diffusion rate

Need personalised guidance for O Level Pure Bio? Learn more here: www.thatbiotutor.com

14
3. Biomolecules
Learning Outcomes:
1. Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins: Their chemical elements, and the smaller molecules
that make them up
2. Food tests for starch, reducing sugars, fats and proteins

Keywords:
• Monosaccharide, disaccharide, polysaccharide
• Amino acid, peptide, polypeptide
• Glycerol, fatty acid, triglyceride, solvent
• Carbohydrate, starch, glycogen, cellulose
• Reducing sugar, precipitate, cloudy white emulsion

If you're my student: Biomolecules Crash Course Clips

1. Elements making up carbs, fats and proteins

15
 Type of
Carbohydrate Fats Protein
Nutrient

C, H, O, N, (S)

*Pro Tip: Some proteins

have S (the element
Atoms C, H, O (1:2:1 ratio) C, H, very few O
Sulfur), but not all. If a
question tells you the
molecule has Sulfur, it is
likely to be a protein.

Monosaccharides
• Glucose Triglyceride (glycerol +
Basic unit Amino acid
• Fructose 3 fatty acids)
• Galactose

Disaccharides
• Maltose
(Glucose +
Glucose)
• Sucrose (Glucose
Dimer (2
+ Fructose) - Dipeptide
units)
• Lactose (Glucose
+ Galactose)

*Highlighted =
reducing sugar

Many
units
Polysaccharides - Polypeptide
(several
thousand)

16
 • Long-term
energy storage
• Thermal
insulation
• An immediate • Protects vital
source of organs
energy • Forms cell • Growth and repair
(glucose for membranes* of cells
Functions
aerobic • Solvent for fat- • For the production
(bold =
respiration) soluble vitamins of enzymes,
most
• Energy storage • Secreted as oil on antibodies and
important
• Structural the skin to reduce some hormones
)
molecules, e.g. water loss • Synthesis of new
cellulose muscle fibres
*Pro Tip: We
intentionally do not say
plasma membrane here,
as fats are part of
membranes within cells
too.

Formation

[Memory Hack]
• How to remember what the 3 disaccharides are made of?
◦ The 3 disaccharides are all made of glucose + 1 of the 3 monosaccharides
◦ Lactose = Glucose + Galactose (galactose has lactose in the name!)
◦ Sucrose = Glucose + Fructose (Fructose is found in Fruits, which are from plants.
Plants also convert glucose into sucrose before transporting it in phloem. Therefore,
associate sucrose with fructose as they are both linked to plants.)
◦ Maltose = Glucose + Glucose (once you know the other 2, glucose is the only blank
option left for maltose)

*Pro Tip: There are 2'c's in -saccharides, be careful when spelling

Reducing sugars

17
• All monosaccharides and disaccharides in our syllabus are reducing sugars, except
sucrose.

Polysaccharides

Polysaccharid
Structure Function Found in
e

Thousands of glucose
Cellulose bonded together Structural support Plant cell walls
(FYI: straight chained)

Thousands of glucose
bonded together,
Starch bonds are different Energy storage (plants) Leaves/storage organs
from those in cellulose
(FYI: Branched)

More branched Energy storage

Glycogen Liver/muscle cells
than starch (animals)

2. Food Tests

18
 Test Procedure Results

Liquid sample:
1. Add 2cm3 of Benedict's reagent
to an equal volume of the sample
in a test tube and shake.
2. Heat water in a beaker until it
starts boiling (bubbles
vigorously).
*Pro Tip: The water level in the beaker
should be higher than that of the test
Benedict's test
tube.
[Reducing
1. Place the test tube into a beaker (-) Solution remains blue
sugars]
of already boiling water. (+) A brick-
2. Observe for colour change. red/orange/green ppt is
formed
Solid sample: *Pro Tip: Upon heating with
1. Add 2cm3 of Benedict's reagent acid, sucrose is broken into
to a finely cut sample in a test glucose and fructose, which
tube and shake. gives a positive result.
2. (Remaining steps are the same as
if sample were liquid.)

Liquid sample:
1. Place a few drops of the sample
on a white tile.
2. Add a few drops of iodine to a
sample, observe for colour
Iodine test
change.
[Starch]
(-) Solution remains yellow-
Solid sample: brown
1. Add a few drops of iodine to a (+) Yellow-brown solution
sample, observe for colour turns blue-black
change.

19
 Liquid sample:
1. Add 2cm3 of sodium hydroxide
solution to an equal volume of
sample and shake.
2. Add 1% copper (II) sulfate
solution, drop by drop (just a few
drops), shaking after each drop.
3. Allow the mixture to stand for 5
minutes and observe for the
colour change.
Biuret test
[Proteins]
Solid sample:
1. Add 2cm3 of sodium hydroxide
solution to a finely cut sample and (-) Remains blue
shake. (+) Turns violet/purple
2. (Remaining steps are the same as
if sample were liquid.)

*Pro Tip: Biuret reagent/solution is an

already prepared solution. Adding protein
to it turns it violet.

Liquid sample:
1. Add 2cm3 of ethanol to equal
volume of sample and shake.
2. Add 2cm3 of water to the mixture,
shake.
Ethanol
Emulsion test Solid sample:
[Fats] 1. Add 2cm3 of ethanol to finely cut
sample, shake and allow solids to
settle. (-) Solution remains clear
2. Decant the ethanol into another (+) Cloudy white emulsion
test tube containing 2cm3 of formed
water, shake.

20
Need personalised guidance for O Level Pure Bio? Learn more here: www.thatbiotutor.com

21
4. Enzymes
Learning Outcomes:
1. Explain the mode of action of enzymes using 'lock and key' hypothesis, including active
site, activation energy, enzyme specificity
2. Effect of pH and temperature on enzyme-catalysed reaction
3. Bonus: Benefits of using enzymes

Keywords:
• Biological catalysts, alternative pathway, activation energy, chemically unchanged
• Substrates, active site, specific three-dimensional structure, complementary
• Lock and key hypothesis, enzyme-substrate complex, optimum temperature/pH
• Kinetic energy, chance of collision
• Weak bonds, denature

If you're my student: Enzymes Crash Course Clips

1. Mode of action

• Enzymes: Biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions by providing an

alternative pathway of lower activation energy, and remain chemically unchanged
after the reaction.
• Activation energy: The energy needed to start a chemical reaction.

Lock and Key hypothesis (Mode of Action)

• According to the lock and key hypothesis,

22
 • a specific substrate (key) is complementary to and binds to the active site of the
enzyme (lock), and bind,
• forming an enzyme-substrate complex.
• The enzyme then catalyses the reaction (by breaking/forming the bond in context)*
• After reaction, products are no longer complementary to the active site, hence they
leave the active site.
• The enzyme remains chemically unchanged and can accept a new substrate.

*Pro Tip: If the question was on 'explain the mode of action of sucrase', state here that sucrase
catalyses the reaction by breaking the bond between glucose and fructose
[Memory Shortcut]
• Mode of action of enzymes [Be Careful Red Light Unchanged]
◦ B: enzyme and substrate Binds
◦ C: forming an enzyme-substrate Complex
◦ R: Reaction is catalysed
◦ L: products Leave active site
◦ U: enzyme remains chemically Unchanged

Characteristics of Enzymes
• Protein in nature
• Have a specific three-dimensional (3D) structure, only catalyse one type of reaction
• Has an active site that the substrate is complementary to
• Has an optimum temperature and optimum pH where rate of activity is highest

*Pro Tip: Each enzyme has its own preferred optimum temperature and pH, depending on its
function.

2. Effect of Temperature and pH

Effect of increasing temperature on enzyme activity

23
• As temperature increases from low until the optimum temperature, kinetic energy of
enzyme and substrate molecules increases, increasing their chances of collision.
• Enzyme-substrate complexes form faster, and rate of reaction increases until the
optimum temperature, where rate is highest.
• As temperature increases beyond optimum temperature, weak bonds within enzymes
are broken, causing the enzyme to lose the shape of its active site and become
denatured.
• The substrate can no longer fit into the active site, hence rate of reaction decreases
sharply to 0.

Effect of pH on enzyme activity

24
 • At pH 7, reaction rate is maximum as this is the enzyme's optimum pH.
• As pH moves further from pH 7, reaction rate decreases sharply. When pH moves too far
from 7, weak bonds within the enzyme are broken,
• the enzyme loses the shape of its active site and becomes denatured.
• The substrate can no longer fit into the active site, hence rate decreases sharply until 0.

3. Bonus: Benefits of using enzymes

• As catalysts, they speed up reactions that would otherwise take a long time (saves time)
• Since enzymes remain chemically unchanged after reaction, only a small amount of
them is needed (saves money/resources)
• Enzymes can catalyse reactions at lower temperatures than if they were to be done
without enzymes (saves energy)
• Enzymes are specific, hence only the intended reaction will occur

*Pro Tip: Each of these are actually linking a characteristic of enzymes to a benefit
Need personalised guidance for O Level Pure Bio? Learn more here: www.thatbiotutor.com

25
5. Nutrition in Humans
Learning Outcomes:
1. Main parts of the alimentary canal + related processes
2. Summary: Enzymes Involved in digestion
3. Peristalsis
4. Structure and function of villi
5. Liver functions and its associated blood vessels
6. Effects of excessive alcohol consumption

Keywords:
• Ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation, egestion
• Peristalsis, antagonistic
• Bile salts, emulsify, fat globules
• Digested food substances
• Deamination, detoxification, blood glucose concentration
• Addictive, depressant, reaction time, cirrhosis, haemorrhage, social responsibilities,
dementia, brain volume

If you're my student: Nutrition in Humans Crash Course Clips

1. Main parts of the alimentary canal

Definitions of processes
1. Ingestion: The intake of food through the mouth.
2. Digestion: The physical or chemical breakdown of larger food molecules into smaller and
soluble molecules that can be absorbed by body cells.
3. Absorption: The uptake of digested food substances into body cells.
4. Assimilation: Digested food substances are used to make new cell parts or used for
energy.
5. Egestion: The removal of undigested food waste from the body.

26
27
 Part Digestive
Function pH
(Processes) enzymes

Teeth:
• Chews food (mechanical digestion)
• Breaks food into smaller pieces,
increasing SA:V for enzymes to digest it
faster
Mouth
Salivary
(Ingestion, Salivary glands: 7
amylase
Digestion) • Secrete saliva containing salivary
amylase, breaks down starch into
maltose
Tongue:
• Rolls food into a bolus to be swallowed
• Mixes saliva with food

• Pushes food from mouth into the

Oesophagus 7 -
stomach

• Gastric glands secrete gastric juice

containing hydrochloric acid and
protease
• Protease breaks down protein into short
polypeptides
Stomach • Stomach churns food, breaking up food
2 Protease
(Digestion) (mechanical digestion) and mixing it
with gastric juice

*Pro Tip: There are many types of protease, but

for simplicity in our syllabus, they are all referred
to as 'protease'

28
 Small intestine
• Is very long, giving more time for
digested food substances to be absorbed
• Has many folds, increasing SA:V
• Parts of the small intestine [DJI]
◦ Duodenum: Mainly digestion, some
absorption
Small
◦ Jejunum: Some digestion, some
Intestine
absorption
(Digestion,
◦ Ileum: Some digestion, mainly
Absorption, (Epithelial,
absorption
Assimilation) LiMP):
Intestinal
[Memory Hack] 7-9
*Pro Tip: Lipase,
• "Dwayne Johnson and I" for small
Absorption Maltase,
intestine parts
involves both Protease
◦ Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum
diffusion +
active
• Epithelial cells of the small intestine
transport
secrete LiMP enzymes
◦ Intestinal Lipase: fats -> glycerol +
fatty acids
◦ Maltase: maltose -> glucose +
glucose
◦ Protease: short polypeptides -> amino
acids

Small
Intestine

29
Gall bladder
• Stores bile (an alkaline
yellow-green liquid)
• Bile is secreted into the
duodenum via the bile
duct during digestion
• Bile salts in bile emulsify
large fat droplets into
(Pancre
smaller ones, increasing
as,
SA:V for lipase to digest
LAP):
triglycerides into glycerol
Pancrea
and fatty acids
tic Lipa
• *Pro Tip: This is physical
se,
digestion, not chemical 7-9
Pancrea
digestion, since fat molecules
tic
are not being altered.
Amylas
Pancreas
e,
• Pancreas secretes
Proteas
pancreatic juice (alkaline)
e
containing LAP enzymes
into duodenum
◦ Pancreatic Lipase: fats ->
glycerol + fatty acids
◦ Pancreatic Amylase:
starch -> maltose
◦ Protease: Proteins ->
short polypeptides

• Has many folds, increasing

SA:V
• Large intestine absorbs
Large Intestine/Colon
water and mineral salts 7 -
(Absorption)
• Undigested food (faeces)
are temporarily stored in
the rectum

30
[Memory Shortcuts]
• Pancreatic enzymes [LAP]
◦ L: pancreatic Lipase
◦ A: pancreatic Amylase
◦ P: Protease
• Enzymes secreted by the small intestine's epithelial cells [LiMP]
◦ intestinal Lipase
◦ Maltase
◦ Protease

2. Summary: Enzymes involved in digestion

31
 pH of
Enzyme Produced by Digests Found in
Location

Amylase Salivary
Starch --> Maltose Saliva (Mouth) 7
(salivary) glands

Gastric Proteins --> Short

Protease Stomach 2
glands Polypeptides*

Lipase Triglycerides --> Alkaline

(pancreatic) Glycerol + Fatty acids (>7)

Amylase Pancreas Pancreatic

Starch --> Maltose
(pancreatic) juice

Proteins --> Short

Protease
Polypeptides*

Triglycerides -->
Lipase (Intestinal)
Glycerol + Fatty acids

Maltose --> Glucose +

Maltase Epithelial cells Small intestine 7-9
Glucose

Short Polypeptides* --
Protease
> Amino acids

*Pro Tip: Short polypeptides is more accurate than just 'polypeptides', since it distinguishes
between the length of the polypeptide (undigested proteins are folded polypeptides, hence the
ambiguity).

3. Peristalsis

32
Definition (in digestion): Rhythmic, wave-like muscular contractions in the wall of the
alimentary canal that moves food forward
• Peristalsis propels food forward ensuring it moves in the right direction,
• also mixes food with digestive juices

How it works:
• At the region before the food mass, circular muscles contract while longitudinal
muscles relax, narrowing the lumen and pushing food forward
• At the food mass, circular muscles relax while longitudinal muscles contract, widening
the lumen, allowing food to pass through easily
• The above also applies for the region just in front of the food mass
• Circular muscles and longitudinal muscles are antagonistic (i.e. when one contracts,
the other relaxes)

*Pro Tip: Peristalsis occurs throughout the alimentary canal, not just in the oesophagus

[Memory Hack]
• How to remember what circular muscles are doing in peristalsis
◦ Think of circular muscles as 'controlling' the lumen size. At the point where you see it
squeezing (contracting), the circular muscles are therefore contracting too.
◦ If lumen is widening (relaxing) at an area, circular muscles are relaxing too.
4. Structure and function of villi

33
Where digested substances are absorbed:
• Glucose and amino acids move by diffusion + active transport into blood capillaries
(red in diagram) of villi to be transported to the liver.
• Glycerol and fatty acids move by diffusion + active transport into the epithelial cells
of villi, where they reform into triglycerides, then enter the lacteal (yellow in diagram)
as fat globules.
*Pro Tip: Villus is singular, villi is plural.
*Pro Tip: Water is also absorbed at villi by osmosis.

Adaptations for fast absorption:

• Villi are finger-like projections in the small intestine, increasing SA:V
• Are lined with a one-cell-thick layer of epithelial cells, minimising distance digested
food substances have to travel
• Epithelial cells have microvilli, further increasing SA:V
• Absorbed substances that enter the lacteal and blood capillaries are constantly
transported away, maintaining a steep concentration gradient between the lumen and
villi to maximise diffusion rate of digested substances into villi.
*Pro Tip: After diffusion has reached equilibrium, active transport is needed to further absorb
digested substances

5. The Liver

34
What happens to absorbed digested food substances:
• Hepatic portal vein transports glucose and amino acids from small intestine to the liver
• Glucose is converted to glycogen and stored in the liver and muscles, or transported
around the body for cells to uptake and use for energy
• Amino acids are transported around the body and taken up by cells during assimilation,
to build new cell parts/protoplasm
◦ Deamination: The process where amino groups are removed from excess amino
acids and converted into urea, in the liver.
◦ Hence hepatic vein has high urea.
• Fats are transported around the body to be stored/used for energy

35
 Functions of
Description
liver

Detoxification is the process where harmful substances (e.g.

Detoxification
hydrogen peroxide, alcohol) are converted into harmless ones.

Breakdown of Hormones are broken down at the liver after they have served their
Hormones purpose.

Bile production The liver produces bile, which is stored in the gall bladder.

Amino acids The process where amino groups are removed from excess amino
(Deamination) acids and converted into urea, in the liver.

When blood glucose concentration is too high, liver converts

Blood Glucose glucose to glycogen in response to insulin.
regulation When blood glucose concentration is too low, liver converts
glycogen to glucose in response to glucagon.

[Memory Shortcut]
• Dun Have BAG for functions of the liver
◦ Detoxification
◦ Hormone breakdown
• Bile production
• Amino acids --> Urea (Deamination)
• Glucose regulation

6. Effects of excessive alcohol consumption

Short term effects:

• Alcohol is a depressant, meaning it slows brain functions, increases reaction time
• Reduces self-control, increasing tendency to make irrational decisions
Long term effects:
• Addictive, leading to neglect of social responsibilities
• Stimulates acid secretion in stomach, increasing risk of stomach ulcers
• Liver is overworked, cells start dying, which can lead to liver damage:
◦ E.g. Liver cirrhosis (formation of fibrous tissue), liver failure

36
 • Causes brain damage:
◦ E.g. Dementia, high consumption during pregnancy may impair foetus' brain
development
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37
6. Transport in Humans
Learning Outcomes:
1. Main blood vessels in the body
2. The role of blood (transport, defence) and its components
3. Blood groups and their compatibilities
4. Structure and function of arteries, capillaries and veins
5. Transfer of materials between capillaries, tissue fluid and cells
6. Structure and function of heart
7. Cardiac cycle
8. Coronary artery disease

Keywords:
• Oxygenated, deoxygenated
• Insoluble, coagulation, clot, universal donor, universal recipient
• Tissue rejection, antibody, neutralises, antigen, agglutination
• Biconcave, bell-shaped
• Arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, veins
• Tissue fluid, one-cell-thick
• Blood pressure, backflow, atrioventricular, semi-lunar valves, systole, diastole
• Coronary, atherosclerosis, fatty deposit, lumen

If you're my student: Transport in Humans Crash Course Clips

1. Main blood vessels in the body

38
*Pro Tip: Blood from the stomach and intestines does not go back to the heart directly through
veins, it passes through the liver first.

2. The role of blood (transport, defence) and its components

39
 Structure /
Component Function
Appearance

Carries dissolved substances in the blood such

Plasma (55%) Made of 95% water as glucose, amino acids, mineral salts, CO2,
waste, hormones, plasma proteins, etc.

• O2 binds to haemoglobin in red blood cells and is carried around

the body
• When blood passes through oxygen-poor areas, O2 dissociates
from haemoglobin and diffuses into body cells

FYI: Carbon dioxide is also transported in red blood cells, brought to the
lungs for removal.
Red
Blood Cells Increases SA:V for O2 to diffuse in/out of the
Biconcave
cell faster

Lacks a nucleus More space to pack in more haemoglobin

To squeeze through tiny capillaries, in which, it

Flexible can become bell-shaped, further increasing
SA:V

White Blood
Phagocytosis: The process where phagocytes
Cells -
engulf foreign particles and destroy them
Phagocytes • Can have a
lobed nucleus
• Can have
tendril-like
protrusions

40
 Produce antibodies, which:
Have a large nucleus • Cause pathogens to clump together
(agglutination), promoting phagocytosis
White Blood • Bind to and neutralises harmful toxins
Cells - that pathogens produce
Lymphocytes
Tissue rejection:
• When lymphocytes produce antibodies
against a transplanted organ to destroy it

Promotes blood clotting (coagulation) at the

Membrane-bound
site of injury, sealing the wound to prevent loss
Platelets bodies
of blood and preventing the entry of harmful
(Not considered cells)
microorganisms.

[Memory hack]
• How to remember which is coagulation and agglutination
◦ Agglutination: Due to Antibodies in the blood
◦ Coagulation: blood Clotting

How blood clots (Coagulation)

• When blood vessels are damaged, platelets are activated, which trigger the conversion of
soluble fibrinogen into insoluble Fibrin,
• Forming long insoluble Fibrin threads which trap red blood cells, forming a clot at the
site of injury.

3. Blood groups and their compatibilities

41
How to remember intuitively:
• The body will naturally produce antibodies of the other blood types, except against its
own RBC's antigens (or it will kill its own RBCs!)
• If you transfer blood into a recipient who does not have antibodies against the donor's
blood type, the transfusion will be safe.
• Special blood types:
◦ AB is the universal acceptor - can receive from all, but cannot donate to any
◦ O is the universal donor - can donate to all, but cannot receive from any

4. Structure and function of arteries, capillaries and veins

42
 Type of
Structure Function
vessel

• Carries blood away from the heart

• Usually carry oxygenated blood, except for
pulmonary artery
• Have thick elastic and muscular walls to
accommodate/withstand and the high
Arteries
blood pressure exerted by the heart
• Elastic and muscular walls stretch and recoil to
push blood forward in spurts
• Arteries branch out into arterioles, then into
capillaries

• Are present near almost every cell in the body

• Made of a wall of one-cell-thick cells,
minimising diffusion distance, increasing
Capillaries diffusion rate
• Capillaries branch repeatedly, increasing SA:V,
hence increasing rate of diffusion of substances
in and out of them

• Capillaries converge into venules, then into veins

• Veins carry blood back to the heart
• Usually carry deoxygenated blood, except for
pulmonary vein
• Have semi-lunar valves to prevent backflow of
blood, which is likely due to low blood pressure
Veins
in veins
• Larger lumen to reduce resistance to bloodflow
• Thin elastic and muscular walls as blood
pressure is lower
• Contraction of skeletal muscles exerts pressure
on veins, moving blood along more quickly

43
Graph of Blood pressure against location
• The further from the aorta, the lower the blood pressure due to loss of energy
• In arteries and arterioles, blood pressure fluctuates as:
◦ Arteries have thick elastic and muscular walls that stretch and recoil, and are directly
connected to the left ventricle.
◦ Hence, blood pressure increases during ventricular systole as left ventricle contracts,
and decreases during ventricular diastole as left ventricle relaxes.

5. Transfer of materials between capillaries, tissue fluid and cells

• Capillaries bring nutrients and O2, which diffuse from the blood plasma to the tissue
fluid
• These then diffuse from tissue fluid into cells
• Conversely, waste products and CO2 diffuse out of the cells into the tissue fluid, then
into the blood plasma of capillaries.

44
6. Structure and function of the heart + types of circulation

[Memory hack]
• How to remember bicuspid valve is on the left side of the heart, tricuspid is on the right
◦ We always read words from Left to Right
◦ Bicuspid valve has 2 flaps (hence "bi-"), tricuspid valve has 3 flaps (hence "tri-")
◦ So remember Left --> 2, Right --> 3.

45
 Parts of the heart Function

Atria • Have thinner walls then ventricles

• Left ventricle has thicker muscular walls as it has to

generate high pressure to quickly pump blood around
entire body
• Right ventricle has thinner muscular walls, as it does not
Ventricles need to generate as high of a pressure to pump blood to
lungs
*Pro Tip: Use ventricle wall thickness to identify which side of the
diagram is right/left. Usually, heart diagrams are mirror imaged,
meaning the left side of the picture is the right side of the heart.

Chordae tendineae • Attaches valves to the heart walls

• Separates left and right sides, so deoxygenated and

Medium septum
oxygenated blood stay separate

7. Cardiac Cycle

(Link for the above GIF to visualise bloodflow in heart:

https://media.tenor.com/dO9JYv5q8xsAAAAC/heart-heart-pumping.gif)

46
From Graph:
(1) Atrioventricular valves close
(2) Semi-lunar valves open
(3) Semi-lunar valves close
(4) Atrioventricular valves open

• Systole = contraction
• Diastole = relaxation
• RA = Right atrium, LA = Left atrium, RV = Right ventricle, LV = Left ventricle

Atrial systole (+Ventricular diastole)

• Both atria contract, pushing blood past the atrioventricular valves into the ventricles
◦ LA pumps blood past the mitral/bicuspid valve to the LV
◦ RA pumps blood past the tricuspid valve to the RV
*Pro Tip: AV valves were already open before atrial systole, as they opened near the end of
ventricular diastole.

Ventricular systole (+Atrial diastole)

• Ventricles contract
◦ Pulmonary semi-lunar valve is forced open, blood moves from RV to the
pulmonary artery, and is sent to the lungs.

47
 ◦ Aortic semi-lunar valve is forced open, blood moves from LV to the aorta, and is
sent to the rest of the body.
• At the same time, atrioventricular valves close, preventing backflow of blood from
ventricles to the atria.
◦ This causes the first 'lub' sound.
• Meanwhile, atria relax,
◦ Blood from pulmonary vein flows into LA
◦ Blood from vena cava flows into RA

Ventricular diastole (+Atrial diastole)

• Ventricles relax
◦ Semi-lunar valves close, preventing backflow of blood from the pulmonary artery
and aorta back into the ventricles.
◦ This causes the second 'dub' sound.
• Blood fills the relaxed atria and ventricles again

• Typical duration of each cardiac cycle: 0.8s = 75 beats per min

• *Pro Tip: When the heart pumps faster, such as during exercise, the duration of each cardiac
cycle will be shorter.
8. Coronary artery disease
Atherosclerosis: The disease where fatty deposits accumulate on the inner walls of arteries,
narrowing the lumen.
Coronary artery: An artery that branches out of the aorta, sending oxygen and nutrients to
the heart muscles.
• Coronary artery disease: When atherosclerosis occurs in a coronary artery.

Heart attack
• If a fatty deposit ruptures in a coronary artery, a blood clot could form, blocking the
artery.
• Blood with oxygen and nutrients cannot reach the heart muscles for them to release
energy via aerobic respiration, hence they die, resulting in a heart attack.

Preventive measures
• Adopt a diet low in saturated fats and cholesterol
• Not smoking
◦ Carbon monoxide in cigarette smoke damages the inner layer of blood vessels,
hence increasing the rate fatty deposits accumulate.

48
 ◦ Nicotine stimulates adrenaline release, increasing blood pressure, which also
increases the rate fatty deposits accumulate
• Stress management
• Regular exercise

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49
7. Respiration
Learning Outcomes:
1. Parts of the respiratory system and their roles in breathing
2. Adaptations of alveoli
3. Bonus: Inspired vs Expired air
4. Harmful effects of tobacco smoke
5. Aerobic and anaerobic respiration

Keywords:
• Alveolar air space, one-cell-thick, film of moisture, dissolve
• Inspiration/inhalation, expiration/exhalation, thoracic volume, air pressure
• Foreign particles, pathogens, ciliated, hair-like structures
• Nicotine, addictive, social responsibilities
• Carbon monoxide, irreversibly
• Tar, carcinogen, chronic bronchitis, partition walls, emphysema, cancer
• Aerobic, oxidise, cellular respiration, release energy, cellular activities
• Anaerobic, lactic acid, additional energy, oxygen debt

If you're my student: Respiration Crash Course Clips

1. Parts of the respiratory system and their roles in breathing

50
 Structure Function

• Cilia are hair-like structures on ciliated cells

• Found on inner walls of trachea, bronchi and larger bronchioles
• Mucus secreted by mucosal/gland cells traps dust and foreign
Cilia particles
• Cilia sweeps mucus with the trapped particles up the trachea to be
swallowed, neutralising any pathogens due to the stomach's acidic
pH

C-shaped
• Structural support: prevents collapse of the trachea, keeps the trachea
rings
open for unobstructed breathing
of cartilage

Breathing process

Event Inspiration (Breathing in) Expiration (Breathing out)

Contracts and flattens

Diaphragm Relaxes upwards
downwards

Internal* Relax Contract

Intercostal
muscles
External* Contract Relax

Ribcage Moves up and out Moves down and in

Thoracic Volume Increases Decreases

Lower than surrounding air, Higher than surrounding air,

Air pressure in lungs
causing air to rush in causing air to rush out

*Pro Tip: These muscles are antagonistic

[Memory Shortcut]
• Inspiration/expiration process [DIRVA]
◦ D: Diaphragm
◦ I: Intercostal muscles (internal + external)

51
 ◦ R: Ribcage
◦ V: thoracic Volume
◦ A: Air pressure in lungs

2. Adaptations of alveoli

Feature Function

Minimises distance O2 and CO2 have to travel, increasing

One-cell-thick
diffusion rate

Small and numerous Increases their SA:V, increasing diffusion rate

Provides continuous blood supply, oxygenated blood is

Surrounded by network of quickly carried away to maintain the concentration
capillaries gradients* for O2 to diffuse from alveolar air space into
blood and CO2 to diffuse out

Thin film of moisture lining

Gases dissolve in it before diffusing across
alveolar air space

*Pro Tip: Concentration gradients are also maintained by fresh air being breathed in and old air
breathed out

52
3. Bonus: Inspired vs expired air

Component of air Inspired air Expired air

Oxygen 21% 16%

Carbon Dioxide 0.03% 4%

Nitrogen 78% 78%

Water Vapour Varies Saturated

Dust Particles Present Almost none

Temperature Varies ~37°C

4. Harmful effects of tobacco smoke

53
 Chemical in
Tobacco Negative Effects
smoke

• Addictive, resulting in social problems

• Increases blood pressure* and heart rate
• Increases ease of blood clotting, increasing the risk of heart
Nicotine attacks

*Pro Tip: This increases 'wear and tear' of arteries, hence increasing the
rate that fatty deposits accumulate.

• Binds irreversibly with haemoglobin such that it cannot transport

O2 anymore, reducing the ability of blood to transport O2
Carbon
• Damages the innermost layer of blood vessels, increasing the rate
Monoxide
that fatty deposits accumulate in arteries, increasing the risk of
heart attacks

• Paralyses cilia, dust particles cannot be expelled, which can result

in:
◦ Chronic bronchitis (where the epithelium lining the airways
are inflamed + persistent coughing)
◦ Persistent and violent coughing can lead to Emphysema (when
Tar
partition walls between alveoli break down, making it hard to
breathe)
• Tar is a carcinogen*, increases chances of lung cancer

*Pro Tip: Carcinogen = something that causes cancer

5. Aerobic and anaerobic respiration

• Living things need cellular respiration to release energy for cellular activities, such as:
◦ Muscular contractions, cell division, active transport, etc.

54
 • Aerobic respiration: The process where food substances are broken down into carbon
dioxide and water, in the presence of oxygen, releasing a large amount of energy.
◦ Glucose + oxygen --> carbon dioxide + water + large amount of energy
◦ C6H12O6 + 6O2 --> 6CO2 + 6H2O + large amount of energy

• Anaerobic respiration (yeasts): The process where food substances are broken down
into carbon dioxide and ethanol, in the absence of oxygen, releasing a small amount of
energy.
◦ Glucose --> carbon dioxide + ethanol + small amount of energy
◦ This process is also called alcoholic fermentation

• Anaerobic respiration (mammals): The process where food substances are broken
down into lactic acid, in the absence of oxygen, releasing a small amount of energy.
◦ Glucose --> Lactic acid + small amount of energy

• Oxygen debt: The amount of oxygen needed to remove lactic acid from the body.
◦ During vigorous exercise, muscles demand more energy than can be generated by
aerobic respiration.
◦ Additional energy is generated by anaerobic respiration, resulting in lactic acid
produced.
◦ An oxygen debt is incurred.
▪ Lactic acid is transported to the liver, where it is broken down, which requires
oxygen (this amount of oxygen = oxygen debt)
◦ Immediately after exercise, the person needs to consume more oxygen compared to
at rest, to repay the oxygen debt, by:
▪ Fast heart rate: Carries oxygen around the body quickly
▪ Deeper and faster breathing: Intake large amounts of oxygen quickly

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55
8. Excretion
Learning Outcomes:
1. Importance of excretion
2. Structure of kidneys and nephrons
3. Dialysis

Keywords:
• Metabolism, metabolic waste/excretory products, urea
• Afferent/efferent arteriole, ultrafiltration, high blood pressure
• Selective reabsorption, filtrate
• Kidney failure, partially permeable, long narrow and coiled, opposite direction

If you're my student: Excretion in Humans Crash Course Clips

1. Importance of excretion

Excretion: The process whereby metabolic waste products and toxic substances are removed
from the body
• Our metabolism (chemical activities within cells) results in metabolic waste products.
• Importance:They must be excreted as they can harm the body if they accumulate to high
concentrations.

Examples of excretion in humans

• Unicellular organisms use diffusion for excretion, multicellular organisms need organs
◦ Lungs excrete CO2 during expiration
◦ Urea (product of deamination) is filtered out by kidneys and excreted in urine
◦ Excess water excreted by sweating, expiration and in urine
◦ Bile pigment excreted through faeces

2. Structure of kidneys and nephrons

Urinary system

56
 • Renal artery brings blood to kidney, renal vein carries blood away
• Kidneys act as filters, removing unwanted substances
• Ureter carries urine to bladder where it is temporarily stored
• Urethra carries urine outside of body

[Memory hack]
• How not to mix up ureter and urethra
◦ When you've been holding your pee in for very long and finally go toilet, you say
"aaaaaaa"
◦ Urethraaaa is the one through which urine leaves your body

Parts of a nephron

57
Formation of urine
• A nephron is the basic functional unit of the kidney that filters and removes waste
substances from the blood to form urine.
• The processes involved that make this possible are ultrafiltration and selective
reabsorption.

Ultrafiltration: The process where most of the blood plasma and dissolved substances are
forced out of the glomerulus into the bowman's capsule by high blood pressure.
• Blood enters the glomerulus through the afferent arteriole and leaves through the
efferent arteriole
• Lumen of efferent arteriole is smaller, generates high blood pressure which forces out
most of the blood plasma and its dissolved substances (glucose, amino acids, mineral
salts, urea, toxins, medicine, etc.)
• These substances enter the Bowman's capsule
• Large molecules such as blood cells, platelets and proteins cannot pass through the
basement membrane that lines the glomerular capillaries

58
Selective reabsorption: The process where certain substances are reabsorbed from the
filtrate back into the blood as they pass through nephrons.
• Useful substances are selectively reabsorbed while unwanted substances (or substances
in excess) stay in the filtrate and become urine
• Water is reabsorbed* via osmosis
◦ *Pro Tip: Since water is not reabsorbed using energy, do not say it is "selectively
reabsorbed", only "reabsorbed".
• Glucose, amino acids, and some mineral salts are reabsorbed via diffusion and active
transport

Part of nephron Reabsorption of substances

Proximal Convoluted Some water, some mineral salts, all glucose and all amino
Tubule acids reabsorbed

Loop of Henle Some water and some mineral salts reabsorbed

Distal
Some water and some mineral salts reabsorbed
Convoluted Tubule

Collecting Duct Some water reabsorbed

[Memory hack]
• Substances reabsorbed along nephron
◦ Productive Proximal: Reabsorbs a lot of things - some water, some mineral salts, all
glucose and all amino acids.
◦ Hesitant Henle: Loop of Henle reabsorbs some things - some water, some mineral
salts
◦ Discerning Distal: DCT reabsorbs some things - some water, some mineral salts
◦ Conservative Collecting duct: Collecting duct reabsorbs the least types of substances -
only water

3. Dialysis

59
Procedure
• Patients with kidney failure need to use a dialysis machine to filter waste products out
of their blood
◦ ~3 times per week, 4h each time
• Blood is drawn from the vein in patient's arm into a partially permeable tube
◦ *Pro Tip: Veins are safer as they are closer to the surface unlike arteries which are deeper
in the arm. Veins also have low pressure making it easier to stop the bleeding after
dialysis.
◦ Tube does not allow large substances such as blood cells and platelets to pass
through, but allows small substances such as waste products to diffuse out.
• Tube enters machine where it is bathed in dialysis fluid/dialysate. Features of machine
that increase efficiency:
◦ Dialysate contains zero waste products, hence waste products from blood diffuse out
down their concentration gradients.
◦ Dialysate has an equal concentration of useful substances (glucose, amino acids,
mineral salts) as healthy blood, so there is no diffusion.
◦ Tubing is long, narrow and coiled, increases SA:V, increasing diffusion rate.
◦ Dialysate flows opposite direction to blood, maintaining a concentration gradient
along the entire length of the tubing for more waste products to diffuse out.
• Cleaned blood is returned via the vein in patient's forearm.

[Memory shortcut]
• Dialysis machine features [ZERO]

60
 ◦ Z: Zero waste products in fluid
◦ E: Equal concentration of useful substances in fluid
◦ R: Tubing has high surface area to volume Ratio
◦ O: blood and dialysate flow in Opposite directions

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61
9. Homeostasis
Learning Outcomes:
1. Homeostasis, Negative Feedback and Hormones
2. Glucose Regulation and Diabetes
3. Osmoregulation and ADH
4. Parts of skin
5. Temperature regulation

Keywords:
• Internal environment, internal temperature, negative feedback
• Stimulus, receptor, control centre, set-point/normal condition, corrective mechanism
• Endocrine, target organs, blood glucose concentration, permeability to glucose
• Persistent high blood glucose, unexpected weight loss, calories
• Osmoregulation, osmoreceptors, permeable to water
• Thermoreceptors, dilate, constrict, arterioles, conduction, convection, radiation, poor
conductor
• Latent heat, metabolic rate, thermoreceptors, rapid contraction

If you're my student: Homeostasis Crash Course Clips

1. Homeostasis, negative feedback and hormones

Homeostasis: The maintenance of a constant internal environment via negative feedback.

Negative feedback: A sequence of events triggered by a disturbance in the system, which
counteracts the change, restoring the system to its set-point.

• There is a change in internal environment (this is the Stimulus)

• A Receptor/sensor detects the change in internal environment
• The Control centre receives the information and triggers corrective mechanisms
• Response is a Corrective mechanism that removes the stimulus
• Internal environment returns to its Normal condition/set-point
• Receptor detects that set-point is reached and Stops corrective mechanism

[Memory Shortcut]

62
 • Negative feedback process [Sneaky Rabbit Chews Carrot Non Stop]
◦ S: Stimulus
◦ R: Receptor
◦ C: Control centre
◦ C: Corrective mechanism
◦ N: Normal condition/set-point restored
◦ S: Stop corrective mechanism once receptor detects set-point restored

Some factors controlled by homeostasis

• Temperature
• Blood water potential
• Blood pressure
• Blood pH, blood CO2 concentration
• Blood glucose concentration
• Water content in urine
Hormone: A chemical substance produced by an endocrine gland, and is carried in the
bloodstream. It alters the activity of one or more specific target organs, and is destroyed by
the liver.
• Endocrine gland: A ductless gland that secretes its products, hormones, directly into
bloodstream.

2. Glucose Regulation and Diabetes

Blood glucose regulation

63
 Hormone Insulin Glucagon

Stimulus High blood glucose level Low blood glucose level

Detected
Cells* in islets of Langerhans Cells* in islets of Langerhans
by

Secreted
Cells* in islets of Langerhans Cells* in islets of Langerhans
by

Target
Liver and muscles Liver only
organs

• Glycogen is converted to
glucose in liver (but not in
muscles), and glucose is
• Increases permeability of liver
released into the bloodstream
and muscle cells to glucose,
[Memory hack]
Responses glucose diffuses in, decreasing
How to remember that glucagon
to insulin blood glucose levels
does not target muscle cells:
• Glucose is converted into
• Muscles are "selfish", they only
glycogen in liver and muscles
take in glucose but don't want
to release glucose to the
bloodstream

Overall Decreases blood glucose level until Increases blood glucose level until
effect set-point set-point

*FYI: There are actually 2 different types of cells of the islets of Langerhans that secrete insulin
and glucagon respectively.
[Memory hack]
• How to remember what insulin and glucagon do:
◦ INsulin is released to make glucose go INto the target cells when blood glucose is too
high (hence reducing blood glucose)
◦ Glucagon is the opposite - makes glucose come out of liver cells

Diabetes mellitus: The condition where the body is unable to maintain blood glucose level
within normal range.

64
Type I
• Pancreas cannot produce insulin/enough insulin
• Develops at a young age

Type II
• Target organs (liver and muscles) lose sensitivity to insulin
• Develops at an older age, linked to unhealthy lifestyle

[Memory hack]
• How to differentiate Type I and Type II diabetes:
◦ I comes before II
◦ Type I comes earlier in life, as it is genetic hence the person has issues producing
insulin since young
◦ Type II comes later in life, due to unhealthy lifestyle

Symptoms
• Persistent high blood glucose
• Glucose found in urine
• Frequent urination
• Frequently feeling dizzy, fatigue
• Unexpected weight loss
• Wounds take longer to heal

Risk factors
• Obesity/overweight
• Age
• Family history (diabetes can be inherited)
• Unhealthy blood lipid levels
• Sedentary lifestyle

Prevention
• Exercise regularly, maintain healthy bodyweight
• Eat a balanced, healthy diet, low in calories, high in fibre
◦Doing the above improves blood lipid levels.
Treatment
• There is currently no cure for diabetes

65
 • Type 1: Insulin injections
• Type 2: Control blood glucose level
◦ Diet lower in carbohydrates
◦ Exercise regularly
◦ If condition worsens, have to inject insulin/take medication to improve body's
sensitivity to insulin

3. Osmoregulation and ADH

Osmoregulation: The process where the amount of water and concentrations of solutes in
blood are controlled to maintain constant water potential in the body.
• Osmoregulation works by negative feedback, and attempts to restore the set-point of
blood water potential
• Osmoreceptors are cells in the hypothalamus that detect changes in blood water
potential
• More/less Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)* is secreted by the pituitary gland in response
to a change detected
◦ *Pro Tip: A diuretic is something that makes you pee more. Therefore Anti-diuretic
means anti-pee, so you pee less and urine becomes more concentrated.
[Memory Hack]
• Think of ADH as the "water conservation hormone" (I like to visualise ADH as the water
wally mascot)
• When you don't have enough water, more of it is secreted to conserve water in your body

66
 Water potential Water potential decreases Water potential increases

in the hypothalamus detect

Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus detect this
this

Pituitary gland secretes more Pituitary gland secretes less

ADH secretion
ADH ADH

Cells in the walls of collecting Cells in the walls of collecting

Collecting ducts
ducts become ducts become

More permeable to water hence Less permeable to water, hence

Permeable reabsorb more water from reabsorb less water from
filtrate back into blood filtrate back into blood

Becomes less dilute/more Becomes more dilute/less

Dilute
concentrated concentrated

[Memory shortcut]
• ADH explanation [Wealthy Otters Ate Custard Pudding Dessert]
◦ W: Water potential
◦ O: Osmoreceptors
◦ A: ADH secretion
◦ C: Collecting ducts
◦ P: Permeable
◦ D: urine becomes more/less Dilute

4. Parts of skin

67
Sweat
• Contains water, salts (mainly sodium chloride) and small amounts of urea
• Hence sweating is a means of excretion
Adipose (fat) tissues
• Adipose cells = Fat cells
• Fat is a poor conductor of heat, reducing heat loss through the skin

5. Temperature regulation

Negative feedback is involved

• Changes in internal temperature are the stimulus
• Detected by thermoreceptors in hypothalamus, hypothalamus sends nerve impulses to
effectors that carry out corrective mechanisms to counteract the change in internal
temperature
• Once set-point is restored, thermoreceptors detect this and send nerve impulses to
hypothalamus to stop the corrective mechanisms

68
Responses to changes in internal temperature [MASS]

Response Too cold Too hot Explanation

Metabolic rate increases by

Metabolic increasing rate of aerobic respiration
Increases Decreases
Rate by mitochondria, releasing more
heat energy.

Constriction of arterioles in the

skin reduces blood flow to capillaries
Arterioles in Constrict Dilate
at the skin surface, decreasing heat
the skin
loss through conduction, convection
and radiation.

When sweat glands secrete more

Sweat Secrete less Secrete more sweat, more water in sweat
Glands sweat sweat evaporates, hence more latent heat
is lost.

Shivering, the rapid contraction of

Does not occur
skeletal muscles, further increases
Shivering Begins (No need to
the rate of aerobic respiration,
write in answer)
releasing more heat energy.

[Memory Shortcut]
• Responses to changes in temperature [MASS]
◦ M: Metabolic rate
◦ A: Arterioles
◦ S: Sweat glands
◦S: Shivering
[Memory Hack]
• How to remember whether arterioles in skin constrict/dilate
◦ When it is cold, arterioles in skin constrict.

69
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70
10. Nervous System and The Eye
Learning Outcomes:
1. Central and Peripheral nervous system
2. Neurones
3. Reflex actions
4. The human eye
5. Bonus: Nervous system vs Endocrine system

Keywords:
• Central/peripheral nervous system, cranial/spinal nerves, sense organs
• Nerve impulses, stimulus, receptor, effector, gland, transmitted, junction
• Sensory, relay, motor neurone
• Reflex arc, involuntary, conscious control, reflex centre,
• Internal reflection of light, refract
• Taut, slacken, convex, focal length, sharply focussed
• Dim, dilate, constrict

If you're my student: Nervous System and The Eye Crash Course Clips

1. Central and Peripheral nervous system

• Central Nervous System (CNS) consists of Brain and Spinal cord

• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) consists of:
◦ Cranial nerves (from the brain)
◦ Spinal nerves (from spinal cord)
◦ Sense organs (eyes, nose, tongue, ears, skin)

71
2. Neurones

72
 Neurone
Function
Part

Cell body Contains the nucleus and other organelles

• The junction between two neurones OR between a neurone and

an effector (muscle/gland).
Synapse
• Chemicals are released and diffuse across, allowing nerve
impulses to be transmitted across the synapse.

A strand of cytoplasm extending from the cell body

Nerve fibre *Pro Tip: Think of it as any part of the neurone other than the cell body =
nerve fibre.

Sensory, relay and motor neurones

*Pro Tip: Sensory neurones are distinct because of the position of their cell body being along the
length instead of near the start.

73
 Transmits nerve
Neurone Type Transmits to
impulses from

Sensory (Centre) Receptor Relay neurone

Relay (Left) Sensory neurone Motor neurone

Motor (Right) Relay neurone Effector

*Pro Tip: Tell apart which neurone is which by their position in the reflex arc.
3. Reflex actions

Reflex action: An immediate response to a specific stimulus without conscious control.

• Involves a reflex centre (either brain or spinal cord).
◦ Spinal reflexes use spinal cord as reflex centre, e.g. knee jerk reflex, withdrawal reflex
when touching a hot object
◦ Cranial reflexes use the brain as reflex centre, e.g. blink reflex, accommodation reflex,
pupil reflex, sneezing, coughing
• Reflex arc: The shortest pathway for nerve impulses to travel from receptor to effector
during a reflex action.

• Examples of reflex actions: Knee jerk reflex*, pupil reflex, touching hot/sharp object, blink
reflex, grasp reflex, cough reflex, sneeze reflex, production of gastric juice, production of
saliva, secretion of adrenaline

74
 ◦ *Pro Tip: For the knee jerk reflex, this is a stretch reflex. When there is a tap on the
tendon below the knee, stretch receptors detect this and result in the contraction of the
quadriceps muscle (to prevent the muscle from overstretching and being injured)
• Receptors you should be familiar with in syllabus:
◦ Pain receptors
◦ Thermoreceptors
◦ Stretch receptors
◦ Photoreceptors
◦ Osmoreceptors

Pathway of nerve impulses questions:

• When __________________________________ (incident), ____________ (receptors) detect this,
nerve impulses are generated and travel along a sensory neurone.
• They are transmitted to a relay neurone, in the ____________ (either brain/spinal cord),
which is the reflex centre.
• Nerve impulses are then transmitted to a motor neurone, then to the __________ (thing
that does the action), which is the effector,
• Triggering it to _______________________________ (response triggered), so that
____________________ (where possible, the purpose for the reflex action).

[Memory shortcut]
• Pathway of nerve impulses during reflex action [I Raced Several Racing Cars, Making
Every Race Perfect]
◦ I: Incident
◦ R: Receptor
◦ S: Sensory neurone
• R: Relay neurone
• C: Centre (reflex centre)
• M: Motor neurone
• E: Effector
• R: Response
• P: Purpose

Voluntary action: A deliberate action done under conscious control.

• E.g. when you want to raise your hand: Brain --> Relay neurone in spinal cord --> Motor
neurone --> Hand muscles

75
4. The human eye

76
 Part of eye Function

Sclera Protects eyeball from mechanical damage

• Rich in blood vessels, bringing O2 and nutrients to eyeball

Choroid
• Pigmented black to prevent internal reflection of light

Contains photoreceptors that detect light and generates nerve

Retina
impulses, which are sent to the brain via the optic nerve.

Yellow Light is mainly focussed here as the image that is produced here
spot/Fovea is the sharpest.

An area of the retina right above the optic nerve, where there are
Blind spot
no photoreceptors

Cornea Refracts light into the eye

Conjunctiva • Moistens eye by secreting mucous

Eyelashes Shield the eye from dust particles/irritants

• A watery substance found in the aqueous chamber, gives

Aqueous the eyeball its shape
humour • Refracts light into pupil
• Nourishes cornea

• Focusses light onto the retina

Lens
• Is flexible to focus on objects at varying distances

• A jelly-like substance found in the vitreous chamber, gives

Vitreous
the eyeball its shape
humour
• Refracts light onto retina

Rectus
Controls eye movement
muscles

How light enters the eye

• Light is refracted by the cornea into the eye

77
 • The aqueous humour refracts light into the pupil (a hole)
• The lens refracts light towards the retina
• The vitreous humour refracts light onto the retina

Focussing/Accommodation reflex

Object Near Far

Ciliary muscles Contract* Relax

Suspensory ligaments Slacken Taut

Lens shape Thicker and more convex Thinner and less convex

Focussed sharply on
Clear image seen Clear image seen
retina

*Pro Tip: Think of ciliary muscles contracting towards lens, hence suspensory ligaments slacken
*Pro Tip: Do not say lens becomes more concave, you must say less convex.
[Memory Shortcut]
• Accommodation reflex [Cats Scratch Leather Furniture]
◦ C: Ciliary muscles
◦ S: Suspensory ligaments
◦ L: Lens shape
◦ F: Focussed sharply on retina
[Memory hack]

78
How to remember whether ciliary muscles contract or relax
• When you focus on a near object, you are 'straining' your eyes, so ciliary muscles contract
to focus on near objects.
• When you focus on a far object, you are 'relaxing' your eyes, so ciliary muscles relax to
focus on far objects.

Pupil reflex

Light conditions Bright Dim

Radial muscles Relax Contract

Circular muscles Contract Relax

Pupil Constricts Dilates

Allows less light in, prevents Allows more light in to see

Effect on eye
damage to retina better

*Pro Tip: Iris contains circular and radial muscles (antagonistic), which control size of the pupil

[Memory Shortcut]
• Pupil reflex [Really Cool Pupil Effect]
◦ R: Radial muscles
◦ C: Circular muscles
◦ P: Pupil
◦ E: Effect on eye

[Memory hack]

79
How to remember what radial muscles are doing:
• Radial muscles are "afraid of the dark", so when it's dark they tense up in fear, hence they
contract.
• When you're in a bright place, they relax

5. Bonus: Nervous system vs Endocrine system

System Endocrine Nervous

Signal Hormones Nerve impulses

Mode of transmission Bloodstream Neurones

Speed Relatively slower Relatively faster

Duration of responses Longer-lasting Short-lived

Can be activated by
No Either
conscious control?

Usually more than one

Affected areas Usually localised
target organ

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80
11. Infectious Diseases
Learning Outcomes:
1. Infectious diseases and how they spread
2. Bacteria vs viruses
3. Treatment and prevention

Keywords:
• Pathogen, symptoms, droplets, respiratory tract, direct contact, sexually transmitted,
contaminated surface, breastfeeding
• Cholera, water-borne
• Single-celled, cell membrane, membrane-bound, DNA
• DNA, RNA, protein coat, spike proteins, host
• Influenza, flu, pneumococcus, pneumococcal disease, pneumonia, close contact, antiviral
drugs
• Fever, headache, vomiting, photophobia, runny nose, coughing, sore throat, muscle aches,
• Vaccine, agent, antigen, quickly produce antibodies
• Inhibit synthesis, growth
• Course of antibiotics, strain, less/more sensitive, antibiotic resistance, survive and
reproduce

If you're my student: Infectious Diseases Crash Course Clips

1. Infectious diseases and how they spread

Disease: A condition that causes the body to function less effectively, and produces specific
symptoms.
• Infectious diseases
◦ Caused by pathogens (disease-causing organisms)
◦ Can spread from one person to another
• Non-infectious diseases:
◦ Not caused by pathogens, cannot spread from one person to another
◦ Eg: Atherosclerosis, coronary artery disease, Liver cirrhosis, diabetes, sickle-cell
anaemia

81
How infectious diseases spread
• When droplets in the air when someone coughs/sneezes which contain the pathogens
are breathed into the respiratory tract of an uninfected person
• Direct contact
◦ Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) through exchange of bodily fluids during
sexual intercourse (e.g. HIV)
▪ *Pro Tip: See Topic - Reproduction in humans for more on HIV
◦ Touching contaminated surfaces, then our nose/eyes/mouth
◦ Through breastfeeding from mother to baby
• Contaminated food and water
◦ E.g. Cholera is a water-borne disease spread by consuming water contaminated with
the bacteria
◦ *Pro Tip: Food poisoning is when we consume food contaminated with the pathogen

2. Bacteria and viruses

82
Feature Bacteria Viruses

Appearance

Outer
Cell wall Protein coat
covering

Genetic
DNA DNA/RNA
material

Plasmids Yes No

Cell
Yes No
membrane

Cytoplasm Yes No

Ribosomes Yes No

Growth Yes No

Cellular
Yes No
respiration

Reproduction
Yes No
without host

Killed by
Yes No
antibiotics?

83
Bacteria
• Single-celled organism
• Has a cell wall and cell membrane
◦ *Pro Tip: Since bacteria only have 1 cell membrane in the entire cell, we don't need to
call it plasma membrane.
• No membrane-bound nucleus and organelles
• Have ribosomes for protein synthesis
• Circular DNA*
◦ *Pro Tip: This is unlike the DNA in other organisms such as plants and animals, which is
linear
• Has plasmids
◦ *Pro Tip: See Topic - Molecular genetics for plasmids
• May have flagella (to move)

FYI: How bacteria cause disease

• Bacteria try to 'colonise' our insides, some of them produce metabolic waste products which
can be toxic to us --> thus affecting our health
• Not all bacteria cause disease (in fact, many are beneficial, like the 'good' bacteria in our
large intestine)

Viruses
• Has a protein coat (instead of cell membrane), which can have spike proteins on the
surface
• Contains genetic material inside, which can be DNA or RNA
• No cellular structures like cell membrane, cytoplasm, organelles
• Does not grow, nor undergoes cellular respiration
• Infects host cells, and uses the cells' organelles such as enzymes and ribosomes to
make more copies of itself (reproduces)
3. Treatment and prevention

84
Pathogen Pneumococcus bacteria Influenza virus

Structure

(Refer to bacteria structure earlier)

Pneumococcal disease, which can

include:
• Pneumonia (lung infection)
Illness • Middle ear infection Influenza/Flu (respiratory tract
caused • Blood infection infection)
• Inflammation of brain and
spinal cord membranes
(meningitis)

• Fever, headache, vomiting

• Coughing, chest pain, rapid
breathing (if infects lungs) High fever, headache, runny
Symptoms • Sensitivity to bright nose, cough, sore throat,
light/photophobia (if brain muscle aches
and spinal cord membranes
inflamed)

• Droplets in the air

spread and enter an
uninfected person's
• Droplets in the air spread
respiratory tract
Transmission and enter an uninfected
• When someone touches
person's respiratory tract
a contaminated surface
followed by their
mouth/nose/eyes

85
 • Avoid close contact with others who are infected/if you are
infected
◦ Social distancing
• *Wash hands with soap and water/hand sanitiser
• *Avoid touching nose, eyes, mouth
Reducing • Use a mask (prevents droplets from travelling/other's droplets
transmission from reaching you)
• Cover nose and mouth when coughing/sneezing (prevents
droplets from travelling)

*Note: Not applicable for pneumococcal disease, since it doesn't spread

via contaminated surfaces.

Take antibiotics as prescribed by a Take antiviral drugs as

Treatment
doctor prescribed by a doctor

Prevention Pneumococcal vaccination Influenza vaccination

[Memory Shortcut]
• Ways to reduce influenza transmission [Diagnose Sick, Take M.C.]
◦ social Distancing/avoid close contact
◦ Soap and water/hand sanitiser
◦ don't Touch eyes, nose, mouth
◦ use a Mask
◦ Cover nose and mouth when coughing/sneezing

Vaccine: Contains an agent resembling a pathogen, and prevent infectious diseases by

stimulating white blood cells to quickly produce antibodies when the pathogen invades.
• Pathogens have antigens (substances that trigger the production of antibodies), such as
the proteins on the pathogens' surface
• The agent in the vaccine have an antigen that the real pathogen has, thus resembling
the pathogen
• After vaccination, white blood cells recognise the specific antigen and produce
antibodies against it
• How vaccines protect you from the real pathogen:
◦ Some of these white blood cells remain in the body for a long time

86
 ◦ When the real pathogen enters the person, these white blood cells recognise it and
quickly produce large amounts of antibodies to destroy the pathogen.

How antibodies help kill pathogens:

• Cause pathogens to clump together (agglutination), promoting phagocytosis
• Bind to and neutralises harmful toxins that pathogens produce

Antibiotics: Drugs that inhibit the growth of or kill bacteria.

• Examples of how antibiotics could work:
◦ Inhibiting synthesis of bacterial cell wall (cell wall weakens, water enters by osmosis,
bacteria bursts)
◦ Breaking up the bacterial cell membrane
◦ Inhibiting enzymes in the cytoplasm which are required for growth
◦ Inhibiting protein synthesis at ribosomes
• Antibiotics do not work on viruses, due to the differences between their structures
◦ Viruses do not have: cell walls, cell membrane, ribosomes
◦ Many antibiotics work by inhibiting the growth of bacteria, but viruses do not grow
◦ Viruses cannot be directly killed, instead has to be eradicated by the person's own
immune system
• Antibiotic resistance
◦ Due to variation, some bacteria in a population are less sensitive to the antibiotic,
hence lesser chance of being killed
◦ If a course of antibiotics is not completed, some of the less sensitive bacteria may
survive and reproduce
◦ They multiply, resulting in a strain of antibiotic resistant bacteria, which are even
harder to treat.
◦ *Pro Tip: This is an example of natural selection (Topic: Inheritance)
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87
12. Nutrition in Plants
Learning Outcomes:
1. Leaf structure
2. Photosynthesis
3. Factors affecting photosynthesis
4. Bonus: Procedure for leaf starch test in experiment

Keywords:
• Waxy cuticle, waterproof, intercellular air spaces, thin film of moisture
• Cylindrical, vertically arranged, irregularly shaped,
• Gaseous exchange, turgid
• Light energy, chlorophyll, by-product, manufactured food substances
• Light intensity, limiting factor

If you're my student: Nutrition in Plants Crash Course Clips

1. Leaf structure

88
89
 Part of leaf Structure and Function

• Transparent, allows light to reach mesophyll cells for

photosynthesis to occur
Waxy Cuticle
• Waterproof, reduces water loss via evaporation from leaf
surfaces

• Both layers are made of closely packed epidermal cells and

Upper Epidermis/ produce the waxy cuticle
Lower Epidermis • Upper epidermis does not have any chloroplasts
• Lower epidermis has chloroplasts only in the guard cells

• Tiny openings formed by two guard cells, which allow gaseous

exchange to occur
Stoma (pl.
• Stoma size is controlled by guard cells: In the presence of light,
Stomata)
guard cells open stomata. In the dark, guard cells close
stomata.

• Just under upper epidermis, so they can receive as much

sunlight as possible for photosynthesis.
• Contain many chloroplasts, so more photosynthesis can be
Palisade Mesophy
carried out per cell
ll Layer
• Long, cylindrical and vertically arranged, so that many of them
can be packed together, increasing the total amount of
photosynthesis that is carried out by this layer.

• Fewer chloroplasts than palisade mesophyll cells

Spongy
• Consists of irregularly shaped cells that have large intercellular
Mesophyll Layer
air spaces between cells

• Mesophyll cells are coated with a thin film of moisture, which

allows CO2 to dissolve in it before diffusing into mesophyll
Intercellular Air
cells.
spaces
• Intercellular air spaces have large SA:V, for carbon dioxide
and oxygen to quickly diffuse in and out of mesophyll cells

Vascular bundle

90
 Consists of:
• Xylem: Brings water and mineral salts
absorbed from the soil from the roots
to leaves for photosynthesis
• Phloem: Carries manufactured food
substances made by the leaves to the
rest of the plant

• Thin and wide leaf blade increases

SA:V of the leaf, maximising light
absorbed for photosynthesis.
• Being thin decreases the diffusion
Leaf shape distance for gases to reach all
mesophyll cells quickly,
• And allows light to easily penetrate
through the leaf to reach all
mesophyll cells.

2. Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis: The process whereby carbon dioxide and water are converted into glucose
and oxygen, in the presence of light energy and chlorophyll.
• Light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll and used in converting carbon dioxide and
water into glucose
• Oxygen gas is produced as a by-product

Word Equation:

Chemical Equation:

Fate of glucose

91
 • Used in aerobic respiration to release energy
• Excess glucose stored as starch for energy storage
• Used to synthesise cellulose for cell walls
• Converted to sucrose to be transported in the phloem to other parts of the plant
• Converted to amino acids, which are then used to form proteins (to build new cell parts)
• Converted to fats for energy storage or to build new cell parts

3. Factors affecting photosynthesis

Limiting factor: A factor that directly affects the rate of the reaction if its quantity is
increased.

Light intensity
• As light intensity increases, more light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll and converted
into chemical energy, increasing photosynthesis rate.
• At very high light intensity, further increasing it has no effect on rate. Light intensity is no
longer a limiting factor (some other factor is limiting).

CO2 concentration
• As CO2 concentration increases, there is more CO2 available to be converted into glucose,
increasing photosynthesis rate.
• At very high CO2 concentration, increasing it further has no effect on rate. CO2
concentration is no longer a limiting factor (some other factor is limiting).

92
*Pro Tip: Atmospheric concentration is around 0.03%, while the concentration where CO2 no
longer becomes limiting is 0.13% and above.

Temperature
• Since enzymes are involved in photosynthesis, the photosynthesis-temperature graph
looks the same as an enzyme-temperature graph.

4. Bonus: Procedure for leaf starch test in experiments (useful for

practical)

• Place plant in dark room for 2 days, this de-starches the plant
• Carry out the experiment (e.g. whether photosynthesis works if leaf is placed in a sealed
bag)
• Place the leaf in boiling water for 2min to kill the cells, stopping further
photosynthesis.
• Place the leaf in a boiling tube with ethanol into boiling water bath, removing
chlorophyll so that the green colour of chlorophyll does not affect any colour change
later on
• Place leaf into boiling water for 1 min to soften the leaf and remove alcohol
• Add a few drops of iodine onto the leaf to test for starch

*Pro Tip: Variegated leaves which have a white outer layer will only have starch on the inside
when tested.

93
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94
13. Transport in Plants
Learning Outcomes:
1. How plants absorb water
2. Xylem and phloem + their positions throughout a plant
3. Transpiration
4. Factors affecting transpiration
5. Wilting
6. Bonus: Adaptations to reduce transpiration rate

Keywords:
• Water potential, mineral salts
• Lignified, pits, collapse, end walls, unobstructed flow
• Translocation, manufactured food substances, sap
• Unidirectional, bidirectional, porous sieve plates
• Transpiration, transpiration pull
• Intercellular air spaces, thin film of moisture, evaporates, water vapour
• Humidity, air movement, wind, more/less steep concentration gradient
• Wilting, turgidity, non-woody stem, total leaf surface area
• Sunken stomata, pits, succulent/fleshy, spines

If you're my student: Transport in Plants Crash Course Clips

1. How plants absorb water

95
Role of root hair cells
• Mineral salts are transported via active transport from the surrounding soil into the cell.
• This results in root hair cells having lower water potential than the surrounding soil,
hence water flows in passively via osmosis.

Feature of root hair

Function
cells

Have a long and narrow Increases SA:V for faster absorption of water
root hair and mineral salts

More aerobic respiration to meet high

Contain
energy demand required for active
many mitochondria
transport of mineral salts

Cell sap has

Creates a region of low water potential for
high concentration of
water to enter via osmosis
mineral salts

How water enters at the roots

• Water enters root hair cells via osmosis --> root hair cells have higher water potential
than the inner cortex cells, water moves via osmosis to inner cells
• This process of osmosis repeats until water reaches the xylem vessels

96
 • Cortex cells actively transport mineral salts into the xylem at roots, decreasing water
potential of xylem so that water enters by osmosis.

2. Xylem and Phloem

Cross-section of stem

*Pro Tip: Cambium differentiates into new phloem and xylem tissues
[Memory Hack]
• How to remember position of xylem and phloem in stem
◦ Which is more crucial, food or water? Water. Since xylem carries water, it needs to be
more protected, hence it's on the inside.
Cross-section of root

97
Cross-section of leaf

[Memory Hack]
• How to remember position of xylem and phloem in leaf
◦ Picture the stem's vascular bundle (you know that the xylem is on the inside), curling
outwards to form the leaf's vascular bundle. That's why xylem would be on top, and
phloem below.

Xylem vs phloem - structure and function

98
 Type of
vascular Xylem Phloem
tissue

Structure

*Pro Tip: Pits allow water to flow to

adjacent xylem vessels

Position in
stem vascular Inner Outer
bundle

Position in
leaf vascular Top Bottom
bundle

Position in
root vascular Inner 'cross' Outer 'nodules'
bundle

• Translocation: The transport

of manufactured food
substances such as sucrose
Water and mineral salts from
Transports and amino acids from leaves
roots to rest of the plant
to rest of the plant
• Substance within phloem is
called sap

Lignified walls?

99
 • Yes, deposited in
xylem walls to
strengthen it,
prevents xylem from
collapse. No
• Can be deposited in
rings/spiral
bands/entire wall
except for pits

No, substances are Yes, active transport

Energy required?
transported passively involved

Unidirectional (upwards Bidirectional (both up and

Direction of transport
only) down)

Yes, but sieve tube

Dead, and has no cell parts elements lack nucleus,
Alive?
except cell wall mitochondria, and many
other organelles

Have many mitochondria,

to provide a lot of energy
needed for sieve tube
Companion cells -
elements to transport
manufactured food
substances

None, to
Yes - sieve plates, which are
End walls (a.k.a cross walls) allow unobstructed flow of
porous
water

3. Transpiration

100
Transpiration: The loss of water vapour from the aerial parts of a plant, mainly through the
stomata in its leaves.
• In leaves, water moves out the mesophyll cells by osmosis, forming a thin film of
moisture (1), which evaporates into water vapour in the intercellular air spaces (2)
• It diffuses out of leaves via stomata, down its concentration gradient. (3)
• Water potential of mesophyll cells has decreased, hence water moves from xylem
vessels in leaves to replace water lost in mesophyll cells. (4)

101
 • This causes a whole column of water to be pulled up xylem vessels from roots to leaves,
by transpiration pull
◦ Transpiration pull: The suction force created due to transpiration that pulls water and
mineral salts up the xylem
[Memory shortcut]
• Transpiration process [Fake Vampire Drinks Red Water]
◦ F: thin Film of moisture
◦ V: water Vapour
◦ D: Diffuses out via stomata
◦ R: water in xylem Replaces water lost from mesophyll cells
◦ W: causes Whole column of water to be pulled up

4. Factors affecting transpiration

• Temperature
◦ As temperature increases, kinetic energy of water molecules increases
◦ Water evaporates faster from the thin film of moisture into intercellular air spaces,
more water vapour diffuses out of stomata, increasing transpiration rate

• Light intensity
◦ As light intensity increases, guard cells become turgid, opening the stomata
◦ This allows water vapour to diffuse out of the leaf faster, increasing transpiration rate

• Humidity: The amount of water vapour already in the air

◦ As humidity increases, concentration gradient of water vapour between
intercellular air spaces and surrounding air becomes less steep
◦ Water vapour diffuses out slower, decreasing transpiration rate

• Wind/air movement
◦ More wind/air movement blows water vapour away from air around leaves,
decreasing humidity
◦ Concentration gradient of water vapour between intercellular air spaces and
surrounding air becomes steeper
Water vapour diffuses out faster, increasing transpiration rate
◦
[Memory hack]
• How to remember effect of wind on transpiration rate

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 ◦ Just like a wet towel would dry faster in the wind compared to still air, plants "dry out"
faster in the wind (a.k.a. higher transpiration rate)

5. Wilting

• Transpiration is a consequence of gaseous exchange, in the presence of light stomata

open wider to allow more CO2 to enter for photosynthesis, however this also increases
the rate that water vapour diffuses out

Importance of Turgidity
• Usually, mesophyll cells are turgid, keeping the leaves firm and spread widely for
maximum surface area for higher rate of photosynthesis
• For plants with non-woody stems, turgidity keeps the plant upright to reach for
sunlight

When wilting occurs

• Wilting occurs when rate of transpiration > rate of water uptake
• Due to a net loss of water to the plant, central vacuoles of cells shrink, mesophyll cells
lose turgor pressure and become flaccid, resulting in the wilted look of the plant
◦ *Pro Tip: Think of 'turgor pressure' as how turgid a plant cell is!

Causes of wilting
• Too high light intensity
• Too high temperature
• Too much fertiliser, lowering soil water potential below that of root cells, resulting in
water leaving the roots

Advantages and disadvantages of wilting

• Advantages: Reduced leaf surface area + flaccid guard cells close stomata reduces
transpiration rate, which helps conserve water
• Disadvantages: Due to closed stomata, less CO2 enters leaves. Due to reduced total leaf
surface area, less light is captured, leading to reduced photosynthesis rate.
• *Pro Tip: Total leaf surface area is reduced, NOT leaf surface area to volume ratio.

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6. Bonus: Adaptations to reduce transpiration rate
• Hairs and a curled/rolled leaf structure traps water vapour around sunken stomata
◦ Water vapour accumulates outside stomata + is trapped by hairs, increasing humidity,
decreasing transpiration rate
• Few leaves/Small leaf surface area/Leaves reduced to spines
• Thick cuticle
• Succulent/fleshy leaves that store water

^Leaf of Marram grass, adapted to hot and dry locations

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104
14. Organisms and their Environment
Learning Outcomes:
1. Food chains and food webs
2. Non-cyclic energy flow
3. Ecological pyramids
4. Carbon cycle
5. Impact of Man on the Ecosystem
6. Conservation

Keywords:
• Population, Habitat, community, biotic, abiotic, ecosystem
• Food chain, food web, trophic level, producers, primary, secondary, tertiary consumers
• Herbivores, carnivores, decomposers
• Pyramid of biomass/numbers
• Growth and repair, carbon compounds, uneaten parts, egested/excreted substances,
linear, non-cyclic energy flow
• Carbon cycle, fossil fuels, organic matter, combustion, decomposition
• Carbon sink, dissolves, soluble in water, buried, seabed
• Pollution, eutrophication, nitrates and phosphates, dissolved oxygen, aerobic bacteria,
submerged plants
• Bioaccumulation, biomagnification, biodegradable, indigestible, landfills, leach
• Deforestation, soil erosion, flooding, desertification, biodiversity, extinction, endangered
species
• Greenhouse gas, global warming, renewable energy, gene pool, cross-breeding

If you're my student: Organisms and their Environment Crash Course Clips

1. Food chains and food webs

• Population: A group of organisms of the same species that live together in a habitat
• Habitat: The place an organism lives
• Community: Comprises all the populations living and interacting with one another in a
habitat
• Ecosystem: A community of organisms interacting with one another and their physical
environment

105
Food Chain: A series of organisms through which energy is transferred in the form of food

• Producer (1st trophic level) --> Primary Consumer --> Secondary Consumer --> Tertiary
Consumer etc.
◦ Herbivores: Only eat plants (usually, primary consumers are herbivores)
◦ Carnivores: Only eat meat
◦ Omnivores: Eat both plants and meat
• Each step in the food chain is a trophic level (the diagram above has 4 trophic levels)
◦ Trophic level: The feeding position that an organism occupies in a food chain.
• Producers: Organisms that take up the first trophic level, and make their own food from
inorganic materials through photosynthesis.
• Consumers: Organisms that obtain food by feeding on other organisms.

Food Webs:
• Made of interlinked food chains
• Shows the feeding relationships in a community

2. Non-cyclic energy flow

• Producers are photosynthesising plants that obtain their energy from the Sun
◦ This energy is transferred up the food chain in the form of carbon compounds when
producers are eaten by consumers

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 • Some energy is used by organisms for growth and repair

How energy is lost at each trophic level:

• As heat to the surroundings due to cellular respiration
• As chemical energy trapped within excreted and egested substances (eg. urine and
faeces)
• As chemical energy trapped in the uneaten parts when an organism dies (e.g. bones)
• *Pro Tip: Decomposers will use the above substances for cellular respiration, releasing
energy as heat.
• Therefore, only 10% of energy is actually passed on from one trophic level to the next
• Energy flow is thus linear and non-cyclic (energy can't be reused)
• Energy must be constantly provided by the sun to maintain ecosystems

3. Ecological pyramids

Pyramid of Biomass
• Biomass at each trophic level = total mass of all individuals of that organism type
◦ Biomass = Mass of 1 organism X number of that organism.

*Pro Tip: The pyramid of biomass is always this same upright shape.

Pyramid of Numbers
• Usually, pyramid of numbers is upright (Since usually, the higher the trophic level, the
fewer the number of organisms)
• However, whenever there is a parasitic relationship, the lower trophic level's organism can
support many organisms of the trophic level above it (the parasite).
◦ E.g. Tree/Plant --> Insects
◦ E.g. Animal --> Fleas/Ticks

107
*Pro Tip: The pyramid of biomass is still upright for the above food chain.
4. Carbon cycle

How carbon enters food chains

• CO2 from the atmosphere is absorbed by plants and converted into glucose during
photosynthesis
• Glucose is also converted to other carbon compounds (starch, fats, proteins, etc.)
• When consumers eat plants, carbon is transferred up the food chain
◦ Allowing energy to passed from one organism to another in the form of carbon
compounds

How carbon enters the non-living system

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 • CO2 is released into atmosphere during aerobic respiration by producers, consumers
and decomposers
◦ This maintains CO2 concentration in the atmosphere, so there is a constant supply of
CO2 for photosynthesis
• Fossil fuels come from dead organic matter buried over long periods of time. When
burnt for energy (combustion), it releases CO2 into the atmosphere

Carbon Sink: An area which stores carbon as carbon compounds indefinitely, and releases
less carbon than it takes in.
• vs Carbon source: Releases more carbon than it takes in

• Forests
◦ Trees take in CO2 through photosynthesis and convert it into carbon compounds
such as cellulose which they use for growth and repair
◦ Trees can be buried and become fossil fuels after they die
• Oceans
◦ During photosynthesis, phytoplankton take in CO2 from the air to form carbon
compounds,
▪ which is transferred to other organisms in the ocean which eat them up the food
chain.
◦ As CO2 is soluble in water, it dissolves into the ocean
◦ Dead organisms may be buried at the seabed and become fossil fuels

[Memory shortcut]
• How oceans act as carbon sinks (PDF)
◦ Photosynthesis
◦ Dissolve
◦ Fossil fuels

5. Impact of Man on the Ecosystem

Pollution: The addition of substances to the environment that damage it, making it unfit for
life.

Sewage

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 • Should not be discharged into water bodies like rivers/lakes as:
• It may contain harmful bacteria that would cause diseases to those who drink it (e.g.
Cholera)
• Could cause eutrophication: The process where a body of water receives excessive
nutrients, leading to excessive growth of algae and floating water plants.
◦ Untreated sewage is dumped/fertilisers are washed by rain into a body of water
◦ Nutrients (Nitrates and phosphates) in the untreated sewage/fertilisers allow
algae/floating water plants to grow rapidly across the water surface (algae bloom)
◦ They block sunlight from reaching below, submerged plants have insufficient light
for photosynthesis and die
◦ Other animals also die due to the lack of dissolved oxygen.
◦ Aerobic bacteria decomposes the dead organic matter, further decreasing dissolved
oxygen.
◦ Hence, many organisms in the river die due to the lack of dissolved oxygen in area.

[Memory shortcut]
• Eutrophication process [NASA]
◦ N: Nutrients (Nitrates and Phosphates)
◦ A: Algae bloom
◦ S: Submerged plants
◦ A: Aerobic bacteria

Plastic Pollution
• Plastic is non-biodegradable and indigestible. Wildlife that feed on plastic often die as it
blocks their stomachs and intestines.
• Burning of plastic waste contributes to global warming
• Harmful chemicals from plastic waste in landfills can leach into rivers and seas,
poisoning wildlife
• Plastic in the ocean can be broken into tiny pieces (microplastics), resulting in
bioaccumulation and biomagnification.

Bioaccumulation: The process where certain substances are not excreted, and accumulate in
the bodies of organisms over time.
• Toxic chemicals are taken up by organisms in contaminated water/when they eat food or
prey containing these chemicals.
• Some toxic chemicals cannot be excreted, so they accumulate in organisms' bodies,
bioaccumulation has occurred.

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 ◦ These substances are usually non-biodegradable
◦ Biodegradable = capable of being decomposed by bacteria or other living organisms
◦ Common examples: Heavy metals like mercury, lead, insecticides like DDT, and
microplastics.

Biomagnification: The process where a substance increases in concentration higher up the

food chain.
• Consumers in each trophic level have to consume many organisms of the lower trophic
level (due to inefficient energy transfer).
• Hence they ingest the toxic chemicals present in multiple organisms, and toxic chemicals
accumulate in high concentrations within consumers. Biomagnification has occurred.
• The top consumer is most affected by the toxic chemicals as they are present in the
highest concentrations, and could die if present in lethal concentrations.
Deforestation
• Loss of biodiversity
◦ Organisms lose their habitats and may become extinct
• Increased global warming
◦ With fewer trees to absorb CO2 via photosynthesis, more CO2 would remain in the
atmosphere
◦ Cutting of trees also releases CO2 when the remains are decomposed
• Soil erosion
◦ Tree roots hold soil together, and the forest canopy protects topsoil from force of rain
◦ With less trees, soil is more likely to be washed away
• Flooding
◦ Eroded soil may be deposited in rivers, blocking the flow of water
◦ Water level rises and floods surrounding areas
• Desertification
◦ After topsoil is eroded, barren land cannot support plant life

Global warming: The rise in global average temperatures

• Caused by increased greenhouse gas emissions, especially CO2
• Greenhouse gases trap heat in earth's atmosphere, increasing global temperature
• Common emissions from human activities: Deforestation, combustion of fossil fuels,
combustion of plastic waste, emitted from petrol-based vehicles
How we can reduce global warming:
• Reduce use of fossil fuels, use renewable energy sources like wind and solar instead

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 • Switch from petrol-based to electric vehicles
• Conserve forests
6. Conservation

Reasons for conservation

• To preserve biodiversity (the range of species found in an ecosystem)
◦ Extinction of one species could affect the balance of the ecosystem
• Ecosystems have scientific value, as useful information can be obtained through
scientific research of diverse organisms
• We rely on wild plants for certain medicines
• Economic purposes: To obtaining food and raw materials sustainably (eg. fish, timber)
• Our crops rely on natural pollinators to reproduce
• Conserving biodiversity maintains a large gene pool, allowing us to improve crops and
livestock by cross-breeding different varieties of wild plants with favourable traits
• Preserve natural scenery, which also brings economic benefits through tourism

Conserving forests
• Cut trees selectively at a controlled rate
• Do not cut down young trees
• Plant seedlings to replace trees cut down
• Set up protected forest reserves

Conserving mangroves
• Plant new mangrove seedlings in mangrove swamps
• Set up protected mangrove reserves

Conserving coral reefs

• Divers should not touch coral reefs/do not anchor their boats on reefs as it may kill corals
• Avoid using sunscreen when visiting reefs as ingredients in sunscreen may harm corals
• Do not purchase corals as it will encourage people to extract live corals
• Do not pollute the sea/coastline with trash, it can be washed into the sea and harm corals

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112
15. Molecular Genetics
Learning Outcomes:
1. DNA structure
2. DNA to protein
3. Genetic Engineering
4. Implications of Genetic Engineering

Keywords:
• Deoxyribonucleic acid, nucleotide, double helix
• Deoxyribose, phosphate, nitrogenous base, Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine
• Hydrogen bonds, complementary base pairing
• Gene, chromatin, chromosome
• Sequence of amino acids, specific polypeptide, codon, transcription, mRNA translation,
folds
• Genetic engineering, donor, recipient, transgenic organism, foreign genes, target gene,
anneal, vector, plasmid
• Restriction enzyme, restriction site, sticky ends, recombinant plasmid, heat/electric shock
• Social, ethical, moral, expensive, affordable, exploitation, biological warfare, allergic
reactions, unwanted metabolic reactions

If you're my student: Molecular Genetics Crash Course Clips

1. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

113
Structure of DNA
• DNA contains genetic information
• Made from two anti-parallel strands (facing opposite directions), wound together in a
double helix shape
• Each strand is made of many nucleotides
• Is made of nucleotides, which have:
◦ Deoxyribose sugar
◦ Phosphate group
◦ Nitrogenous/nitrogen-containing base (Adenine/Thymine/Guanine/Cytosine)

• The strands are held together by complementary base pairing, with hydrogen bonds
between:
◦ Adenine and Thymine
◦ Guanine and Cytosine
◦ Therefore ratio of A:T and G:C must = 1:1

114
[Memory hack]
• Remembering which nitrogenous bases pair together
◦ Apple Tree: Adenine -- Thymine
◦ Car in a Garage: Cytosine -- Guanine

DNA vs Gene vs Allele vs Chromosome vs Chromatin

• DNA: DNA is a type of molecule, just like carbohydrates, proteins and fats are types of
molecules.
◦ DNA can be very short, or very long
• Gene: A sequence of DNA nucleotides that codes for a specific polypeptide
◦ A long DNA molecule can consist of many genes along it
◦ *Pro Tip: Gene has a more detailed definition in the topic Inheritance.
• Allele: A different/alternative form of the same gene.
◦ Alleles usually have slight nucleotide differences, but are otherwise very similar.
• Chromosome: A very long, tightly packed DNA molecule that consists of many genes.
◦ In the nucleus, chromosomes are not yet condensed, and are in the loose form of
chromatin. Chromosomes condense during cell division.
◦ Chromatin: In the nucleus, DNA is loosely-packed and coiled around proteins. This
form of DNA is called chromatin.

2. DNA to Protein
*Pro Tip: The following details of transcription and translation are FYI. Only a brief
understanding is needed to answer questions.
Transcription: The process where DNA is used as a template to synthesise a strand of mRNA.
• The message in the gene is copied onto a molecule called messenger RNA (mRNA)
• Every 3 nucleotides on the original DNA is a codon, and each codon determines an
amino acid in the polypeptide

Translation: The process where mRNA is used as a template to synthesise a sequence of

amino acids, forming a polypeptide.
• mRNA leaves the nucleus and enters the cytoplasm
• mRNA attaches to a ribosome, the ribosome moves along the mRNA, synthesising a
polypeptide
• The polypeptide is released, and folds into a protein

115
3. Genetic Engineering

Genetic Engineering: The technique used to transfer genes from one organism to another.
• Transferred gene can be expressed in the recipient organism
• Requires a vector (a vehicle that transfers genes)
• A commonly used vector is a plasmid (small, extrachromosomal circular DNA found in
bacteria)
• Transgenic organism: An organism which contains foreign genes after gene transfer.

Restriction enzymes
• Naturally found in bacteria as defences against viruses
• Recognise a specific short nucleotide sequence, the restriction site
• They cut DNA there, resulting in sticky ends (where unpaired nucleotides can
complementary base pair with another such strand to form double stranded DNA)

Genetic Engineering of bacteria to produce human insulin

116
Inserting gene into plasmid
• A restriction enzyme is used to cut a section of DNA containing the human insulin
gene, creating sticky ends
• The same restriction enzyme is used to cut a plasmid, creating sticky ends
• Plasmid and DNA are mixed, allowing them to anneal via complementary base pairing
at the sticky ends
• DNA ligase is added to seal them together, the result is a recombinant plasmid which
carries the insulin gene

Inserting recombinant plasmid into bacteria

• Heat/electric shock treatment is applied to the bacteria that create pores in their
membranes so they can uptake the recombinant plasmids
• Those bacteria become transgenic bacteria, and will produce insulin as part of their
metabolic processes

*Pro Tip: Only a small percentage of bacteria will successfully uptake plasmids. They can be
isolated by mixing with an antibiotic that the recombinant plasmids make them resistant to.

[Memory Shortcut]
• Genetic engineering process [Really Talkative PALS]
◦ R: Restriction enzyme
◦ T: Target gene
◦ P: Plasmid
◦ A: Anneals via complementary base pairing
◦ L: DNA Ligase
◦ S: Shock treatment

4. Implications of Genetic Engineering

• Biological implications: Impact on living things due to biological reasons

• Social implications: Impact on society/people, usually social/economic, but also includes
health benefits/unforeseen health problems caused to humans who consume GM
products
• Ethical implications: How genetic engineering could be morally questionable

117
 Advantages of Genetic Engineering How is it a benefit?

Low-cost production of medicine, such as

Saves lives and is affordable
insulin

Can be used to treat genetic diseases Saves lives

Crops that can grow in extreme weather Increase crop yields, avoiding food shortages,
conditions especially in light of climate change

Crops that have higher nutritional value, Decreasing malnutrition, especially in poorer
e.g. Golden rice, higher vitamin A countries

Less pesticides need to be sprayed on crops,

Crops produce their own pesticide
environmentally-friendly.

Crops resistant to herbicide, e.g. Herbicides can be used to efficiently kill

soybeans weeds, increasing crop yields

*Pro Tip: Pesticide = kills pests. Insecticide = a type of pesticide, kills insects. Herbicide = kills
weeds (unwanted plants that grow amongst crops, stealing nutrients)

118
 Disadvantages of Genetic Engineering How is it a disadvantage?

New proteins in GM food may cause Some people may suffer allergic reactions,
allergies in some people people might be scared to consume GM food.

Unforeseen consequences: Unwanted

May be toxic or cancer-causing to people
metabolic reactions may result,
who eat them
producing harmful toxins

Useful insect pollinators such as

butterflies and honey bees, which feed on
Loss of biodiversity
nectar of GM crops, may die due to the
crop producing pesticide

Can be used as weapons of mass destruction

Possibility of use for biological warfare
(social, ethical)

Some companies (e.g. Monsanto) engineer

GM crops to have seeds that cannot
Financial exploitation of farmers
germinate, so farmers must constantly buy
seeds from the companies

Some companies can set patents on Medications too expensive for those who
medicines made using genetic need them and cannot afford/financial
engineering, and make medicines very exploitation as people have no choice but to
expensive. pay the high prices

*Pro Tip: These advantages and disadvantages are not exhaustive lists.
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119
16. Reproduction in Plants
Learning Outcomes:
1. Cell Division
2. Sexual vs Asexual Reproduction
3. Bonus: Pros and Cons of Asexual Reproduction
4. Parts of a flower
5. Pollination
6. Fertilisation

Keywords:
• Mitosis, meiosis, daughter cells, homologous chromosomes, gametes/sex cells, diploid,
haploid
• Random combinations, reduction division, diploid number, zygote
• Asexual, sexual, fertilisation, fusion, sex nuclei
• Genetically identical, genetically different, genetic variation, offspring, favourable traits,
colonise, reproductive organs
• Susceptible, wiped out, sudden environmental changes
• Male gamete, self/cross-pollination, bisexual
• Hairy back and legs, brush, odour
• Long and pendulous, large and feathery, colourful, nectar guides
• Small, smooth, light, spiky, rough, hairy back and legs
• Germinate, sugary fluid, pollen tube, micropyle, sap, male sex nucleus, fruit, seed

If you're my student: Reproduction in Plants Crash Course Clips

1. Cell Division

Mitosis: The type of cell division which produces two genetically identical daughter cells
which have the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
• Daughter cells are genetically identical to parent cell
• Usually occurs in diploid cells.
◦ Diploid: Having two complete sets of chromosomes, one from each parent.
• In diploid cells, there are two of each chromosome number. Within each of these pairs,
each chromosome came from one parent.

120
 ◦ Homologous chromosomes: A pair of chromosomes, one from each parent. They
have the same length, centromere position, and same gene loci, although they may
have different alleles.
Uses:
• Growth: For a multicellular organism to grow, new cells are produced by mitosis
• Repair: Dead or damaged cells must be replaced by new cells, which are produced by
mitosis
• Asexual reproduction: Involves the production of new cells by mitosis to form offspring
Meiosis: The type of cell division which produces four genetically different daughter cells
which have half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
• One diploid parent cell at the start of Meiosis becomes four haploid daughter cells
after Meiosis is complete
◦ Haploid: Having only one complete set of chromosomes.
• Homologous chromosomes are separated during meiosis into different daughter cells in
random combinations, resulting in genetic variation
• As chromosome number is halved after meiosis, meiosis is a reduction division
• Importance of reduction division:
◦ Meiosis is a reduction division, as gametes produced have half the number of
chromosomes as the parent cell.
◦ During fertilisation, nuclei of the haploid gametes fuse, forming a diploid zygote,
restoring the diploid number in the zygote.
◦ This ensures that chromosome number stays constant and does not double with
every successive generation.
Used in: Formation of sex cells/gametes
• Hence, meiosis only exists in sexual organisms
• Daughter cells are genetically different from parent cell, resulting in variation in the
offspring of sexual reproduction (see section below on the advantages of sexual
reproduction)
[Memory hack]
• How to not mix up Mitosis and Meiosis
◦ MItosis: Make Identical cells
◦ MEiosis: Make Eggs or sperm (sex cells)

2. Sexual vs Asexual Reproduction

Asexual reproduction: The process that produces genetically identical offspring from one
parent, without the fusion of nuclei of male and female gametes.

121
 • Examples: Binary fission (bacteria), budding (yeasts), reproducing by spores, vegetative
propagation*
• *Pro Tip: Vegetative propagation is when a fragment of a parent plant regrows into an
entire new plant.

Sexual reproduction: The process that involves the fusion of nuclei of male and female
gametes to form a diploid zygote, producing genetically different offspring.
• Examples: Humans, flowering plants, etc.

3. Bonus: Advantages of asexual and sexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction

As genetic variation exists, the species can

Favourable traits will definitely adapt to sudden environmental changes (e.g.
be passed on, as offspring are disease/climate change) faster. Their population
genetically identical to parents is hence are less susceptible to being wiped out,
increasing their chances of survival.

No need to spend energy on Offspring can inherit favourable traits from

reproductive organs both parents*

No need to wait for

fertilisation, hence
reproduction is faster, can
colonise an area quickly

*Pro Tip: Think of this as getting the 'best of both worlds'.

4. Parts of a flower

122
123
 Structure Function

Stamen (Remember it
is male part of flower Consists of the male parts of the flower
because of men)

Holds the anther in a good position to release pollen

Filament
grains

Produces pollen grains, which in turn each contain a male

Anther
gamete

Consists of the female parts of the flower

Carpel *Pro Tip: Some flowers have multiple Carpels, and all Carpels
= the Pistil

Stigma (Remember,
Receives pollen grains
sticky)

Style Holds stigma in good position to receive pollen grains

Produces and protects ovules, and becomes the fruit after

Ovary
fertilisation

• Becomes a seed after fertilisation

Ovule
• Contains an ovum, the female gamete

The base of the flower where the other parts of the flower
are attached
Receptacle
*Pro Tip: It "receives" all the parts of the flower, hence its
name.

Sepal Protects the flower during the bud stage

• Can be colourful to attract pollinators

Petal
• Can have nectar guides

124
5. Pollination

• Pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from an anther to a stigma.

Type Self-pollination Cross-pollination

Occurs between different

Difference Occurs within the same plant
plants of the same species

[Memory shortcut]
Features of flowers
that favour self/cross
pollination [MOP]
M: Bisexual flowers, both male
M: Male or female parts mature
and female parts mature at
M: Male and female at different timings/flowers only
same time
parts Mature at same either have male or female
O: Flowers may not Open
time? parts
(ensuring self-pollination)
O: Flowers may not O: Flowers open
P: Position (anther higher than
Open P: Position (anther lower than
stigma so pollen can fall on
P: Position (anther stigma)
stigma)
higher/lower than
stigma)

Parent plants
1 2
involved

Less*, hence more susceptible More, hence lesssusceptible to

Genetic variation to being wiped out by sudden being wiped out by sudden
environmental change environmental change

Higher, as distance to travel Lower, as distance to travel for

Chance of occurring
for pollen is short pollen is long

Lower, no need produce as Higher, need to produce a lot

Energy expenditure
much pollen more pollen

125
*Pro Tip: Self-pollination is NOT asexual reproduction. It involves fertilisation = it is sexual
reproduction, hence there is still genetic variation, just lesser variation than cross-pollination.

Insect vs wind pollination

126
 Pollinating
Insects Wind
Agent*

• Insects visit flowers to

obtain nectar
• Anthers brush against
insects, pollen grains
stick onto their hairy • Pollen grains are picked up
bodies/hairy back and by wind
How it works
legs (more suitable for • They land on the stigmas
bees) of another flower
• Pollen grains are
transferred from the
insect to stigma of the
same/different flower

Stigma Small and sticky Large and feathery

Odour/scent Sweet-smelling Odourless (No smell)

Anthers Small Large

No
Yes

Protruding
reproductive
parts?

Long and pendulous (hangs

Filament Shorter
loosely)

pollen Grains

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 • Relatively fewer
• Very numerous
• Larger and
• Small, light and smooth
rough/spiky

Nectar (and nectar guides) Present Absent

Bright and colourful petals to

Colour (petals) Petals are dull/absent
attract insects

[Memory shortcut]
• Features of insect/wind-pollinated flowers [SOAP GNC]
◦ S: Stigma
◦ O: Odour
◦ A: Anthers
◦ P: Protruding reproductive parts

• G: Pollen Grains
• N: Nectar (and nectar guides)
• C: Colourful petals

6. Fertilisation

Fertilisation: The fusion of male and female sex nuclei, resulting in a diploid zygote.

128
Process leading to fertilisation:
• After pollination, stigma produces a sugary fluid, stimulating pollen grain to germinate.
• A pollen tube grows from the pollen grain, secreting enzymes to digest a path through
stigma, style and ovary wall.
• Pollen tube enters an ovule via the micropyle.
• The pollen tube absorbs sap and bursts, releasing the male sex nucleus which fuses with
the ovum, forming a diploid zygote.
◦ *Pro Tip: (FYI) The other nuclei helps form the endosperm, which will be the food
reserves for the seedling.
[Memory shortcut]
• Fertilisation process in flowers [STEMA]
◦ S: Sugary fluid
◦ T: pollen Tube
◦ E: Enzymes secreted
◦ M: Micropyle
◦ A: Absorbs sap and bursts, releasing male sex nucleus, fertilisation

After fertilisation
• Flower withers
• Ovary turns into a fruit
• Ovules turn into seeds
◦ If fertilisation does not occur in an ovule, it degenerates when the ovary turns into a
fruit
◦ At least 1 ovule must be fertilised for the ovary to turn into a fruit

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17. Reproduction in Humans
Learning Outcomes:
1. Male and female reproductive system
2. Describing the menstrual cycle
3. Fertilisation
4. Foetal development
5. Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)

Keywords:
• Erectile, ejaculation, testosterone, sexual intercourse, childbirth
• Gametes, fertilisation, fusion of sex nuclei
• Menstruation, fertile period, oestrogen, progesterone, mature ovum, ovulation, repair,
further thickening
• Activate, nourish, semen
• Puberty, pregnancy
• Peristaltic action, sweeping action, zygote, embryo, implantation, embeds, foetus
• Finger-like projections, immunity, antibodies
• Supports, cushions, muscular development, lubricates
• Sexually transmitted infection, human immunodeficiency virus, acquired immune
deficiency syndrome
• Abstinence, physical barrier, sterilise, unprotected

If you're my student: Reproduction in Humans Crash Course Clips

1. Male and female reproductive system

Female reproductive system

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132
 Structure Function

Vagina (birth
Where sperms are deposited during sexual intercourse
canal)

The opening between the uterus and vagina

Cervix (allows sperm from vagina to enter uterus, as well as menstrual blood to
pass from uterus to vagina)

• The uterine lining sheds during menstruation

• An embryo embeds itself in the uterine lining during
implantation
Uterus (womb)
• Foetus develops here during pregnancy
• During childbirth, its elastic muscles contract to push out the
foetus

• Where mature ovum are released

Oviduct
• Site of fertilisation

• Site of where eggs mature

Ovary
• Produces oestrogen and progesterone

Male reproductive system

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134
 Structure Function

Testis*/testicle
(plural: Produces sperm and testosterone
testes/testicles)

The skin sac containing testes (which need to be outside of

Scrotum
the body to be 2°C cooler for sperm production)

Sperm duct Carries sperm from the testes to the urethra

Mixes sperm with a fluid, which:

• Nourishes sperm with nutrients
Prostate gland • Has enzymes which activate sperm to swim actively

Semen = Sperm + Fluid from prostate gland

Urethra The duct for urine/semen to exit

The male erectile organ, which deposits semen into vagina

Penis
during sexual intercourse

Comparing male and female gametes (sex cells)

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 Gamete Male (sperm) Female (ovum)

Structure*

Size Smaller Larger

Number ~250 million per ejaculation 1 released per ovulation

Motility
No, is moved by cilia and
(ability to Yes, using its flagellum
peristalsis in the oviduct
move)

Chromosomes 22 + X/Y chromosome 22 + X chromosome

*Pro Tip: Knowing the detailed parts of the sperm and egg are not required.

Puberty: The stage where a person becomes physically mature and capable of sexual
reproduction.
• Secondary sexual characteristics appear due to sex hormones (testosterone in males,
oestrogen + progesterone in females):
◦ Sexual organs enlarge, and the person begins to produce gametes
◦ In females, menstrual cycles begin
◦ Pubic and armpit hair appears
◦ Includes other physical changes, e.g. Voice deepening in men, hips broaden in women.

2. Menstrual cycle

• Typical menstrual cycle = 28 days, but it varies. It could vary more or stop completely if
the person is experiencing high stress/poor diet/poor sleep, etc.

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*Pro Tip: You must be familiar with the hormone graph
[Memory shortcut]
• Stages of menstrual cycle [Mother Orders Restaurant, Father Pays Bill]
◦ M: Menstruation (Day 1-5)
◦ O: Oestrogen is the dominant hormone in the 1st half
◦ R: which Repairs and thickens uterine lining
◦ F: Fertile period (Day 10-15) surrounds ovulation (Day 14)
◦ P: Progesterone is the dominant hormone in the 2nd half
◦ B: which causes growth of more Blood vessels within lining

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 Day Stage Events

The uterine lining and unfertilised egg are broken down and
1-5 Menstruation
discharged out of the vagina as menses ("period blood")

Repair + • Oestrogen levels increase

6-13
Growth • Uterine lining repairs and thickens

• Upon ovulation on day 14, one ovary releases a mature

ovum into the oviduct
• Ova survive up to 1 day* unless fertilised, sperm survive
Fertile period
10- up to 4 days*
+ Ovulation
15 • *Pro Tip: If you see questions giving different numbers, then
(Day 14)
adjust the fertile period according to the question
• Sexual intercourse during this period (fertile period) has
highest chance of pregnancy

• Progesterone levels increase

• Uterine lining thickens further and more blood vessels
15- Growth + grow within it, preparing for possible implantation
28 Maintenance • Nearing the end of the menstrual cycle, oestrogen and
progesterone levels fall, causing the uterine lining to
shed, starting the next menstrual cycle

Hormones involved in menstruation

• Oestrogen
◦ Stimulates repair and thickening of uterine lining
◦ Inhibits another ovulation during second half of the menstrual cycle*
• Progesterone
◦ Maintains thickness and stimulates further thickening of uterine lining
◦ Stimulates growth of more blood vessels in uterine lining
◦ Inhibits another ovulation during second half of the menstrual cycle*
*Pro Tip: Progesterone has higher responsibility for inhibiting ovulation. If asked to choose 1,
choose progesterone.

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3. Fertilisation

Fertilisation: The fusion of nuclei of a sperm and ovum, forming a diploid zygote.
• Occurs in the oviduct/fallopian tube

Implantation: The process whereby the embryo embeds itself in the uterine lining.
• Zygote travels toward uterus via peristaltic action of the oviduct walls and sweeping
action of cilia
• The zygote undergoes mitosis, forming an embryo (a ball of cells)
• Embryo reaches uterus 5 days after fertilisation, floats around for 2 days. On Day 7,
embeds itself into uterine lining during implantation.
• The placenta, amniotic sac and foetus then develops.

4. Foetal development

Placenta
• After implantation, finger-like projections called villi, containing blood vessels from the
embryo, grow into the uterine lining, forming the placenta.
• Placenta secretes progesterone to maintain thickness of the uterine lining, supporting
pregnancy.
• Oxygen and nutrients such as glucose, amino acids diffuse from maternal to foetal
capillaries
• Metabolic waste products such as urea and carbon dioxide diffuse from foetal to
maternal capillaries
• Some antibodies diffuse from maternal to foetal capillaries, giving the foetus immunity
against some diseases
• Maternal and foetal blood do not mix, because:

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 ◦ Mother's blood pressure > foetus, would kill foetus
◦ Mother and foetus may have incompatible blood types

Amniotic sac
• Contains amniotic fluid and the foetus
• Amniotic fluid
◦ Supports and cushions foetus by absorbing shock
◦ Allows some movement, promoting muscular development
◦ Lubricates birth canal during childbirth
*Pro Tip: When a pregnant woman's 'water bag' bursts nearing labour, it means the amniotic sac
broke.
[Memory Shortcut]
• SALT for functions of amniotic fluid
◦ Shock absorption
◦ Allows some movement for muscular development
◦ Lubricates birth canal during childbirth
◦ maintains a steady Temperature around foetus

Umbilical cord
• Carries nutrients and oxygen from placenta to foetus
• Carries metabolic waste products from foetus to placenta
• Umbilical cord has 2 arteries *(from foetus to placenta) and 1 vein (toward foetus)
*Pro Tip: Umbilical arteries carry deoxygenated blood, because artery carries blood away from
foetus' heart, to placenta

5. Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)

• HIV is a sexually transmitted infection (STI)

• HIV attacks a certain type of white blood cells, decreasing their number
• The resulting condition = Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) as the
immune system is weakened, and body is susceptible to common infections that would
otherwise not be as severe.

Modes of HIV transmission:

• Unprotected sexual intercourse with infected individual
• Sharing of contaminated needles

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 • Blood transfusions where the donor's blood has the virus
◦ *Pro Tip: This is why in professional/public health services, donated blood is always
screened.
• Passed from mother to foetus during pregnancy

STIs can be prevented by:

• Abstinence (no sexual intercourse)
• Have only 1 sexual partner
• Using condoms (physical barrier prevents transmission)
• Not sharing needles/sterilising needles whenever used
• Do not share instruments that are likely to break the skin and be contaminated with
blood (e.g. razors, toothbrushes)

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18. Inheritance
Learning Outcomes:
1. Inheritance terms and concepts
2. Monohybrid cross
3. Bonus: All monohybrid cross combinations
4. Sex determination
5. Mutation
6. Discontinuous vs continuous variation
7. Natural Selection

Keywords:
• Gene, allele, gene locus, dominant, recessive, genotype, phenotype
• Homozygous, heterozygous, co-dominance, incomplete dominance, multiple alleles
• Monohybrid, expected/observed offspring ratio, chance, discrepancy, sample size
• Mutation, mutagens, ionising radiation, single-base substitution, sickle-cell anaemia,
spleen, malaria, down syndrome, chromosomal mutation
• Continuous/discontinuous variation, additive effect, multiple genes, intermediates, range
of phenotypes, few and distinct
• Natural selection, random fertilisation, selection pressure, favourable alleles, selective
advantage, survive and reproduce, evolution, antibiotic resistance

If you're my student: Inheritance Crash Course Clips

1. Inheritance terms and concepts

Gene: A unit of inheritance that determines a specific trait in an organism. It is a sequence of

DNA nucleotides that codes for specific polypeptide, and has a particular gene locus.
• Gene locus: The location of a gene along a chromosome

Genotype: The combination of alleles an individual has for a trait

Phenotype: The trait that is expressed as a result of genotype

Allele: One of the alternative forms of a gene

• Homozygous: Two copies of an allele for a trait are present

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 • Heterozygous: One of each allele for a trait is present
◦ *Pro Tip: AA = homozygous dominant. aa = homozygous recessive. Aa = heterozygous,
there is no such thing as heterozygous dominant/heterozygous recessive.
• Dominant allele: Always expressed regardless whether the individual is homozygous or
heterozygous for the trait
• Recessive allele: Only expressed if the individual is homozygous recessive for the trait

IRIW (If
IRIW (If co-
Genotype IRIR IW IW incomplete
dominant)
dominance)

Phenotype

Co-dominance*:When two different alleles for a particular trait are both expressed in an
organism and influence phenotype.
• Let allele for red flower be IR
• Let allele for white flower be IW
• In a heterozygous individual (IRIW), if the phenotype turns out to be flowers with both
red and white petals, these alleles are co-dominant.
Incomplete dominance*: When two different alleles are expressed resulting in phenotype
being an intermediate between the two.
• Let allele for red flower be IR
• Let allele for white flower be IW
• In a heterozygous individual (IRIW), if the phenotype turns out to be pink flowers, these
alleles show incomplete dominance.

*Pro Tip: Co-dominance and incomplete dominance can only be observed if individual is
heterozygous for the trait.

Multiple alleles: When three or more alleles exist for a gene.

• e.g. for blood type there are the alleles: IA IB IO

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 • IA IB are co-dominant
• IO is recessive to IA and IB
*Pro Tip: For co-dominance, incomplete dominance, multiple alleles and sex-linked inheritance,
we represent alleles with superscripts, such as IR, IW.

2. Monohybrid cross
• Monohybrid cross involves 1 trait, with 2 alleles
• Genetic crosses can predict expected offspring ratios

Discrepancy between observed and expected ratios

• As fertilisation is a random process, the genotype of each offspring is based on chance
• The smaller the sample size of offspring, the greater the discrepancy would be

Cross #1: 2 homozygous parents (pure-bred) with different alleles

• *Pro Tip: Pure-bred means offspring are homozygous for certain traits

Let T represent allele for tall plant (dominant)

Let t represent allele for dwarf plant (recessive)
• *Pro Tip: If letter used has capital and small letters which look very similar, (e.g. c and C),
use c' for the recessive allele to avoid ambiguity

*Pro Tip: F1 and F2 are used when there is an initial cross, followed by a second cross between
the offspring from the first cross. Otherwise, then in the last rows, replace F1 with 'offspring'.

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Cross #2: 2 plants from F1 generation

[Memory shortcut]
• Full genetic diagram steps [Lockdown Period, Grab Food Only]
◦ L: Let... (define your alleles, unless question already did)
◦ P: Parents phenotype and genotype
◦ G: Gametes are formed from parents
◦ F: Fertilisation
◦ O: Offspring genotype and phenotypic ratio

Test Cross
• Used to determine the genotype of an individual, as heterozygous and homozygous
dominant individuals appear the same
• The individual is crossed with a homozygous recessive individual, eg ?? X tt
◦ If individual is homozygous dominant, offspring would all express the dominant
phenotype
◦ If individual is heterozygous, offspring ratio would be 1:1
◦ If individual is homozygous recessive, offspring would all express the recessive
phenotype

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3. Bonus: All monohybrid cross combinations (O levels)

• Let A be the allele for Tall plant

• Let a be the allele for dwarf plant

Parents Offspring Offspring Phenotypic

Crossed Genotypes Ratio

AA x AA All AA All Tall

aa x aa All aa All Dwarf

AA x aa All Aa All Tall

Aa x Aa 1 AA, 2 Aa, 1 aa 3 Tall : 1 Dwarf

Aa x aa 2 Aa, 2 aa 1 Tall: 1 Dwarf

Aa x AA 2 Aa, 2 AA All Tall

4. Sex determination

Sex determination
• Sex chromosomes are either X or Y
◦ XX is female
◦ XY is male*
• Each chromosome comes from each parent
◦ The mother's ovum definitely contains an X chromosome, as the mother's diploid cells
have XX
◦ The father's sperm can contain either an X or Y chromosomes, as the father's diploid
cells have XY
◦ Therefore sex of the zygote formed depends on the sperm, and there is a 50% chance
of the zygote being a boy or a girl.

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Mutation: A sudden change in the structure of a gene or chromosome number
• Mutations that occur in an individual can be passed down to offspring

Mutagen: An environmental agent that increases mutation rate

• Ionising radiation: e.g. ultraviolet radiation, nuclear radiation, gamma rays
• Certain toxic chemicals: e.g. tar in cigarette smoke
• *Pro Tip: Mutagens simply cause more mutations in DNA. Carcinogens are a group of
mutagens which cause mutations that increase chances of cancer.

Sickle-cell anaemia
• Due to a single-base substitution in the haemoglobin gene, a different amino acid is
coded for
◦ Instead of normal haemoglobin, results in abnormal haemoglobin
• Homozygous recessive individuals:
◦ At low oxygen concentrations, abnormal haemoglobin clumps together, causing the
cell to become sickle-shaped
◦ Results in anaemia (body cells get insufficient oxygen) because:
▪ Sickled RBCs are more fragile, break easily
▪ Cannot carry O2 efficiently
▪ Are actively destroyed by the spleen, leading to low RBC count
• Benefit to heterozygous individuals
◦ Do not suffer the disease
◦ Are more resistant to malaria*
◦ *Pro Tip: Not in syllabus - when the malaria parasite infects their RBCs to reproduce, it
causes the RBC to sickle, killing both the RBC and malaria.
◦ Hence they survive and reproduce better (passing on the sickle-cell allele)
◦ Thus the allele is most abundant in malaria-stricken regions (e.g. sub-Saharan Africa)

Down Syndrome
• During formation of sperm/egg, a chromosomal mutation results in the gamete having
two copies of chromosome 21
◦ This can happen in either the mother or father, although most of the time in the
mother*.
◦ *Pro Tip: The older the mother, the higher the chance of this happening.
• Fertilisation with a normal gamete will result in zygote having three copies of
chromosome 21 (trisomy 21), causing Down Syndrome.
◦ The person has total 47 chromosomes instead of 46

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6. Discontinuous vs continuous variation

Type of variation Discontinuous Continuous

A range of phenotypes, with many

Phenotypes Few and distinct phenotypes
intermediate forms

Number of Multiple genes, which have an

1 or few
genes involved additive effect

Environment No effect on phenotype Affects phenotype

Sex, blood type, ability to roll

Examples tongue, lobed or attached ears, Skin/hair colour, height, weight
eye colour

7. Natural Selection
Natural selection: The process whereby organisms better adapted to their environment tend
to survive and reproduce.
• Variation exists between individuals
◦ Due to: Mutation, meiosis, random fertilisation (as each parent produces
genetically different gametes, fertilisation of a random sperm and a random egg
increases the number of possible zygote variants)
• Organisms face selection pressures
◦ eg. competition for limited resources, predators, disease outbreaks
• Individuals with favourable traits have a selective Advantage
• And are more likely to Survive and reproduce
• Hence passing on their favourable alleles to their offspring
• Over Time, more and more of the population have the favourable trait
• [OR, if question says evolution occurred, replace the above statement with this]:
Accumulation of new genes by mutation and natural selection resulted in the evolution
of the species.
◦ *Pro Tip: Natural selection is needed for evolution to occur, but natural selection can
occur without evolution.

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[Memory shortcut]
• Explaining natural selection process [VAST]
◦ V: Variation exists between individuals
◦ A: selective Advantage
◦ S: Survive and reproduce, passing favourable alleles to offspring
◦ T: over Time, more and more of the population has the favourable trait
Examples
• Dark peppered moths in England, 1900: due to industrial revolution, soot coated trees,
giving dark moths a selective advantage (camouflage) over white moths.
• Antibiotic-resistant bacteria: Those with resistance survive and reproduce, resulting in a
strain of antibiotic-resistant strain
• Darwin's finches of the Galapagos islands: Have different beak shapes due to the type of
diet they are suited for, e.g. nuts, insects, fruit, etc.

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