AV I AT I O N T H E O R Y

Navigation
for the Private & Commercial
Pilot Licences

Aviation
Theory
Centre

David Robson
Copyright  2014 Aviation Theory Centre

The contents of this manual are protected by copyright throughout the

world under the Berne Union and the universal copyright convention.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any

manner whatsoever – electronic, photographic, photocopying, facsimile,
or stored in a retrieval system – without the prior written permission of
the author.

Disclaimer
Nothing in this text supersedes any operational documents issued by the Civil
Aviation Safety Authority, Airservices Australia, aircraft, engine, and avionics
manufacturers, or the operators of aircraft throughout the world.

First Edition – September 2005

Reprinted – March 2007
Reprinted – May 2009
Reprinted - March 2012 & March 2014

Published by
Aviation Theory Centre Pty Ltd
ACN 088 462 873
9/38 Limestone Street
Darra, Queensland 4076
Australia
Tel: 61 (0)7 3712 0000
Fax: 61 (0)7 3712 0400
E-mail: aviationtheory@msn.com.au
Website: www.aviationtheory.net.au

ISBN 1 875537 85 6

Graphics and cover: Grubby Fingers

Typesetting and index: Aviation Theory Centre

Printed by
Print Books Pty Ltd
Southbank, Victoria 3006
 Table of Contents

Editorial Team . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xi

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xiii
About This Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
CASA Examinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv
PPL Examinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv
CPL Cyber Exams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv
A Few Hints on Studying. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
Examination Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
Incomplete Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
Direct Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
Best Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvi
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvi

Abbreviations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii

Part One
Pilot Navigation

Chapter 1
Fundamentals of Air Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Types of Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Basic Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Being Prepared. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Flying Accurate Headings and Speeds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Navigation Tasks are Additional to Flying the Aircraft. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Form of the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Shape and Size. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Rotation of the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Imaginary Lines on the Earth’s Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Position on the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Angles On the Earth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
True Direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Magnetic Direction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Relative Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Units of Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Airspeed and Groundspeed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Airspeed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE iii

iv Navigation

Indicated Airspeed (IAS). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

True Airspeed (TAS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Movement in an Air Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Altimetry (Vertical Navigation). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Vertical Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Altimeter Settings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
QNH Setting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Area QNH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Flight Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Pressure Height (Pressure Altitude). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Altimeter Setting Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Selection of Cruising Levels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Preflight Altimeter Checks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Review 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Chapter 2
Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Motion of the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Presentation of Date and Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Date and Time Groups. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Time and Arc: Relationship Between Time and Longitude. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Conversions Between Arc and Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Different Types of Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Time and Longitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Local Mean Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Coordinated Universal Time (Formerly Greenwich Mean Time) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Standard (or Local) Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
International Date Line. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Astronomical Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Sunrise and Sunset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Twilight. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Daylight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Calculating Beginning and End of Daylight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Summary of Operational Time Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Review 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Chapter 3
Charts and Publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Chart Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Basic Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Chart Scale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Ideal Properties for Aeronautical Chart Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Lambert Conformal Conic Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Properties of Lambert Charts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Aeronautical Charts for Visual Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Principle Types of Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
World Aeronautical Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Visual Navigation Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

Table of Contents v

Visual Terminal Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Low-Altitude En Route Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Summary of Visual Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Amendment Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Availability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Publications for Use by the VFR Pilot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
ERSA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Review 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

Chapter 4
Computations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Introduction to Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Calculator Side of the Navigation Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Finding True Airspeed from Indicated Airspeed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Circular Slide Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Significant Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Basic Arithmetical Problems on the Circular Slide Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Solving Speed, Distance,
Time and Ratio Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Fuel Consumption Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Off-Track Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Conversions on the Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Distances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Weights and Volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Converting Volumes to Weight. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Other Means of Making Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Wind Side of the Navigation Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Reminder of Triangle of Velocities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
The Normal Flight Planning Situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Typical Flight Planning Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
In-Flight Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Wind Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Review 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

Chapter 5
Visual Navigation Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Basic Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Effect of Wind on
Navigation Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Airmanship for the Visual Pilot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Routine In-Flight Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Departure Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Cruise Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Descent Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Map Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
The Flight Log. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Position Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
In-Flight Track and

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

vi Navigation

Heading Corrections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

The 1-in-60 Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Pilot-Navigation Accuracy Tolerances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Applied Navigation Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Diversion Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Navigation at Low Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Navigation in Reduced Visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Procedures When Uncertain of Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Procedures When Lost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Maximum Range and Endurance Flying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Navigation in Remote Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Flight Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
In-Flight Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Carefully Plan the Flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
In-Flight Navigation Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Navigating Through Lanes of Entry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
What Is a Lane of Entry? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Basic Rules for Flying Through a Lane of Entry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Important Considerations for Lane of Entry Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Review 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

Part Two
Radio Navigation Aids

Chapter 6
NDB and ADF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
NDB–ADF Combination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Non-Directional Beacon (NDB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .174
Power and Range of NDBs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .174
NDB Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Where to Find Details of an NDB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Broadcasting Stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176
Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Components and Principle of Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
ADF Control Panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
ADF Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Different Types of ADF Indicator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Fixed-Card ADF or Relative Bearing Indicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Manual Rotatable-Card ADF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
ADF Indicators with Two Needles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Using the ADF to Obtain Position Lines from an NDB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Using the ADF to Obtain Bearings from an NDB. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Using the RBI (Fixed-Card ADF). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Using the Rotatable-Card ADF or the RMI. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Plotting the ADF–NDB Position Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

Table of Contents vii

Tracking Procedures Using the ADF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

Tracking Towards an NDB Using the RBI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Tracking Over an NDB Using the RBI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Tracking Away from an NDB Using the RBI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Tracking Abeam an NDB. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Intercepting a Track Using the RBI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Limitations and Accuracy of the NDB–ADF Combination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Overall Accuracy of the NDB–ADF System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Review 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

Chapter 7
VOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
VOR Ground System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Ground Station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Range of a VOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Where to Find Details of a VOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Airborne Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Omni-Bearing Indicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Other Types of VOR Indicator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Operation of the VOR. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Orientation Using the VOR and How to Find a Position Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Obtaining a Position Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Plotting a VOR Position Line. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Tracking Procedures With a VOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Tracking to a VOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Passage Overhead a VOR Station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Tracking From a VOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Tracking Abeam a VOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Intercepting a Track Using the VOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Limitations of the VOR System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Ground Station Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Site Effect Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Terrain Effect Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Airborne Equipment Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Vertical Polarisation Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Error Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Doppler VOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Review 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

Chapter 8
DME. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
The DME System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Where To Find Details of a DME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
DME Operating Principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Range and Rated Coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
DME Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Position Fixing With the DME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Finding Groundspeed Using the DME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

viii Navigation

Tracking Abeam a DME Ground Station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

Review 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

Chapter 9
GPS Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Global Positioning System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Space Segment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Control Segment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
User Segment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
How GPS Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Fixing Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Receiver Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Barometric Aiding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Masking Function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Receiver Displays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Operating Modes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Differential GPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
GPS Errors and Limitations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Ephemeris Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Multi-Path Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Ionospheric Propagation Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Tropospheric Propagation Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Receiver Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Tracking Accuracy and Collision Avoidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
GPS Error Magnitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Operations Without RAIM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Geodetic Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Human Factor Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Mode Error. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Data Entry Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Data Validation and Cross-Checking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Automation-Induced Complacency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Non-Standardisation of GPS–Pilot Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Human Information Processing and Situational Awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Airworthiness Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Airborne GPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Aircraft Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Airborne GPS Features. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Using Airborne GPS for Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Area Navigation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Sole Means of Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Primary Means of Navigation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Supplemental Means of Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Review 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

Table of Contents ix

Appendices

Appendix 1
Glossary of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

Appendix 2
Typical Multiple-Choice Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

Appendix 3
Answers to Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287

Appendix 4
Typical Multiple-Choice Questions: Answers and Explanations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

 Editorial Team

David Robson QTP

David Robson is a career aviator having been nurtured on balsa wood, dope and tissue
paper. He made his first solo flight shortly after his seventeenth birthday, having made
his first parachute jump just after his sixteenth. His first job was as a junior draughtsper-
son at the Commonwealth Aircraft Corporation. He joined the RAAF in 1965 and
served for twenty-one years as a fighter pilot and test pilot. He flew over 1,000 hours
on Mirages and 500 hours on Sabres. He completed the Empire Test Pilots’ course at
Boscombe Down in 1972, flying many aircraft types – from gliders and Chipmunks to
Hunters, Canberras, Lightnings and Argosies. He completed a tour in Vietnam as a for-
ward air controller (FAC) in support of the Australian Task Force. He was a member of
the Mirage formation aerobatic team, the Deltas, which celebrated the RAAF’s 50th
anniversary at air displays throughout Australia.
After retiring from the Air Force, he became a civilian instructor and lecturer and
spent over ten years with the Australian Aviation College at Parafield. During 1986-88,
he was the editor of the Aviation Safety Digest (the ‘crash comic’) which won the Flight
Safety Foundation’s international award. He was awarded the Australian Aviation Safety
Foundation’s Certificate of Air Safety. He has also flown and enjoyed recreational aircraft
to ensure that the ATC books continue to contribute to all facets of aviation training.
He holds a first class ATPL, and a grade 1 instructor’s rating.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE xi

xii Navigation

Melanie Waddell
Melanie began flying in 1994 and was awarded a Bachelor of Technology in aviation
studies from Swinburne University in 1997. She currently holds an ATPL, with multi-
engine and command instrument ratings, and is a grade-one flight instructor at Point
Cook. She continues to pursue a challenging career in aviation.

Peter Whellum
Peter has been flying since 1975 and has been involved in commercial aviation since
1980, including service with the SA Police Airwing and later as chief pilot for a large
outback tourist organisation. He has a long-term commitment to improving flight train-
ing standards throughout general aviation, and particular interest and personal involve-
ment in the development of computer-based training and testing and in aviation
multimedia development.

Bill Constable
Bill Constable began his working life by studying Meteorology while completing
National Service with the Royal Navy during the late 1950s. During this service, he
travelled to several parts of the world on an aircraft carrier. In 1961, he migrated to Aus-
tralia, where he joined the Commonwealth Bureau of Meteorology. Eventually, Bill
found himself working as an instructor at the Bureau training school in Melbourne.
From there, he was persuaded to join Flight Training Centre as a lecturer in Meteorology
and Aerodynamics. While there, he gained his Instructor Rating.
In the early 1970s, he moved with his family to Papua New Guinea, where he worked
as a flying instructor and charter pilot. In 1978, he returned to Australia, where he
gained a Command Instrument Rating, an “A” Grade Instructor Rating and Senior
Commercial Pilot Licence. During this time, he was appointed Chief Flying Instructor
of the Royal Victorian Aero Club.
He held several positions, among which was his role as a theory lecturer with many
organisations, including RMIT University, Caulfield Institute of Technology (now
Deakin University) and several flying schools. He was also employed as a contract exam-
iner of aviation (in both flying and theory fields) by the Department of Aviation and the
Civil Aviation Authority, and he continued to operate as a theory lecturer and senior
flying instructor.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

 Introduction

Whether it is your intention to obtain a private pilot licence (PPL) or to qualify for the
issue of a commercial pilot licence (CPL), and thus be allowed to earn your living as a
professional pilot, the Aviation Theory Centre offers a series of manuals that will prepare
you for the CASA examinations and help you to achieve your goal.
The Day VFR syllabus specifies the required minimum level of knowledge for both
PPL and CPL in the following subjects:
■ aircraft general knowledge;
■ flight rules and air law;
■ radio telephony;
■ aircraft type knowledge;
■ aerodynamics;
■ navigation;
■ operation, performance and flight planning;
■ meteorology; and
■ human factors.

The current PPL examination is a composite of all of these areas of study, although
the studies are identified separately. On the other hand, the CPL has returned to single-
subject examinations; therefore, the depth of knowledge required for CPL is somewhat
greater than for PPL. Because of the significant commonality in subject matter between
PPL and CPL, however, we have found it possible to produce composite manuals that
meet the requirements of both licences. The current course of study for the PPL/CPL
Day VFR syllabus will now comprise the following volumes:
■ Aircraft General Knowledge (SYA);
■ Aerodynamics (ADA);
■ Meteorology (MET);
■ Navigation (NAV);
■ Aircraft Operation, Performance and Planning (FPA);
■ Flight Rules and Air Law (LWA); and
■ Human Factors (HUF).

About This Volume

This volume is divided into two parts, covering the following aspects of the CASA syl-
labus:
■ Part 1, Pilot Navigation, deals with the fundamentals of navigation, time and its
importance to us as pilots, the charts and publications we need, the use of navigation
computers, and visual navigation procedures.
■ Part 2, Radio Navigation Aids, is where we introduce you to four basic navigation
aids, NDB, VOR, DME and GPS, and show you how these aids can be used to assist
you in your visual navigation task, as well as preparing you to enable you to use these
aids to navigate in controlled airspace and above cloud.
In Part 1, we have aimed to give you a sound understanding of the various techniques
and procedures that can be used in successful visual navigation. However, no matter how
detailed or thorough we have made our text, we cannot take you into the cockpit. You
must absorb the procedures that we have outlined, and then let your flying instructor

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE xiii

xiv Navigation

show you how to apply in practice what you have learned from these pages. If you can
master what we have written, then you will easily manage the transition to the real world
and be able to enjoy the freedom that cross-country flying will give you, with confidence.
In Part 2 we cover radio navigation aids. Sensible use of these, and an understanding of
their operating principles and limitations, can be of great assistance to you as a back-up to
the normal visual navigation procedures of map-reading and dead reckoning (DR)
techniques. Navigation by visual reference to the ground or water is not practical above
more than ⁄ cloud, so if that happens to be the case, greater emphasis will be placed on
the use of radio navigation techniques. Naturally, if you are navigating above a significant
cloud cover or over a large body of open water, then radio navigation aids and radio
navigation techniques will become more the primary means of navigation. The aim is to
ensure that you have sufficient understanding of the use of radio aids. Your flying instructor
will guide you in the practical application of what you have learned in this part.

CASA Examinations

PPL Examinations
CASA PPL examinations are cyber exams conducted by approved flying schools. The
examination must be passed prior to undergoing the PPL licence flight test. The PPL
examination is a single, composite paper with a maximum of 3.5 hours allowed for the
whole exam. The exam is accessed through the CASA website and is undertaken using a
PC installed at the flying school. One advantage of this system is that the candidate’s result
is immediately available on completion of the exam, and a knowledge deficiency report
(KDR) is generated at the same time. The KDR shows areas suggested for re-study, and
these areas are re-tested as part of the oral quiz during the PPL flight test. In the event of
an examination failure, a candidate must wait 7 days before being able to resit the exam.

CPL Cyber Exams

CASA introduced Cyber Exams for the CPL and other professional flight crew exami-
nations in March 2002. The total CPL examination comprises the following seven, sin-
gle-subject examinations:

Subject Duration Total Pass

Marks Mark

Navigation (CNAV) 1.75 hours 40 marks 70%

Meteorology (CMET) 1.50 hours 40 marks 70%

Human Factors (CHUF) 1.00 hour 30 marks 70%

Flight Rules and Air Law (CLWA) 1.50 hours 40 marks 80%

Aerodynamics (CADA) 1.25 hours 40 marks 70%

Aircraft General Knowledge (CSYA) 1.25 hours 40 marks 70%

Aircraft Operations, Performance and Flight Planning (CFPA) 2.50 hours 50 marks 70%

A candidate may attempt any of the seven subjects in any order as and when desired as
long as all subjects are passed within 3 years, counted from the first attempt, successful or
otherwise, and provided the candidate has the prerequisite qualifications. As with the PPL
Cyber Exam, the CPL Cyber Exams are marked at the end of the examination session and

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

Introduction xv

results are supplied within a short time. Similarly, a KDR is also supplied, providing infor-
mation on the syllabus items not answered correctly – this should form the basis for any
re-study required before resitting the examination.
Further information about CASA’s Cyber Exams and sample exam questions can be
obtained from CASA’s web site (www.casa.gov.au) or by contacting your flying school.

A Few Hints on Studying

Set yourself a regular work schedule. Breaks are beneficial to study, so ensure to schedule
those as well. Keep your study periods short and intense. Ensure you have a quiet envi-
ronment, good lighting and a clear and fresh mind. Make summaries as you read through
our text. The summaries you prepare are important aids to your learning. Our exercises
are not difficult and are designed to give you confidence in your abilities.

Examination Technique
CASA examination questions are multiple choice. The types of multiple-choice ques-
tions you are most likely to meet include incomplete statements, direct questions (defi-
nitions) and best solutions (from given data).

Incomplete Statements
For incomplete statements, you will be given a ‘stem’ and several alternative endings. For
this type of question, treat each alternative response as a continuation of the stem. Read
each completed statement slowly and carefully, then make your decision. For example:
1. A katabatic wind blows:
a. from sea to land.
b. down the side of a mountain.
c. at right angles to the isobars.
d. with increasing strength with altitude.

In this example, each alternative is homogenous in that each refers to a property of a

certain wind. The examiner will try to make each false statement, or distractor, appear
plausible – this is why careful reading is essential. You may encounter a type of distractor
known as a non-homogenous alternative, or an alternative that is obviously out of con-
text. Be on the look out for these. If the stem was ‘The term katabatic refers to:’, an
example of a non-homogenous distractor might be ‘the temperature lapse rate’. As this
deals with temperature, it is non-homogenous and can be discarded from your deliber-
ations at the outset.

Direct Questions
To answer direct questions, you must make absolutely sure that you understand what is
being asked. In the following example, it is necessary to analyse the four possible answers
very carefully before deciding which one is true – it is more difficult to recognise a non-
homogenous distractor in direct questions:
3. Which statement is true with regard to magnetic variation?
a. It is the angular difference between magnetic north and the magnetic heading.
b. It is the angular difference between compass heading and magnetic heading.
c. It is the angular difference between true north and magnetic north.
d. It is the angular difference between true heading and compass heading.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

xvi Navigation

Best Solutions
In a ‘best solution’ or ‘nearest correct answer’ type of question, you will normally be
required to carry out a calculation from given data. This data may either be included in
the question itself, or you may be required to refer to separate information, such as aero-
plane performance charts. As a general rule, you will normally be required to select the
response nearest to your calculated answer. If you find your solution falls between two
alternatives, you must assume that the question is correct and that your calculation is
wrong. Go back and rework it! If necessary, leave the question and come back to it later.
Avoid the temptation to guess the answer.

Summary
■ Questions that involve regulations and procedures must be answered in accordance
with the latest amendments.
■ Read each question carefully. Ensure that you understand the problem before trying
to solve it. Look for non-homogenous distractors.
■ Once you have decided on your answer, select the alternative response that most closely
corresponds with that answer. The one you select must completely resolve the problem.
■ Remember that there is only one correct answer. The others are distractors, chosen
for their plausibility and known popular misconceptions.
■ If a question appears to be difficult or is giving you problems, leave it and proceed to
the next question.
■ For calculations, select the answer nearest to your solution. All these questions have
been worked using various types of computers and different methods where applica-
ble. If your calculations have been done correctly, you will find that your answer will
be closer to one of the responses than any of the others.
■ Take your time and read the question carefully. Make sure that what you think you have
read is actually what is before you. Select your response. Avoid quick scan reading.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

 Abbreviations

AAIS: automatic aerodrome ATD: actual time of departure D…: danger area
information service ATIS: automatic terminal (…identification)
AAL: above aerodrome level information service DEG: degrees
ABM: abeam ATS: air traffic service(s) DETRESFA: distress phase
ABN: aerodrome beacon AUW: all-up weight DEV: deviation, deviating
ACD: airways clearance AUX: auxiliary DF: direction finder/finding
delivery AVGAS: aviation gasoline DG: directional gyro
ACK: acknowledge BFO: beat frequency DGPS: differential GPS
ACN: aircraft classification oscillator DIV: diversion, divert,
number BST: British Summer Time diverting
AD: aerodrome C: degrees Celsius DME: distance measuring
AD: airworthiness directive (centigrade) equipment
ADDGM: aerodrome CA: closing angle DMEN: DME (International)
diagrams C/A: coarse acquisition code DR: dead reckoning
ADF: automatic direction (GPS) E: east, east longitude
finder CAO: Civil Aviation Order EAT: expected approach time
AERIS: automatic en route CAR 1988: Civil Aviation EET: estimated elapsed time
information service Regulation (1988) ELBA: emergency locator
[existing]
AFRU: aerodrome frequency beacon aircraft
CAR 1998: Civil Aviation
response unit ELEV: elevation
Regulation (1998) [revised]
AGL: above ground level ELT(S): emergency locator
(CASR)
AIP: Aeronautical transmitter (survival)
CAS: calibrated air speed
Information Publication EMERG: emergency
CASA: Civil Aviation Safety
AIS: aeronautical information ENDCE: endurance
Authority
service ENR: en route
CASR: Civil Aviation Safety
ALA: aircraft landing area ENRC: en route chart
Regulation
ALERFA: alert phase EPIRB: electronic position
CDI: course deviation
ALT: altitude indicator indicating radio beacon
ALTN: alternate (aerodrome) CDU: control display unit ERC: en route chart
AM: amplitude modulation CFI: chief flying instructor ERC-H: en route chart-high
AMD: amend, amended CG: centre of gravity ERC-L: en route chart-low
AMSL: above mean sea level CLIAS: climbing indicated ERSA: En Route Supplement
ANT: antenna airspeed Australia
AOC: air operator’s certificate CLR: clear, cleared to…, EST: estimate or estimated or
APU: auxiliary power unit clearance estimate
AQZ: area QNH zone CPL: commercial pilot licence ETA: estimated time of
ARN: aviation reference CRZ: cruise arrival, estimating arrival
number CST: Central Standard Time ETD: estimated time of
ARP: aerodrome reference CTA: control area departure, estimating
point CTAF: common traffic departure
ASAP: as soon as possible advisory frequency ETI: estimated time interval
ASDA: accelerate-stop CTAF(R): common traffic ETO: estimated time over
distance available advisory frequency (radio significant point
ASI: airspeed indicator mandatory) F: fixed (chart symbol)
ASR: area surveillance radar CTR: control zone F: Fahrenheit
ATA: actual time of arrival CW: carrier wave, continuous FAA: Federal Aviation
ATC: air traffic control wave Administration (US)

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE xvii

xviii Navigation

FAC: facility, facilities H24: continuous day and LAT: latitude

FAX: facsimile transmission night service LCD: liquid crystal display
FIA: flight information area HAT: height above threshold LDA: landing distance available
FIR: flight information region HDG: heading LDG: landing
FIS: flight information service HDS: hours of daylight saving LED: light-emitting diode
FL: flight level HF: high frequency LF: low frequency
FLG: flashing HGT: height, height above LGT: light, lighting
FLT: flight HI: heading indicator LJR: low jet route
FM: frequency modulation HIAL: high-Intensity LL: lower limits
FMS: flight management approach lighting LMT: local mean time
system HJ: sunrise to sunset LOC: locally, location,
FNPT: flight and navigation HN: sunset to sunrise located, local
procedures trainer HPA (hPa): hectopascal LOE: lane of entry
FPL: filed flight plan message HR (hr): hours LONG: longitude
FPT: flight plan track HSI: horizontal situation LSALT: lowest safe altitude
FPM (fpm): feet per minute indicator LUL: lowest usable level
FPR: flight plan route HZ (Hz): hertz LV: light and variable
FR: fuel remaining IAS: indicated airspeed LVL: level
FS: flight service IAW: in accordance with M (m): metres
FT (ft): feet ICAO: International Civil M: Mach number
G (g): acceleration due to Aviation Organization MAG: magnetic
gravity at sea level IFR: instrument flight rules MAP: aeronautical maps and
G (g): gram ILS: instrument landing charts
GA: general aviation system MAX: maximum
GAAP: general aviation INCERFA: uncertainty phase MB: magnetic bearing
aerodrome procedures INS: inertial navigation MEA: minimum en route
GC: great circle system altitude
GDOP: geometric dilution of ISA: International Standard MF: medium frequency
precision Atmosphere MH: magnetic heading
GEN: general IWP: intermediate waypoint MHZ (MHz): megahertz
GLONASS: global orbiting JF: Saturday, Sunday and MIN: minutes
navigation satellite system public holidays MISC: miscellaneous
(pronounced “GLO- JO: Monday to Friday except MLJR: military low jet route
NAS”) public holidays MPP: most probable position
GND: ground K: kelvin MPS: metres per second
GNS: global navigation KG (kg): kilograms MS: minus
system KHZ (kHz): kilohertz MSA: minimum sector altitude
GNSS: global navigation KIAS: knots indicated MSG: message
satellite system airspeed MSL: mean sea level
GP: glide path (approach path) KM (km): kilometres MT: mountain
GP FLG: group flashing KMH (km/h): kilometres per MTOW: maximum take-off
(number) (used in Hour weight
conjunction with KPA (kPa): kilopascals MTW: mountain waves
aerodrome lighting) KT (kt): knots MVA: minimum vector
GPS: global positioning KW (kw): kilowatts altitude
system L: left (runway identification) N: north, north latitude
GPWS: ground proximity L (l): litres NAIPS: national aeronautical
warning system LAHSO: land and hold short information processing
GRASS: grass landing area operations system
GRVL: gravel LAME: licensed aircraft NAV: navigation
GS: groundspeed maintenance engineer NAVAID: navigation aid

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

Abbreviations xix

NDB: non-directional radio PRD: prohibited, restricted RWS: runway strip

beacon and danger areas RWY: runway
NE: north-east PSN: position S (s): seconds
NEG: negative, no, PVT: private S: south, south latitude
permission not granted, or, QFE: altimeter subscale SA: situational awareness
that is not correct setting to obtain height SAR: search and rescue
NGT: night above location SARTIME: time search action
NIL: none QNH: altimeter subscale required
NM: nautical miles setting to obtain elevation SATCOM: satellite
NML: normal or altitude communication
NNE: north north-east R…: restricted area SDBY: standby
NNW: north north-west (…number) SE: south-east
NOSIG: no significant change R: right (runway system SEC: seconds
NOTAM: notice to airmen identification) SFC: surface
NPA: non-precision approach RAAF: Royal Australian Air SIMUL: simultaneous, or
NPRM: notice of proposed Force simultaneously
rule making RAD: radius SMC: surface movement
NW: north-west RAIM: receiver autonomous control
OBI: omni-bearing indicator integrity monitoring SP: single pilot
OBST: obstacle RAPAC: Regional Airspace SPS: standard positioning
OBSTR: obstruction Users Advisory Committee service (GPS)
OCTA: outside control area RAS: radar advisory service SR: sunrise
OCTR: outside control zone RB: relative bearing SS: sunset
OHD: overhead RBI: relative bearing SSE: south south-east
P: precision code (GPS) indicator SSR: secondary surveillance
P…: prohibited area RCC: rescue coordination radar
(…identification) centre SSW: south south-west
PAL: pilot activated lighting RCL: runway centreline STD: standard
PAPI: precision approach path RDL: radial STNR: stationary
indicator REC: receive, receiver, SUA: special use airspace
PARL: parallel received SW: south-west
PAX: passengers REQ: request, requested …T: bearing (true)
PCA: Planning Chart Australia RES: reserve fuel TA: transition altitude
PDOP: position dilution of RHC: right hand circuit TA: traffic advisory
precision RIS: radar information TAAATS: The Australian
PE: position error service Advanced Air Traffic
PEC: pressure error RMI: remote magnetic System
correction indicator TAC: Terminal Area Chart
PERM: permanent RNAV: area navigation TACAN: tactical air
PF: pilot flying RNP: required navigation navigation aid
PFR: preferred route performance TAS: true airspeed
PG: pressure gradient ROC: rate of climb TB: true bearing
PIC: pilot in command ROD: rate of descent TBA: to be advised
PIFR: private IFR rating RPA: rules and practices for TCAS: traffic alert and
PLN: flight plan aerodromes collision avoidance system
PNR: point of no return RPT: regular public transport TCH: threshold crossing
POB: persons on board RQMNTS: requirements height
POSS: possible RSR: en route surveillance TE: track error
PPL: private pilot licence radar THR: threshold
PPS: precise positioning RTE: route TKOF: take-off
service (GPS) RVR: runway visual range TMG: track made good

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

xx Navigation

TO: take-off VCY: vicinity WADGPS: wide area

TOC: top of climb VEC: visual en route chart differential GPS
TOD: top of descent VER: vertical WCA: wind correction
TODA: take-off distance VFR: visual flight rules angle
available VHF: very high frequency WEF: with effect from,
TORA: take-off run available VIA: by way of… effective from
TP: turning point VIS: visibility WGS-84: World Geodetic
TR: track VLF: very low frequency System 1984
TRL: transition level VNC: Visual Navigation Chart WID: width
TSO: Technical Service Order VNE (VNE): never exceed WIP: work in progress
TWR: aerodrome control speed WNW: west north-west
(tower) VNO (VNO): maximum WO: without
UFN: until further notice structural cruising speed WPT: waypoint
UHF: ultra high frequency VOR: VHF omni-directional WST: Western Summer Time
UNICOM: universal radio range (omni) WSW: west south-west
communications VSO (VSO): stalling speed, WT: weight
U/S: unserviceable minimum steady flight W/V: wind velocity
USG: US gallon speed in the landing XNG: crossing
UTC: Coordinated Universal configuration XP: test ident signal
Time VTC: Visual Terminal Chart XW: crosswind
VA: design manoeuvring W: west, west longitude YR: your/s
speed WAC: World Aeronautical Z: Coordinated Universal
VAR: magnetic variation Chart Time

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

 Part One

Pilot Navigation

Chapter 1. Fundamentals of Air Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Chapter 2. Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Chapter 3. Charts and Publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Chapter 4. Computations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Chapter 5. Visual Navigation Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

 Chapter 1

Fundamentals of Air Navigation

Types of Navigation
The basic method of navigation in VFR (day) operations is map reading, which is visual-
contact navigation. It involves matching ground features with features shown on a navi-
gation chart and thus determining at any particular time the actual position of the aero-
plane. This position, or what we call a fix, can then be compared with the intended path
of the aeroplane over the ground, which we call the track, and necessary action taken to
correct any error. Map reading requires more or less continuous visual reference to the
ground and is therefore of limited value in poor visibility conditions or when navigating
above extensive cloud cover.
To assist with visual navigation procedures, we can use any radio navigation equip-
ment installed in our aeroplane to obtain information from ground-based radio beacons.
The various radio navigation systems will be discussed in detail later.
To support visual navigation procedures, we use dead reckoning (DR) to deduce posi-
tion. Starting from a known position, we can calculate where we should be after a spec-
ified time interval by applying the wind effect to our current speed and direction.

Basic Principles
The basic principles of air navigation apply to all aircraft, from the simplest trainers to
the most sophisticated passenger jets. When flying cross-country, you are the pilot, the
navigator and the radio operator. As such, you must do the following:
■ primarily, fly the aeroplane safely and accurately;
■ navigate correctly; and
■ attend to the radio when required and other aspects of your duty in the cockpit.

In short, you must aviate, navigate and communicate.

To conduct a cross-country flight efficiently, the navigation tasks must be coordinated
with (but not interfere with) the smooth flying of the aeroplane. It is most important that
you clearly understand the basic navigation principles so that correct techniques and prac-
tices can be applied quickly and accurately. Navigating an aeroplane, unlike a car or a ship,
is a three-dimensional process: you must think of altitude as well as direction and time.

Being Prepared
Being properly prepared is essential for successful navigation. Always plan carefully and
meticulously. This provides an accurate basis to check your in-flight navigation perform-
ance. Before starting any cross-country flight, you must pay particular attention to items
such as the following:
■ the serviceability and accuracy of your watch or aircraft clock, since time is vital to
accurate navigation;
■ the contents of your ‘nav bag’ (pencils, flight computer, protractor and scale or a
plotter, suitable aeronautical charts and relevant flight information publications);
■ the preparation of charts;
■ the planned route;
■ the terrain en route;
■ the type of airspace en route;

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE 3

4 Navigation

■ the suitability of the destination and any alternate aerodromes;

■ the forecast weather en route and at the destination and alternate aerodromes (plus
any reports of actual weather that might be available);
■ the calculation of headings and groundspeeds; and
■ the calculation of fuel consumption and minimum fuel required.
It sounds like a lot to think about, but each item is simple to understand.
Remember: sound preparation is the basis for successful navigation.

Flying Accurate Headings and Speeds

Once airborne, flying an accurate heading (which involves reference to both the head-
ing indicator and outside cues) is essential for accurate navigation. Maintaining cruise
airspeed and comparing your progress and actual times of arrival (ATA) at various posi-
tions en route with the estimated times of arrival (ETA) in the flight plan will ensure a
pleasant journey.

Navigation Tasks are Additional to Flying the Aircraft

We assume that you already know how to fly the aeroplane. Our objective, therefore, is
to add the basic principles of air navigation to your flying skills and knowledge by show-
ing you techniques that will allow you time to fix your position and navigate the aero-
plane safely without increasing your workload to an unacceptable level.

Form of the Earth

All navigation is done with reference to the surface of the True north
earth. Navigation starts with the elementary exercise of navi-
gating the aeroplane around the traffic pattern during your
initial training. This requires you to identify ground
features, such as the runway, and points ahead of the
aeroplane for tracking. It progresses through light air-
craft visual navigation, then instrument navigation, to
the use of sophisticated instrument navigation systems
by large passenger jets to cover vast distances around
the earth.

Shape and Size

The shape of the earth’s surface is constantly changing. Volca-
True south 10-01.EPS
noes erupt and grow, new islands form while others disappear.
Landslides and earthquakes cause large land movements, the Figure 1-1
ocean surface continually changes in height with the tides, and The earth is a slightly
flattened (oblate) sphere.
on a very long-term basis, the continents gradually move.
Despite this, we can say that the geometric shape that the earth resembles most is a
sphere. However, even when all the surface bumps are ironed out, the earth is still not
a perfect sphere. It is slightly flattened, or compressed, at the North and South Poles,
forming what we call an oblate spheroid, the polar diameter being approximately 23 nm
less than the equatorial diameter (6,865 nm as against 6,888 nm). Nevertheless, for prac-
tical purposes the earth can be treated as a sphere.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

1: Fundamentals of Air Navigation 5

Rotation of the Earth True north

As well as moving in an orbit about the sun, the The earth
rotates toward
earth rotates on its own axis. The axis of rotation the east
is called the polar axis, and the two points where
this axis meets the surface of the sphere are

Polar axis
called the north geographic pole (or true north) and
the south geographic pole (or true south). If you
stand anywhere on earth and face toward the
north geographic pole, then you are facing

Figure 1-2 The earth rotates about its axis. True south 10-02.EPS

Imaginary Lines on the Earth’s Surface

Great Circles
A great circle (GC) drawn on the earth’s surface has a plane which passes through the cen-
tre of the sphere (earth). Some examples of great circles are the following:
■ meridians of longitude;
■ the equator; and
■ the horizontal paths of radio waves.

Great circles have some significant properties such as the following:

■ a great circle is the largest circle that can be drawn on the surface of the earth or on
any sphere;
■ the shortest distance around the surface of a sphere between two points is the arc of
a great circle; and
■ only one great circle can be drawn between two points on the surface of a sphere,
unless the two points are diametrically opposed, as are the geographic poles.

True north True north

A meridian
of longitude
als
gn
si

o
di
Ra
Its T he equator
anti-meridian
(opposite)
Radio waves follow
10-03.EPS True south True south great circle paths

Figure 1-3 A great circle has the centre of the earth as its centre.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

6 Navigation

Small Circles True north

A small circle is any circle on the surface of a sphere that is
not a great circle; that is, the centre of a small circle is
not at the centre of the earth. Parallels of latitude
(other than the equator) are small circles.

Centre of sphere
Position on the Earth
The usual method of specifying the exact position of
any point on earth is by reference to imaginary lines Centre of
small circle
forming the latitude and longitude graticule (or grid)
on the surface of the earth.
True south 10-04.EPS

Figure 1-4
The plane of a small circle does not
pass through the centre of a sphere.

Latitude
The reference for latitude is the equator, the great circle with a plane perpendicular (at
right angles or 90°) to the polar axis.
North Pole True north 90°N
Parallels of latitude
60°N

30°N 40°N

60°
30°
0° Equator 0°

20°S
30°S

60°S

South Pole True south 90°S 10-05.EPS

Figure 1-5 Latitude.

The latitude of a place is its angular distance in

degrees from the equator, measured at the centre
of the earth and designated either north or south. True north
90°N
For instance, Bowen (Queensland) is at 20°S lat- 60°N
itude, whereas Philadelphia in the United States
is at approximately 40°N latitude. 30°N
A parallel of latitude joins all points of the same
latitude and, except for the equator, is a small cir- Equator 0°
cle. Broome, Harare in Zimbabwe, La Paz in
Bolivia, Tahiti and Fiji, are all about 17° south of 30°S
the equator. Parallels of latitude are parallel to the
equator and to each other. The longest parallel of 60°S
90°S
latitude is the equator (latitude 0°). The other par- 10-06.EPS True south
allels (as you move away from the equator toward
the higher latitudes) progressively decrease in size, Figure 1-6 The further from the equator,
until the 90° parallels of latitude become just the smaller the parallel of latitude.

points at the north and south geographic poles.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

1: Fundamentals of Air Navigation 7

Longitude
All great circles containing the polar axis (and therefore passing through the north and
south geographic poles) are called meridians of longitude. Meridians of longitude are spec-
ified by their angular difference in degrees east or west from the meridian of longitude
that passes through the Royal Observatory situated in Greenwich, London. This refer-
ence meridian is known as the prime meridian.
The half of the meridian of longitude that runs from one geographic pole to the other
passing through Greenwich is designated as longitude 0°. The other half of the same
great circle, again running from the one geographic pole to the other but this time on
the other side of the earth to Greenwich, is known as longitude 180°. It passes down
the western side of the Pacific Ocean. It can be reached by travelling either east 180°
from the prime meridian or by travelling the same angular distance west from the prime
meridian. Depending on whether you are approaching it from the east or the west, you
would refer to it as either 180°E or 180°W.

Prime True north Prime

meridian meridian 180°

Greenwich
True north

West East Greenwich

0°

True south West 0° East

10-07.EPS
Cross-section of Earth Viewed from above North Pole

Figure 1-7 The prime meridian.

True north 180°

0 °W
15

True north

0° 30°E 70°E West East

E
70°
60
°W

Prime
° E
meridian 30
True south 0°
Viewed from above
Cross-section of Earth North Pole 10-08.EPS

Figure 1-8 The longitude of a place is the angle between its meridian of longitude
and the prime meridian, measured east or west of the prime meridian.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

8 Navigation

Specifying a Position on the Earth’s Surface

By using the latitude and longitude graticule, the position of any point on earth can be
accurately stated by determining:
■ its angular position north or south of the plane of the equator, a latitude; together
with
■ its angular position east or west of the prime meridian, a longitude.

It is mostly sufficiently accurate to specify the latitude and longitude of a place in

degrees and minutes (one minute being ⁄ž of a whole degree). For extreme accuracy,
however, each minute can be further divided into 60 seconds of arc.
The applicable shorthand symbols for the expression of arc units are:
■ ° for degrees;
■  for minutes; and
■  for seconds.

Rather than spelling out north, south, etc., we always abbreviate the hemispheres as
N, S, E or W. For example, the precise position of Birdsville aerodrome, in Queensland,
is 25°5356S, 139°2055E. For most purposes, however, it would be sufficient to
express this position to the nearest whole minute, i.e. 25°54S, 139°21E.
Note. With the increasing use of electronic air navigation equipment capable of
making direct reference to latitude and longitude (e.g. inertial and global position-
ing systems), some Airservices Australia publications (e.g. ERSA) print the N or S,
and E or W in front of the applicable coordinate, reflecting the sequence in which
latitude and longitude are entered in such equipment. In addition, rather than
using seconds of arc in the position coordinates, as above, any fractions of minutes
of arc are decimalised; that is, seconds are converted to tenths of a minute
(6 = 0.1). For example, the coordinates of Birdsville NDB are listed as S25°53.9
E139°21.3.

     


 

" 

 
  
 
   
    ! 

Figure 1-9 The position of Birdsville aerodrome is 25°54S 139°21E.

Although the use of latitude and longitude is a very precise way of defining a partic-
ular position on the surface of the earth, it is used only occasionally during flight to
express position. The more commonly used methods to pass position information by
radio include the following:
■ stating a position as over or abeam a landmark or radio navigation aid, such as ‘over
the Harbour Bridge’, ‘abeam Swan Hill’, or ‘over Strathbogie NDB’; and
■ stating the distance and bearing of an aircraft from a landmark or radio navigation aid,
such as ‘10 nm on a bearing of 290°M from Hayman Island’.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

1: Fundamentals of Air Navigation 9

Note. Whenever these methods are used to specify a position, you should ensure
that the places named are shown on appropriate aeronautical charts.

Magnetic
north

Hea ˚ M
070
ding
07
0˚

40˚ Relative
110
˚M

290
˚
10 n M
m
Hayman Island

10-10.EPS

Figure 1-10 Alternative methods for specifying aircraft position.

Direction

Direction is the angular position of one point to

another without reference to the distance between
350 360 10 20
them. In order to fly in a given direction, we 0
340 3
33 W NN 0 4
need to be able to refer to a datum line or 32
0 NN E 0
0

50

fixed direction that we can specify. In air nav-

31
0

60
30

N
igation, the datum we use is the meridian
W

EN
0

70
W
260 270 280 29

N
WN

E
N

through our position: the north–south line.

E
80

Although direction can be measured by

W

90 100
E

reference to the cardinal points (the four

W

ES
SW

main directions) of north, south, east and

SE
250

110
WS

S
0

12

west, for most navigation purposes, the sim-

24

0
0

13
23

plest means of measuring direction is to con-

0

0 SS 14
22 W
SS E 15
0
sider a circle laid flat and then divided into 0
21
170 180 190 20
0 160
0

360°, numbered clockwise from 000 (north) on

the reference meridian all the way around the circle 10-11.EPS

back to north. It is usual to refer to direction as a three-fig- Figure 1-11

ure group to prevent any misunderstanding. For example, To measure direction, the full
circle is divided into 360°.
north is referred to as 360 (or 000), east is 090, and south-
west as 225. One obvious exception to this is the number-
ing of runway directions, as in RWY 24.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

10 Navigation

Angles On the Earth

The most fundamental reference from
which angles are measured is that of
true north, from 000°T through 090°T,
180°T, 270°T, to 360°T. As can be seen in
figure 1-12, if an aeroplane follows a long-
range great-circle track, the direction ref-
erenced to true north will gradually
Small circle change; that is, the great circle will cross
successive meridians at a gradually chang-
London ing angle. Sometimes it is convenient to
Great
circle fly a track for which direction remains
ck
t ra constant when referred to true north; that
GC is, the track crosses all meridians of longi-
ck
t ra tude at the same angle. This is known as a
Miami RL
rhumb line.
Equator
The rhumb line and great circle
between two places coincide only if the
two places lie on either the same meridian
of longitude (a great circle), the track
10-12.EPS between them being 180°T or 360°T, or
Figure 1-12 The great circle and the rhumb line.
on the equator (which is also a great
circle), the track between them being
090°T or 270°T. In practical terms, the
great-circle direction and the rhumb-line
direction may be considered to be the
same over short distances, say less than
200 nm.

140˚E 150˚E

True True Direction

north
When we measure direction by reference
True direction B to the local meridian, we are using the
of track from
A to B north geographic pole or true north as the
reference. This direction is referred to as
true direction. True direction has the advan-
tage of being a constant directional refer-
ence and is the basis for measuring angles
on charts. Its use makes plotting and
A 10-13.EPS
measuring tracks an easy task.
Figure 1-13 Direction is measured from a meridian. Instruments that display true direction
are both complicated and expensive and,
as we should know from our studies of
flight instruments, the most convenient
and reliable source of direction informa-
tion to the pilot is the magnetic compass.
This indicates the magnetic direction, and
we must therefore have some way of
deriving true direction from this informa-
tion, and vice versa.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

1: Fundamentals of Air Navigation 11

Magnetic Direction
The earth acts as a huge magnet, and its
lines of magnetic force are sufficiently
strong to influence the direction of a
freely suspended magnetic needle. The
poles of the magnet earth are known as
the north magnetic pole and the south mag-
netic pole. At the present time, the north
magnetic pole is in the general area of Axis of
rotation
Hudson’s Bay in Canada, and the south
magnetic pole is near South Victoria Land Magnetic
North
North geographic
in Antarctica. The lines of magnetic force equator magnetic pole
joining these two poles run roughly pole
north–south.
A freely suspended magnet will swing The Earth
so that its axis will align itself in a general
South
north–south direction, with the end magnetic Lines of
South
called the north-seeking pole pointing to geographic pole magnetic
pole force
the earth’s north magnetic pole. The
actual direction now shown by the mag-
net is called magnetic north, and this is the 10-14.EPS

datum we use to measure magnetic direction. Figure 1-14 The earth’s magnetic field.
If we know the angular difference be-
tween the directions of true and magnetic
north, we can convert the true direction
between two places (which we can meas-
ure on a chart) to the magnetic direction
that we follow on the magnetic compass.
Conversely, we can convert the magnetic
heading shown on the compass to a true
heading.
Magnetic pole
N

Variation
The angular difference between the direc-
Small
tion of true north and magnetic north at f magnet
e
any given point on the earth, and there- e o orc
Lin tic f
n e
fore between all true directions and their m ag
corresponding magnetic directions at that S
point, is called variation. You must always Magnetic pole 10-15.EPS

be very clear as to whether you are refer- Figure 1-15 A simple magnetic bar.
ring direction to true north or to mag-
netic north.
If the magnetic needle points to the east
of true north, then the variation is said to
be east; if the needle points to the west of
true north, the variation is west.

Variation is the angular difference

between true north and magnetic north.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

12 Navigation

If the variation is east, then, as can be seen in figure 1-16, the magnetic direction will
be less than the true direction. If the variation is west, the reverse will apply. An easy
way to remember the relationship between true and magnetic is variation east, magnetic
least; variation west, magnetic best.
For example, if the direction is 100°T and the variation is 10° east, then the magnetic
direction is 100°T – 10° = 090°M. Similarly, if you are steering 090 on your magnetic
compass and the variation is 10° west, then the true heading is 090°M – 10° = 080°T.

True Magnetic Magnetic True

north north north north

100° True 090° Magnetic

090° 080°
Variation Magnetic Variation True
10°E 10°W

10-16.EPS

Figure 1-16 Variation.

To help us know what the variation is at any place, the aeronautical charts we use have
lines drawn on them joining all places having the same magnetic variation. These lines
are known as isogonic lines or isogonals. For example, the 10° east isogonic line is drawn
through all places having a variation of 10° east. In some places (such as Esperance in
Western Australia), the variation is zero. The line joining places of zero variation is called
the agonic line.
Although the annual movement is small, the magnetic variation at any one place is
not constant from one year to the next, and you should check that your charts are cur-
rent.

10°S

20°S

Agonic Isogonals
line

30°S
0° 2°E 4°E 6°E 8°E 10°E 12°E
2°W

14°E

40°S

10-17.EPS
120°E 130°E 140°E 150°E

Figure 1-17 Isogonals and the agonic line.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

1: Fundamentals of Air Navigation 13

Relative Bearings He
ad
It is sometimes useful to define the direction ing
of an object from an aeroplane in terms of
the object’s direction relative to the nose (or
heading) of the aeroplane – its relative bear- 035° ve
lati
Re
ing. The relative bearing of an object from
an aeroplane is its angular distance from the
aircraft’s heading measured clockwise from 10-18.EPS

the nose of the aeroplane from 000 REL

Figure 1-18 The radio mast bears 035°
through to 360 REL. relative from the nose of the aeroplane.

Converting a Relative Bearing to a raft

Magnetic Bearing (and Vice Versa) Airc ding
e a
h 0°M
34
To convert a relative bearing to a magnetic X
bearing, add the relative bearing of the
object to the magnetic heading of the aero- 075°

plane to obtain the magnetic bearing of the

object from the aeroplane. To convert a
magnetic bearing to a relative bearing, sub- 210°
tract the magnetic heading of the aeroplane
Z
from the magnetic bearing of the object to 270°
obtain the relative bearing of the object
from the aeroplane. Y 10-19.EPS

Aircraft Relative Magnetic

Note. If the answer works out to be in Heading Bearing Bearing
excess of 360° then this means you have X 340°M + 075° = 055°
gone more than once around the com- Y 340°M + 210° = 190°
plete circle. To achieve the right answer Z 340°M + 270° = 250°
simply deduct 360°; for example, 372° Aircraft Relative bearing Magnetic bearing
minus 360° is 012°. magnetic + of object = of object
heading from aircraft from aircraft
The differences between these two ways Figure 1-19
of describing the same thing, the bearing of Relative bearings and
the aeroplane, are as follows: their conversion to magnetic bearings.

■ relative bearing is related to the nose

(HDG) of the aeroplane; and
■ magnetic bearing is related to magnetic north.

These two will be mentioned later on in our studies of radio navigation aids, where
the fixed-card radio compass uses relative bearings, and the radio magnetic indicator
(which has a radio compass needle superimposed upon a compass card that indicates
directions relative to magnetic north) uses magnetic bearings.

Distance

Units of Measurement
For navigation purposes, the unit of measurement of horizontal distance is the nautical
mile (nm). For other aviation uses, such as visibility, horizontal distance from cloud and
runway lengths, the unit is either the kilometre or metre. We discuss the methods used
to measure distance on aeronautical charts in chapter 3.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

14 Navigation

The Nautical Mile

The nautical mile has its origin in its relationship to the size of the earth, where 1 min
of latitude is equal to 1 nm. However, because the earth is not a perfect sphere, the
length of 1 min of latitude is not constant, and the length of a nautical mile will vary
slightly. To overcome this difficulty, it has been decided to introduce the international
nautical mile, which is a fixed distance exactly equal to 1,852 m.

Speed

Airspeed and Groundspeed

An aeroplane flying in a still air mass moves
through the air at the same rate at which it
moves over the ground. If the air mass starts
to move, the speed of the aeroplane through
it stays the same, but its speed over the
ground will change. Therefore, because of
the effect of the wind, the speed of an aero-
plane can be expressed in two ways. If it is
measured in relation to the ground, it is
called groundspeed; if measured relative to the W/V
air mass through which it is moving, it is
called airspeed. We will have more to say
about groundspeed later.
10-20.EPS

Airspeed
Figure 1-20
A clear understanding of the meaning of air- An air mass can be stationary or move as wind.
speed is essential for the pilot for the purposes
of navigation. It is independent of wind and
is the same whether the aeroplane is flying
upwind or downwind. A person in a free balloon does not feel a breath of wind because
the balloon is carried by the air and moves with it. For this reason, the free balloon has
zero airspeed. It follows that if the speed of an aeroplane is measured relative to a cloud, it
will be the airspeed because a cloud is stationary in the moving air mass. When we see
clouds moving, it is actually the air mass that is moving, carrying the clouds with it.

Indicated Airspeed (IAS)

The airspeed indicator compares the total pressure (measured by the pitot tube) of the
air due to its movement relative to the aeroplane with the static pressure (measured by
the static vents) that is independent of movement. Clearly, the ASI does not show the
actual airspeed but a value influenced both by speed and air density. We call this value
indicated airspeed or IAS (you may see it written as KIAS for knots indicated airspeed).

Corrections to Indicated Airspeed

The reading of the indicated airspeed on the ASI is subject to the two following errors:
■ Instrument error results from poor design or construction of the ASI itself and from
friction in the internal mechanism.
■ Position error (PE) stems from the sensing errors inherent in the positioning of the static
vent and pitot tube on the aeroplane. The location of these with respect to the airflow
is critical and may lead to incorrect readings when the airflow is disturbed at certain
airspeeds, angles of attack and flap settings.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

1: Fundamentals of Air Navigation 15

We can correct the reading of indicated airspeed shown on the ASI by using a cali-
bration table (found in the pilot’s operating handbook for the aeroplane) to obtain a
value known as calibrated airspeed (CAS). This CAS figure is what the ASI would read if
we had a perfect airspeed-indicator system. CAS is therefore more accurate than IAS,
and if you have taken the trouble to calculate CAS, it should be used in preference to
IAS. The errors are usually only small, and we can generally assume that IAS and CAS
are equal.

True Airspeed (TAS)

The airspeed indicator reads indicated airspeed, which is related to the dynamic pressure
V2. However, for navigation purposes we need to know our true airspeed (TAS) or
actual speed through the air. Because the ASI is calibrated in accordance with the spec-
ifications of the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA), it will only give an accurate
measure of the true airspeed under these same conditions; that is, IAS at sea level will
only equal TAS when ISA MSL conditions exist.

Density Effects
Whenever the density varies from the ISA MSL value, the TAS will be different from
the indicated airspeed. Density varies for the following reasons.

Temperature
Cold air is more dense and warm air is less dense. On a warm day an aircraft must travel
faster through the air for the same number of molecules per second to impact it and for
the same IAS to be indicated. TAS varying with temperature for a constant IAS is one
reason why, on a warm day, longer take-off and landing distances are required. The TAS
must be higher to provide the same IAS, (the aerodynamic force that the aircraft feels).

Colder Warmer
Dense air Less dense air

TAS 80 kt TAS 84 kt
IAS 80 kt IAS 80 kt

10-21.EPS ISA MSL +15 °C MSL Pressure altitude 0 ft

Pressure altitude 0 ft +45°C = ISA+30

Figure 1-21 For the same IAS, warmer air increases TAS.

Pressure
The greater the altitude, i.e. the lower the air pressure, the fewer the molecules per unit
volume. For two aircraft with the same TAS, the higher aircraft will have a lower IAS
because it will impact fewer molecules of air per second than the lower aircraft.

TAS 93 kt TAS 93 kt
IAS 77 kt IAS 80 kt

Pressure altitude 12,000 ft Pressure altitude 10,000 ft

10-22.EPS Outside air temperature –5 °C Outside air temperature –5 °C

Figure 1-22 For the same TAS, the aircraft in less dense air has lower IAS.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

16 Navigation

Remember that IAS is only equal to TAS under ISA MSL conditions. At higher alti-
tudes, the IAS (or CAS) will be less than the TAS; that is, the aircraft will be flying through
the thinner air with an airspeed in excess of that indicated. This is easily understood when
we recall that IAS is a measure of the dynamic pressure V2, where V is the TAS. Under
abnormal temperature conditions, you may find the IAS greater than the TAS. For exam-
ple, at sea level with a temperature of +5°C, an IAS of 120 kt gives a TAS of 118 kt.

Climbing Using a Constant Indicated Airspeed

As we gain altitude, the air density () decreases. If we fly the aeroplane so that a constant
IAS is maintained (a constant dynamic pressure V2), the decrease in  must be com-
pensated for by an increase in V (the true airspeed). Therefore, the higher we climb, the
greater the TAS is for the same IAS.
TAS 120

IAS 100

TAS 100

IAS 100
10-23.EPS

Figure 1-23 The higher we climb, the greater the TAS for a constant IAS.

Derivation of True Airspeed

Derivation of TAS from IAS using the navigation computer was explained in our Basic
Aeronautical Knowledge. To refresh your memory, we have included some further exam-
ples and exercises in chapter 4 of this manual.

Movement in an Air Mass

Velocity
A velocity is a rate of change of position in a given direction and is therefore a combina-
tion of both speed and direction. It is incorrect to say that the velocity of an aeroplane is
200 kt without any indication of its direction. If, however, we say that the aeroplane is
flying at 200 kt on a heading of 045°T, then we have described its velocity. So long as
both speed and direction remain unchanged, the velocity remains constant. If either
speed or direction change, then the velocity changes.

Wind Velocity
The speed and direction of a wind (i.e. the movement of an air mass) is called the wind
velocity. It is nearly always expressed as a five- or six-figure group; the first three figures
are the direction from which the wind blows, and the last two or three indicate the speed
of the wind. For clarity, we normally separate the direction and speed figures with a for-
ward slash. Thus, a wind of 30 kt blowing from the north-east would be a wind velocity
of 045/30. It is normal for the direction of the surface wind (as given in take-off and
landing reports and ATIS) to be expressed in degrees magnetic, while the winds we use
aloft for navigation are usually in degrees true.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

1: Fundamentals of Air Navigation 17

Ground Velocity N
(True)
The movement of an air mass (the wind veloc-
ity) affects the speed of the aeroplane over the
ground. However, not only does the wind alter
the speed, it also changes the direction of the TAS vector
315°T/150 kt
aeroplane over the ground, that is, the wind
affects its track. The result is that the aeroplane
now has another velocity in addition to that
described by its heading and TAS, and this is the 315°
ground velocity, or its track and groundspeed.

Vectors
Since a velocity is a speed in a given direction, 0 30 60 90 120 150 TAS (kt)

we can show it graphically as a straight line with Figure 1-24 A vector.

its length proportional to the speed at a given
scale, and by convention, its direction deter-
mined by reference to true north (vertically upwards). Such a straight line is called a vector.
Figure 1-24 illustrates an aeroplane which has a speed of 150 kt on a heading of 315°T.
Conventional Symbols
To distinguish between the vectors of the HDG/TAS velocity of the aeroplane, the
ground velocity of the aeroplane and the wind velocity, arrows are added to the vectors.
The HDG/TAS vector is represented by a single-headed arrow, with the arrow showing
the direction.

Heading 330°T

Heading 220°T
80 KTAS
Heading 180°T

120 KTAS 60 KTAS

10-25.EPS

Figure 1-25 Aeroplanes on various HDG/TAS vectors.

The wind velocity (W/V) vector is represented by a triple-headed arrow, with the
arrows indicating the direction from which the wind is blowing.

A westerly wind A wind blowing A southerly wind A wind blowing

10-26.EPS

of 30 knots, from 030° at 10 knots, of 15 knots, from 210° at 20 knots,

i.e. 270/30 i.e. 030/10 i.e. 180/15 i.e. 210/20

Figure 1-26 Examples of wind vectors.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

18 Navigation

A wind velocity of 230/20 indicates that

Final position the air mass will be moving in relation to
of air mass the surface of the earth from a direction of
230° at a speed of 20 kt (see figure 1-27).
This means that during a 6-minute period,
for example, the air mass will have moved
230/20 Initial position
2 nm (0.1 of 20 nm) from a direction of
of air mass 230°.
10-27.EPS
The track and groundspeed (TR/GS)
vector is shown as a double-headed arrow
Figure 1-27 An air mass with a velocity of 230/20.
(see figure 1-28).

Vector Addition
By applying wind velocity to heading and
true airspeed, the track and groundspeed
can be derived. If you want to find an aer-
oplane’s track and groundspeed, plot the
HDG/TAS vector and then apply to this
10-28.EPS the wind velocity vector. This is known as
vector addition, and the sum of these two
Figure 1-28 Examples of TR/GS vectors. vectors, the resultant, will be the track and
groundspeed.
N
In figure 1-29, we have plotted to scale a
(True) W/V HDG/TAS vector of 315°T/150 kt and a
270˚T/45 kt
wind velocity vector of 270°T/45 kt (the
movement of the air mass). These two vec-
Resultant tors are plotted in sequence, and the result-
TR/GS vector
(can be ant vector is the track and groundspeed of
HDG/TAS measured the aeroplane. This vector could now be
315˚T/150 kt to scale)
measured to determine the actual values of
track and groundspeed. It should be noted
that the HDG/TAS and wind velocity vec-
tors follow each other, while the resultant
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 vector, TR/GS, opposes them.
TAS (kt) 10-29.EPS

Figure 1-29 Vector addition.

The Triangle of Velocities
We have now described the three vector
W/V
quantities, or velocities, that influence the
B C movement of the aeroplane through an air
mass. These are summarised as follows:
TR/GS ■ heading and true airspeed (HDG/TAS)
HDG/TAS together is the velocity of the aeroplane
relative to the air;
■ wind velocity (W/V) is the velocity of
the air mass itself, relative to the ground;
and
Drift ■ track and groundspeed (TR/GS) is the
resultant of applying W/V to HDG/TAS,
10-30.EPS A
which is the actual movement of the
Figure 1-30 The triangle of velocities. aeroplane relative to the ground.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

1: Fundamentals of Air Navigation 19

These three vectors together form a vector triangle, commonly known as a triangle of
velocities, which gives a pictorial representation of the vector addition:
HDG/TAS + W/V = TR/GS
We add the two vectors for HDG/TAS and W/V, head to tail; that is, starting from
A, the head of the HDG/TAS vector at B is the starting point for the tail of the W/V
vector, which then ends up at C.
The resultant effect of the two combined is the TR/GS vector starting at A and fin-
ishing at C. This is the path that the aeroplane would fly over the ground. The angle
between the heading and the track is called drift.
At the flight planning stage, you will know your planned track and the forecast wind.
Using the known true airspeed, you can calculate the heading required to make good
the planned track and the expected groundspeed. Because of the obvious inconvenience
of having to plot a triangle of velocities to find the heading and groundspeed, a naviga-
tion computer is used to more easily solve the problem for us. Do not be frightened by
the navigation computer. It is a marvellous device designed to make navigational tasks
easier, and its use will be described in chapter 4.
Once in flight, however, you may find that even though you fly the heading and air-
speed accurately, your actual track made good (TMG) will differ from the planned track;
that is, there is a track error. It could be due to the actual wind being different to the fore-
cast wind that you used for the flight plan. It therefore follows that you may have to
adjust the heading to regain track.

W/V

HDG/TAS TR/GS

10-31.EPS

Figure 1-31 The wind side of a typical navigation computer.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

20 Navigation

Terminology Summary
■ Latitude is the angular distance of a point on the surface of the earth from the equator,
measured and expressed in degrees north or south.
■ Longitude is the angular distance of a point on the surface of the earth from the prime
meridian (the meridian of longitude running through Greenwich), measured and
expressed in degrees east or west.
■ A Great circle is a circle on the surface of the earth, the centre of which lies at the
centre of the earth.
■ Nautical mile is the standard unit of distance for air navigation purposes. It is equal to
the distance covered by 1 min of latitude on the surface of the earth, measured along
a meridian. The international nautical mile is exactly 1,852 m.
■ Knot is the standard unit of airspeed, equivalent to 1 nm/hr. Indicated airspeed (IAS)
is important for the consideration of aerodynamic performance, but true airspeed
(TAS) is the primary concern for navigation purposes.
■ HDG/TAS: heading (HDG) is the longitudinal HDG
orientation of the aircraft, being the direction in
degrees in which the aircraft is pointing. HDG TR
is expressed relative to either true north (°T) or
magnetic north (°M). True airspeed (TAS) is
This aircraft is
the actual speed of the aircraft relative to the air. drifting to the
It will invariably differ from the speed read from right of where
it is pointing
the airspeed indicator, the indicated airspeed
(IAS), due to variations in the actual air density Drift – measured
from ISA. from HDG to TR
e.g. 20˚ RIGHT
■ TR/GS: track (TR) is the path of the aircraft
over the surface of the earth, expressed in either
degrees true or degrees magnetic. Groundspeed 10-32.EPS

(GS) is the speed of the aircraft relative to the Figure 1-32 Drift is the angle between
HDG and TR measured from HDG.
ground, measured in knots. A GS of 120 kt
indicates that 120 nm across the ground would
be covered in 1 hr.
■ Drift is the angular difference between the HDG steered by the pilot and the track of
the aircraft over the ground. The W/V is responsible for the drift of the aircraft from
the HDG/TAS vector onto the TR/GS vector. Drift is measured from the HDG to
the TR and is specified in degrees left or right of HDG (see figure 1-32).
■ W/V is a vector quantity comprising the wind direction (expressed in degrees true or
magnetic), being the direction from which the wind is blowing and the wind speed
(expressed in knots, or nautical miles per hour).

Altimetry (Vertical Navigation)

Navigating a ship or a car is basically a two-dimensional activity, that is, we deal with
direction and speed in the horizontal plane. Navigating an aeroplane, on the other hand,
requires us to think about a third dimension: the vertical. A thorough understanding of
vertical navigation is vital to us as pilots for three reasons:
■ for terrain clearance, to ensure that the aeroplane will not collide with the terrain or
fixed obstacles on the ground;
■ for traffic separation, to ensure that we have safe vertical separation from other
aeroplanes; and
■ to allow us to utilise the performance capabilities of our aeroplane to the full.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

1: Fundamentals of Air Navigation 21

Vertical navigation, then, is the guidance of the flight in the vertical plane. It includes
the measurement of vertical distance in the atmosphere, known as altimetry.

Vertical Measurement
We already know that we use the altimeter to measure height. When we use the term
height in a general sense, we all understand what we are talking about; such as the height
of a tree, or the height of Mount Everest. However, in altimetry, there are in fact three
distinct terms used for vertical measurement, and these have international definitions.
These appear in AIP GEN 2.2.
■ Altitude is the vertical distance of a level, a point, or an object considered as a point,
measured from mean sea level (MSL).
■ Height is the vertical distance of a level, a point, or an object considered as a point,
measured from a specified datum.
■ Flight level is a surface of constant atmospheric pressure that is related to a specified
pressure datum, 1,013.2 hPa, and is separated from other such surfaces by specified
pressure intervals.

Altimeter Settings
A pressure altimeter calibrated in accordance with the international standard atmosphere
has the following properties:
■ when set to a QNH altimeter setting, it will indicate altitude;
■ when set to a QFE altimeter setting, it will indicate height above the QFE reference
datum; and
■ when set to a pressure of 1,013.2 hPa, it may be used to indicate flight levels.

Note. QFE settings are not used in Australia, but you need to know the meaning
of the term for examination purposes.

QNH Setting
The atmospheric pressure at mean sea level (MSL) is seldom, if ever, the same as the ISA
value of 1,013.2 hPa. The actual MSL pressure at any one place is called the QNH, and
as just explained, an altimeter set to QNH (with the altimeter subscale set to the actual
MSL) will indicate altitude.

Altitude

QNH (actual MSL pressure

Mean sea level at any one place)
10-33.EPS

Figure 1-33 Altitude and QNH.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

22 Navigation

Variations in Mean Sea Level Pressure

Not only does the actual MSL pressure differ most of the time from that under ISA con-
ditions, but it also varies from day to day, and even from hour to hour, as the various
pressure systems move across the country. The MSL pressures are depicted on synoptic
charts, which you will probably have seen at your flying school or in the daily media.
Look at the following typical synoptic charts for two successive days.
We can see from these charts that in the space of 24 hours, the MSL pressure at Mel-
bourne had dropped from 1,030 hPa to 990 hPa. In other words, on June 12, the QNH
at Melbourne was 1,030 hPa, and on June 13, it was 990 hPa.

June 12 June 13

L H 1030
990 ML L ML
990

10-34.EPS

Figure 1-34 Two successive synoptic charts.

The elevation of Melbourne International (YMML) is 434 ft, that is, it is 434 ft above
mean sea level. Since the QNH is the MSL pressure, it follows that with the altimeter
subscale set to this value, the altimeter will read the elevation of YMML. Even though
the value of QNH has altered quite dramatically in the 24-hour period, the altimeter
will still read 434 ft.

YESTERDAY TODAY

1030 990

434 ft 434 ft
434 ft 434 ft

MSL MSL
QNH 1030 hPa QNH 990 hPa

10-35.EPS

Figure 1-35 Aerodrome QNH changes continuously.

The charts we use for navigation show the height above mean sea level of all high
ground and obstacles. Therefore, with the altimeter set to QNH, we will have an imme-
diate indication of our vertical separation from the ground beneath us (terrain clear-
ance). This was the first of the reasons for us to study the subject of vertical navigation.
Imagine the situation of three aeroplanes operating out of Canberra (CB), which has
an elevation of 1,888 ft, and the QNH for CB is 1,021 hPa (see figure 1-36, page 23).
Aeroplane A is parked on the tarmac at CB, and with the QNH set on the altimeter
subscale, the altimeter will read the aerodrome elevation of 1,888 ft. Another aeroplane,
B, is flying in the circuit at 1,000 ft above aerodrome level (AAL) on the QNH. The
altimeter will therefore read 2,888 ft. A third aeroplane, C, is overflying CB at an altitude

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

1: Fundamentals of Air Navigation 23

of 4,500 ft, the altimeter indicating 4,500 ft with the QNH of 1,021 hPa set on the sub-
scale. The pilot will know that there is a terrain clearance of 1,200 ft from the high
ground immediately beneath the aeroplane.
C
4,500 ft

1,200 ft 1021

Mt Ainslie 2,888 ft
B
1021

1,000 ft A
3,300 ft
1021
CB
1,888 ft
1,888 ft

QNH 1021 hPa MSL 10-36.EPS

Figure 1-36 Altimeter set to QNH indicates altitude and provides terrain clearance.

Effect of Variations in the MSL Pressure

What happens to our actual height above sea level, and therefore terrain clearance, if we
fly from one place to another without changing the subscale setting on the altimeter to
account for a change in the value of QNH? Suppose we are planning a flight from Kal-
goorlie (KG) to Griffith (GTH) at a cruising altitude of 7,500 ft. We set the KG QNH
of 995 hPa on the altimeter subscale, depart for GTH and climb to 7,500 ft.

Plan view

995
L H
KG GTH
1020
hPa vel
995 re le
ss u
pre

Pa
0 h vel
Cross-section 102 ure le
ss
Elev pre
KG 1,182 ft
Elev
10-37.EPS

GTH 446 ft

MSL MSL
Indian QNH KG QNH GTH Pacific
Ocean 995 hPa 1020 hPa Ocean

Figure 1-37 Plan and profile views of synoptic situation.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

24 Navigation

As we track towards GTH, we are flying towards an area of steadily increasing pres-
sure. If we carefully maintain a steady altimeter reading of 7,500 ft with 995 hPa still set,
we will in fact be in a gradual climb with respect to sea level. This is because 995 hPa is
no longer the MSL pressure; the 995 hPa level will actually be above MSL.
Similarly, an aircraft flying in the opposite direction, with GTH QNH 1,020 hPa set
in its subscale and cruising at 8,500 ft, will actually execute a gradual descent, if correc-
tions for the change in MSL pressure are not made.
It should now be obvious that the constant variation of MSL pressure has the potential
to cause two significant operational problems as described in the following.

Terrain Clearance
If an aeroplane is tracking from an area of higher pressure towards an area of lower pres-
sure at a constant indicated altitude and the original QNH remains set on the altimeter
subscale, the aeroplane will actually descend towards MSL. If it is tracking over areas of
high terrain or maintaining a relatively low cruising altitude, terrain clearance could be
a problem. Therefore, if corrections are not made to the QNH setting the following will
occur:
■ when flying from high pressure to low pressure, the altimeter will over-read.
■ when flying from low pressure to high pressure, the altimeter will under-read.

From high to low, beware below.

Traffic Separation
Consider the following scenario: two aircraft are tracking towards the same radio navi-
gation aid on converging paths, with similar ETAs. One aircraft is maintaining an indi-
cated altitude of 8,500 ft with a pressure setting of 1,020 hPa, while the other is cruising
at an indicated altitude of 7,500 ft with a pressure setting of 995 hPa. Both pilots are
unconcerned, since they have established by radio that there is a more than adequate
margin of 1,000 ft between their respective indicated altitudes. Imagine their surprise
when, upon arriving overhead the navaid, they find that rather than having a vertical
separation of 1,000 ft, their actual separation is only 250 ft!

250 ft

7,750 ft

8,500 ft
7,500 ft

= 750 ft
25 × 30 ft
ressure le
vel 25 hPa =
995 hPa p

level
pressure
1020 hPa 10-38.EPS

Figure 1-38 Safe traffic separation requires all aircraft in the same vicinity to use the same QNH altimeter setting.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

1: Fundamentals of Air Navigation 25

Area QNH
To ensure a proper vertical separation, all aircraft operating in the same general vicinity
must use the same altimeter subscale setting, and this setting is known as the area QNH.
Area QNH settings are used by all aircraft operating at or below 10,000 ft AMSL. The
area QNH is a forecast value that is valid for a period of 3 hours and normally applies
throughout an area QNH zone. Australia is divided into a number of area QNH zones
(AQZs) to facilitate the provision of accurate area QNH values. The area QNH zones
are aligned to be coincident with the low-level area forecast (ARFOR) boundaries as
shown on the Planning Chart Australia (PCA) (see chapter 3).

Availability of Area QNH

Before flight, the area QNH will be available through the AVFAX system by one of the
following options:
■ specific AQZ product codes for individual requests;
■ area QNH automatically linked to requested ARFOR; and
■ area QNH linked to group listings.

In flight, VFR aircraft are expected to use the local QNH obtained from an aero-
drome’s ATIS (within 100 nm) or from the forecast.

Accuracy of Area QNH Settings

Area QNH values are required to be accurate to within 5 hPa of the actual QNH at any
low-level point (below 1,000 ft AMSL) within, or on, the boundary of their respective
AQZs during the period of validity of the forecast. This means that the indicated altitude
will be within ±150 ft of the actual altitude anywhere in the associated AQZ. This mar-
gin is accurate for terrain clearance or vertical separation purposes.
If the prevailing meteorological situation means that a wide variation of QNH exists
within a particular AQZ, then it will be subdivided further to maintain the required
accuracy of ±5 hPa. This is also the case when the area QNH values of two adjacent
AQZs differ by more than 5 hPa.

Flight Levels
When cruising at or below 10,000 ft in Australia, the area QNH is used and all opera-
tions use altitudes. What happens when we want to fly above this altitude?
One of the reasons for using area QNH is to ensure an accurate datum for terrain
clearance. The highest mountains in Australia are no more than some 7,000 ft. This
means that once we fly above 10,000 ft, the need for an accurate reference for terrain
clearance purposes has diminished. Instead, it is more important to have all traffic oper-
ating on a common pressure setting. For this, we select the standard MSL pressure of
1,013 hPa, and with the altimeter set to this, we fly at flight levels. The altitude of
10,000 ft is thus called the transition altitude.

Pressure Height (Pressure Altitude)

You will recall that the definition of height refers to the vertical distance measured from
a specified datum. When flying with the altimeter set to 1,013 hPa, and therefore oper-
ating at flight levels, we are in fact flying at a pressure height using 1,013 hPa as the spec-
ified datum. You will find the term pressure altitude on most navigation computers; this
is an alternative term and has precisely the same meaning as pressure height. For practical
purposes, we assume that up to about 5,000 ft above sea level, the pressure falls by 1 hPa
per 30 ft. Thus in ISA conditions, the MSL pressure of 1,013 hPa will have fallen to
approximately 846 hPa at 5,000 ft. Above this height, the rate of change of pressure
decreases with altitude.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

26 Navigation

The conversion from IAS to TAS requires a knowledge of pressure height since the
airspeed indicator is calibrated under ISA conditions. In addition, because aeroplane
performance charts are based on ISA conditions (1,013 hPa and +15°C), your aero-
drome elevation needs to be corrected for any deviation from the ISA in order to find
pressure height. There are two methods of determining pressure height:
■ we can set 1,013 hPa on the altimeter subscale and read off directly the value of the
pressure height; or
■ we can make a simple calculation as shown below, using our knowledge that up to
5,000 ft, the approximate rate of fall of pressure is 1 hPa per 30 ft.

Calculating Pressure Height

To calculate pressure height, we convert the arithmetic difference in hectopascals
between the QNH and the ISA MSL pressure of 1,013 hPa. This is then converted to
feet by multiplying by 30. This correction amount is then added to, or subtracted from,
as appropriate, the altitude to obtain pressure height. For example:
Difference between 1,013 hPa and QNH of 996 hPa = (1,013 hPa – 996 hPa)  30 ft/hPa
= +17 hPa  30 ft/hPa
= +510 ft

Difference between 1,013 hPa and QNH of 1,026 hPa = (1,013 hPa – 1,026 hPa)  30 ft/hPa
= –13 hPa  30 ft/hPa
= –390 ft
Therefore, when 1,013 is greater than QNH, pressure height is greater than elevation.
Conversely, when 1,013 is less than QNH, pressure height is less than elevation.

Example 1-1
Determine the pressure height if we are cruising at 4,500 ft on an area QNH of 996 hPa.
See figure 1-39.
Answer. Pressure height = 4,500 ft + 510 ft = 5,010 ft. This pressure height is now
used in conjunction with the outside air temperature to compute our TAS from IAS.

4,500 ft on area QNH

Altitude
Pressure height
= (4,500 + 510)
= 5,010 ft

Area
996 hPa
QNH

(1013 – 996) x 30 = +17 hPa × 30 = +510 ft 17 hPa difference

ISA 1013 hPa 10-39.EPS

Figure 1-39 Example 1-1 – how to find pressure height.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

1: Fundamentals of Air Navigation 27

Example 1-2
Determine the pressure height if we are cruising at 7,500 ft on an area QNH of
1,028 hPa. See figure 1-40.
Answer. Pressure height = 7,500 ft – 450 ft = 7,050 ft.

7,500 ft on area QNH

Pressure height
= (7,500 – 450)
= 7,050 ft
Altitude

ISA 1013 hPa

(1013 - 1028) x 30 = -15hPa ¥ 30 = -450 ft 15 hPa difference

Area 1028 hPa 10-40.EPS

QNH
Figure 1-40 Example 1-2.

Altimeter Setting Rules

Now that we have explained the various altimeter settings, we can see how these are
used when complying with the altimeter setting rules.
The system of altimetry in Australia uses a transition layer between the transition altitude,
which is always 10,000 ft, and the transition level of FL110. When operating at or below
10,000 ft altitude, you should set your altimeter to the local QNH of the nearest aero-
drome within 100 nm of your position. This means that you must extract the QNH for
any aerodrome within 100 nm of your flightpath from its TAF or obtain its actual QNH
from any available ATIS or AWIB. If this information is not available for any reason (e.g.
you are outside 100 nm from the nearest aerodrome for which a forecast or actual QNH
is available), you will have to use the area QNH. This may be extracted from the area
forecast (if still current) or obtained by request from ATS (FLIGHTWATCH). During
the flight planning stage prior to departure, you must plan the requirement to update
the QNH en route by establishing where local QNHs are available along your planned
route. It is vital that you follow this procedure, as failure to do so could place you in
conflict with any IFR traffic that may be occupying the same airspace as you.
When you arrive at the point where you will commence descent to your destination
aerodrome, you should set the QNH for that aerodrome, extracted from its TAF or
obtained from the ATIS or AWIB, if available. When cruising at or above the transition
level (FL110), the altimeter must be set to the standard MSL pressure of 1,013.2 hPa
(1,013). You must note that you are not permitted to cruise within the transition layer.
These rules are illustrated in figure 1-41 (page 28).

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

28 Navigation

Limitations
To ensure that the 1,000-foot buffer of the transition layer is maintained, FL110 will not
be available when the area QNH is less than 1,013 hPa. As will be seen from figure 1-41,
with a progressive decrease in the value of the area QNH, the lowest FL available for
cruising becomes higher and higher. For example, if the area QNH is below 980 hPa,
the lowest cruising level for VFR operations will be FL125.

Figure 1-41 Figure 1 from AIP ENR 1.7.

Selection of Cruising Levels

For VFR flights below 10,000 ft, you will be flying with the area QNH set and will
select a cruising level in accordance with the table of ICAO cruising levels found in the
AIP and reproduced in figure 1-42. Other factors affecting the choice of flight levels are
covered in volume 3 of this series, Aircraft Operation, Performance and Planning.

Table B – VFR Cruising Levels

Magnetic Tracks From 000° through From 180° through

East to 179° West to 359°

Cruising Altitudes 1,500 7,500 2,500 8,500

(Area QNH) 3,500 9,500 4,500
5,500 6,500

Cruising Flight Levels 115 175 125 185

(1013HPA) 135 195 145
155 165

Note* FL115 is not available for level flight when the Area QNH is less than 997 HPA
FL125 is not available for level flight when the Area QNH is less than 963 HPA

Note 1:Pilots should be aware that VFR aircraft outside controlled airspace may be
operating at random levels below 5,000FT AMSL (see para 31.2.2)

Figure 1-42 Extract from AIP ENR 1.7.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

1: Fundamentals of Air Navigation 29

Preflight Altimeter Checks

It is important that you know your altimeter is functioning correctly. Rules for preflight
checks are given in AIP.

PRE-FLIGHT ALTIMETER CHECK

General
Whenever an accurate QNH is available and the aircraft is at a known elevation, pilots
must conduct an accuracy check of the aircraft altimeter(s) at some point prior to take-off.
In order of priority, the pilot should use ramp, threshold or airfield reference point elevation
for the check.
Note: Where the first check indicates that an altimeter is unserviceable it is permissible to
conduct a further check at another location on the same airfield – for example the first on
the ramp and the second at the runway threshold – to determine altimeter serviceability.

VFR Altimeters
With an accurate QNH set, a VFR altimeter(s) should read site elevation to within 100FT
(110FT at test sites above 3,300FT) to be accepted by the pilot as serviceable. If an aircraft
fitted with two VFR altimeters continues to fly with one altimeter reading 100FT (110FT)
or more in error, the faulty altimeter must be placarded unserviceable and the error noted
in the maintenance release.
Accurate QNH and Site Elevation
A QNH can be considered accurate if it is provided by ATIS, Tower or an automatic remote-
reporting aerodrome sensor. Area or forecast QNH must not be used for the test.
Site elevation must be derived from aerodrome survey data published by Airservices or
supplied by the aerodrome owner.

Figure 1-43 Extract from AIP ENR 1.7.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

30 Navigation

Review 1
1. For navigation purposes, the unit of measurement for distance is the . . . . .
2. The unit of length for shorter distances, such as runway lengths, is the . . . . .
3. The unit of measurement for height is the . . . . .
4. A circle on the earth’s surface the centre of which is the centre of the earth is called
a .....
5. Great circles on the earth’s surface passing through the north and south geographic
poles are known as meridians of . . . . .
6. Position on the surface of the earth is usually specified by reference to a graticule in
terms of . . . . . and . . . . .
7. Parallels of latitude (do/do not) run parallel to the equator and to each other.
8. 1 minute of arc of latitude on the earth’s surface has a length of . . . . . nautical mile.
9. An international nautical mile is equal to . . . . . metres.
10. The speed of the aeroplane relative to the air mass is called its . . . . .
11. To completely specify the motion of an aeroplane relative to an air mass we need to
specify two things: its . . . . . and its . . . . .
12. The heading and true airspeed vector is symbolised by a . . . . . - headed arrow.
13. The movement of an air mass relative to the ground is called . . . . .
14. The wind direction, by convention, is the direction (to/from) which the wind blows.
15. The actual path of an aeroplane over the ground is called its . . . . .
16. The speed of an aeroplane relative to the ground is called its . . . . .
17. The direction in which an aeroplane points is called its . . . . .
18. The angle between the direction an aeroplane is pointing (i.e. its heading) and the
direction in which it is travelling over the ground (i.e. its track made good) is called
the . . . . . angle.
19. Sometimes the actual drift experienced in flight differs from that expected and the
aeroplane makes good a track which is different to that planned. The difference
between the planned track and the TMG is called the . . . . .
20. In figure 1-44, label the vectors AB and AC and the W/V
B C
angle A with their appropriate navigation terms.
21. The standard for measuring direction is to start at
north and proceed in a clockwise direction
for . . . . . degrees until you are back at north again.
22. The direction 090° clockwise from north is called
.....
23. The direction 180° clockwise from north is called
.....
24. The direction 270° clockwise from north is called
..... 10-45.EPS A
25. The earth rotates on its axis and the two points where
Figure 1-44 Question 20.
this axis meets the earth’s surface are called the
physical . . . . . pole and the physical . . . . . pole. They
are also referred to as . . . . . and . . . . .
26. Any ‘straight’ line drawn on the earth’s surface between the true poles (e.g. merid-
ians of longitude) will run in a true . . . . . – . . . . . direction.
27. The plane of a great circle on the earth (passes/does not pass) through the centre of
the earth.
28. The centre of a great circle drawn on the earth’s surface (is/is not) the centre of the earth.
29. The plane of a small circle drawn on the surface of the earth (passes/does not pass)
through the centre of the earth.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

1: Fundamentals of Air Navigation 31

30. The reference plane from which we measure latitude is the plane of the . . . . . , from
which we measure angular distance in degrees north or south.
31. The equator (is/is not) a great circle.
32. A parallel of latitude joins all points of the same latitude and is a (small/great) circle
(except for the equator).
33. The circumference of a parallel of latitude becomes smaller the closer the particular
parallel is to the (pole/equator).
34. Parallels of latitude (are/are not) parallel to the equator and to each other.
35. The basic reference for longitude is the . . . . . meridian that passes through Green-
wich.
36. Meridians of longitude all pass through the north and south geographic poles and
are (small/great) circles.
37. Longitude is angular position . . . . . or . . . . . of the prime meridian.
38. The earth approximates the shape of a oblate spheroid, but for practical navigation
purposes, the earth can be treated as a . . . . .
39. The shortest distance around the surface of the earth between two points is the
. . . . . of a great circle joining those points.
40. List three examples of great circles.
41. You wish to plot the position of Mount Livingstone (LVG) VOR on a large scale
survey map. The ERSA tells us that LVG’s position is (in decimal format), S37 08.5
E147 33.1. Express the coordinates of this position again, in degrees, minutes and
seconds (to within 3 s).
42. The datum we use to measure direction from is the . . . . . running through the
position.
43. Express the following headings as three-figure group headings. W = . . . . . °, SE
= . . . . . °, and 10° east of north = . . . . . °.
44. The angular difference between true north and magnetic north is called . . . . .
45. If you are steering 280°M and the variation is 4° west, what would be your true
heading?
46. If a radio mast has a relative bearing of 140° and you are heading 300°M, what is the
magnetic bearing of the mast?
47. Speed measured relative to the airmass through which an aircraft is moving is known
as . . . . . , whereas speed measured relative to the ground is known as . . . . .
48. Assuming a constant IAS, the TAS will (increase/stay the same/decrease) as we climb
to altitude?
49. Assuming a constant IAS, the TAS will (increase/stay the same/decrease) with a rise
in temperature?
50. Using your navigation computer, find the TAS of an aircraft cruising at a pressure
height of 12,000 ft, with an IAS of 110 kt, and the air temperature at –02°C.
51. W/V is one of the vectors that make up the triangle of velocities. Name the other
two and indicate which of them is the resultant in the triangle.
52. Drift is the angle between . . . . . and . . . . . , whereas track error is the angle
between . . . . . and . . . . .
53. List three reasons why vertical navigation (precise altitude awareness) is of vital
importance to the pilot.
54. In the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA), the pressure decreases approxi-
mately 1 hPa for each . . . . . ft increase in altitude up to approximately
(3,000/5,000/7,000) ft.
55. The temperature in a particular area (or airmass) is forecast to be uniformly, ISA+10.
What would you expect the temperature to be in °C at 4,000 ft in that area?
56. To read pressure height, what setting will you need on the subscale of your altimeter?

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

32 Navigation

57. If you maintain a constant height indication and QNH on the altimeter when flying
from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure, the altimeter will (under-
read/over-read)?
58. Setting the appropriate area QNH should ensure that your altimeter will indicate
correctly to within . . . . . ft in that area.
59. List two vitally important reasons why you should set QNH.
60. You expect a TAS of 102 kt and a 30 kt tailwind for a descent from 4,500 ft to
1,000 ft. You plan to descend at 700 fpm. What distance will you travel during your
descent?
61. Complete the following table, and give your answers to the nearest foot:

Altitude (ft) QNH (hPa) Pressure Height (ft)

2,000 1,013

1,100 1,000

5,000 998

3,500 1,007

1,005 4,000

1,020 6,500

1,018 3,000

997 2,000

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

 Chapter 2

Time

Time is of great importance for accurate navigation, and a clock or watch is one of the
basic instruments required in the cockpit by CAO 20.18.
Time enables the pilot to do the following:
■ regulate activities on board the aeroplane;
■ measure the progress of a flight;
■ estimate times of arrival at certain positions;
■ calculate a safe endurance for flight;
■ estimate when weather conditions at the destination are likely to improve; and
■ measure rest periods between flights, and so on.

Time is also used to measure the earth’s rotation. We relate the rotation of the earth
to the position of other celestial bodies, such as the sun, moon and stars, relative to the
earth. By using time, we can specify the beginning of daylight, sunrise, noon, sunset,
the end of daylight, midnight, moonrise, moonset and so on. To all pilots, time is of vital
importance and is a subject that must be mastered.

Motion of the Earth

To measure the passage of time, we need to relate it to some repetitive event. For our
ancestors, and indeed for us, a suitable recurring event is the apparent passage of the sun
across our skies – its highest point in the sky simply indicated by the shadows that it casts
being shortest. The sun appears to cross our skies once in every day.
On a longer time scale, we notice the regular passage of the seasons – spring, summer,
autumn and winter – a complete cycle of these being called one tropical year.
The sun has been used as a simple clock for thousands of years. Whereas early human-
kind thought that it was the sun that moved around the earth, we now know that this
is not the case. It is, in fact, the rotation of the earth on its axis that causes the appearance
of the sun travelling across our skies each day, hence the term apparent passage of the sun.
As our knowledge increased, the following were realised:
■ one day is the approximate time span of one revolution of the earth on its own axis;
and
■ one year is the approximate time span of one complete orbit of the earth around the
sun.
There is a third fundamental type of time apart from the rotation of the earth about
its own axis and the orbiting of the earth around the sun. It is atomic time, which is based
on the transitions in the atom. The basic principle of the atomic clock is that electro-
magnetic waves of a particular frequency are emitted when an atomic transition occurs.
The frequency of the cesium beam atomic clock is 9,192,631,770 cycles per second
(Hz), resulting in clock accuracies better than 1 part in 10–13 seconds. The cesium stand-
ard is used at the United States Naval Observatory and the Greenwich Royal Observa-
tory for master oscillators and clocks, now know as coordinated universal time (UTC).
Each day is divided into 24 hours, each hour is further divided into 60 minutes, and
each of these minutes is further divided into 60 seconds. To complete one orbit of the
sun, the earth takes about 365 and solar days.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE 33

34 Navigation

It is convenient to have a whole number of days in a year, and so we define the civil
year as 365 days. This mismatch between the tropical year and the civil year would cause
a shift in the dates of the seasons if not synchronized by the addition of leap days. At the
end of each 4 years (unless the year is a centurial year not evenly divisible by 400), when
the extra day each year adds up to one whole day, the extra day is added to give a leap
year of 366 days. This keeps our calendar reasonably in step with the seasons.

North geographic pole

Equ Sun
ator

11-01.EPS

South geographic pole

Figure 2-1 One rotation of the earth about its axis defines a day.

March
Northern
spring Southern
autumn

Northern summer Northern winter

June December
Southern winter Sun Southern summer

Northern
autumn Southern
spring
September 11-02.EPS

Figure 2-2 Orbit of the earth about the sun defines the year and the seasons.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

2: Time 35

Presentation of Date and Time

To measure time, we make use of repetitive events, such as the swinging of a pendulum
or the atomic vibrations within a quartz crystal, to design clocks that measure hours,
minutes and seconds. Each day is divided into 24 hours, commencing at zero hours at
midnight, i.e. 00 hr 00 min. The middle of the day is twelve hundred (1200) hours at
noon, i.e. 12 hr 00 min. The day finishes at 24 hundred (2400) hours the next midnight,
i.e. 24 hr 00 min, which lasts for just an instant and is 00 hr 00 min of the next day. In
aviation, these are usually written in the following manner:
■ 0000;
■ 1200; and
■ 2400.

It is usual to refer to midnight as 2400, being the end of one day, and 0000 (the same
instant) as being the commencement of the next day, followed by 0001, 0002, and so on.
The hours are numbered from 00 hr to 24 hr, and the 60 min of each hour are num-
bered from 00 min to 59 min. At midnight, the time changes from 23 hr 59 min to
00 hr 00 min, followed by 00 hr 01 min, and so on.
For flight planning and navigation purposes, we usually do not refer to the year or the
month but only the date of the month for the day, followed by the time in hours and
minutes. As most air navigation occurs within a few hours and only rarely is in excess of
30 or so hours, we can be reasonably confident about which year and month we are
referring to, and so there is no need to specify them. Seconds, which are ⁄ž of a minute,
are usually too short a time interval for us to be concerned with in practice.

Date and Time Groups

For aeronautical purposes, we use date and time groups to express time rather than the
more conventional methods we may be used to, such as 25th of August, March 15,
10.35 a.m., and 9.34 p.m. Depending on the situation, we can have a six-, eight- or ten-
figure date and time group, with the six-figure group being the most common. In all
instances, the largest time unit comes first, followed by each successive unit, thus years
precede months, months precede days, and so on. In the six-figure date and time group,
the date is a two-figure group for the day of the month from 00 to 31. This is then fol-
lowed by the time, written as a four-figure group on a 24-hour clock, the first two fig-
ures representing the hours from 00 to 24, and the last two figures representing the
minutes from 00 through to 59.

Example 2-1
Express 10.35 a.m., 13 September as a six-figure date and time group.
Answer. The four-figure time group for 10.35 a.m. is 1035. The two-figure date
group representing the day will be 13. Put the two groups together to get the six-
figure group: 131035.

Example 2-2
Express 3.21 p.m. on 17 March, as a six-figure date and time group.
Answer. First, convert 3.21 p.m. to 24-hour time by 12 00
adding 12 hours to express the four-figure time group.
+3 21
The two-figure date group representing the day will be
17. Put the two groups together to get the six-figure 15:21 in 24-hour time
group: 171521.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

36 Navigation

If there is a need to specify the month, this can be done using an eight-figure date
and time group. The time 3.45 p.m. on 30 September may be written as 09301545, an
eight-figure date and time group where:
■ the first two numbers refer to the month (09 for September);
■ the second two numbers refer to the day (30); and
■ the last four numbers refer to the hours and minutes (1545).

You may also come across ten-figure date and time groups. These identify the year as
well as the month, day and time of the currency of aviation information such as
NOTAMs (Notices to Airmen).
Taking the above example again, this NOTAM is current until 3.45 p.m. on 30 Sep-
tember in the year of issue. The end of the period of currency may be identified thus
0209301545 as a ten-figure date and time group where two extra digits (02) representing
the year 2002 precede the existing eight-figure date and time group.
In day-to-day flight operations the six-figure date and time group is usually the most satis-
factory, although you will see the eight-figure date and time group on NOTAMs.

Time and Arc: Relationship Between Time and Longitude

In one day, the earth will have made one complete rotation of 360° with respect to the
sun. The time of day is a measure of this rotation and indicates how much of that day
has elapsed or, in other words, how much of a rotation has been completed.

Sun

11-03.EPS

Figure 2-3 The earth rotates on its axis.

As observers on the earth, we do not feel its rotation on its own axis but rather see
the sun apparently move around the earth. In one mean solar day, the sun will appear to
have travelled the full 360° of longitude around the earth.

Noon

East
West Sunrise
Sunset A of A
of A
Sun
11-04.EPS

Figure 2-4 ‘Apparent’ motion of the sun around the earth.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

2: Time 37

Table 2-1 shows the relation between the arc of longitude

the sun appears to travel and the time interval. Arc Time
360° 24 hr
Conversions Between Arc and Time 15° 1 hr
You will need to be able to convert arc (longitude) to time. 1° 4 min
Such conversions are made easy by using the table ‘Conver-
15’ 1 min
sion of Arc to Time’ given in AIP GEN. This is reproduced
1’ 4s
in figure 2-5.
As the holder of a valid PPL or CPL, you will be allowed Table 2-1
to fly in other countries. Since these countries may not have Relation between arc of
longitude and time.
similar conversion tables available in their AIPs, you must be
able to perform the conversions by simple arithmetic as
explained in the following section.

Figure 2-5 Table for conversion of arc to time from AIP GEN.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

38 Navigation

Conversion of Time to Arc

To convert time to arc:
■ Multiply the hours by 15 to obtain a value in degrees. (1 hr = 15° arc of longitude.)
■ Divide the minutes of time by 4 to obtain a value in degrees.
■ Multiply the remainder by 15 to obtain a value in minutes of arc. (1 min of time =
° or 15 of arc.)
■ Add the values together to obtain a total.

Example 2-3
Convert 0923 to arc units.
Answer. First, consider the number of hours: 9 hr  15°/hr = 135°
Next, consider the minutes:

23 min  4 min/° = 5° and 3 min of time remaining

Remaining 3 min of time  15/min = 45 of arc
23 min = 5°45

Lastly, add the two amounts together:

9 hr 23 min = 135° + 5°45

= 140°45
(Check this in the AIP table).

Conversion of Arc to Time

To convert from arc to time:
■ Divide the degrees by 15 to obtain hours as the integer part of the quotient, and
multiply the remainder by 4 to obtain minutes of time.
■ Divide the minutes of arc by 15 to obtain minutes of time as the integer part of the
quotient, and multiply the remainder by 4 to obtain seconds of time.
■ Add the two values together to obtain a total.

Example 2-4
Convert 140°49 of arc of longitude to time units.
Answer. First, consider the degrees:
140°  15°/hr = 9 hr and 5° remaining
Remaining 5°  4 min/° = 20 min
140° = 9 hr 20 min
Then, consider the minutes of arc:
49  15/min = 3 min of time and 4 remaining
4  4 s/ = 16 s of time
49 = 3 min 16 s
Lastly, add the two values together: 9 hr 20 min + 3 min 16 s = 9 hr 23 min 16 s
(Also check this in the AIP table.)

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

 2: Time 39

Different Types of Time

Time and Longitude

Time is a measure of the rotation of the earth. Any given time interval can be repre-
sented by a corresponding angle through which the earth turns.
Suppose the sun, which is the celestial body that we generally use as the reference
point, is at its highest point in the sky for a day, that is, it is noon. For every point along
that same meridian of longitude, the sun will be at its highest point in the sky for that
day.

North Pole

Noo
n
Noo
n

Cross-section
of earth Sun
No
on

Noo
n
South Pole 11-06.EPS

Figure 2-6 Side view (cross section) of noon along a meridian.

However, other locations on the earth with a different meridian of longitude will not
have the sun at its highest point in the sky, and so it will not be noon at those locations.
In terms of time of day, those locations will either be ahead or behind of the points on
the meridian of longitude where it is noon. For every 15° difference in longitude, the
time difference is 1 hour. Meridians of longitude further east are ahead in local time;
meridians of longitude further west are behind in local time.

One hour later, the earth will have turned through

Plan View: Looking at the same situation at 15° and the mean sun will be overhead a meridian
the same time from above the North Pole. of longitude that is 15° further west.
is
on th
East East
ow 1300 n g itude
N lo
r id ia n of
Noon me
on this Noon, 1200, on this
North meridian Sun Sun
North 15° meridian of longitude
Pole Pole

West 11-07A.EPS

Figure 2-7 Plan views with one-hour time difference.

Example 2-5
Place A is 45° of longitude west of place B. How much earlier or later will noon occur
at A compared to B?
Answer. 45° arc of longitude = 45° ÷ 15°/hr = 3 hr, and because A is to the west
of B, noon will occur 3 hr later at A.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

40 Navigation

Local Mean Time

Local mean time (LMT) uses the sun as its celestial or heavenly reference point and the
local meridian of longitude as its terrestrial (earth) reference point. Therefore, all points
along the same meridian of longitude will have the same LMT.
The LMT along one meridian of longitude will not be the same as the LMT along
another meridian of longitude, and the difference will equal the change in longitude
expressed in time units. The further east the place is, the further ahead it is in LMT.

Example 2-6
If it is noon LMT at Sydney (longitude 151°18E), how much earlier or later will it be
noon at Canberra (longitude 149°05E)?

Answer. First, calculate the difference in longitude:

Sydney longitude 151°18E

Canberra longitude – 149°05 E
2°13

Now we convert 2°13 into time units:

2° = 8 min (as 1° = 4 min of time)

13 = 52 s (as 1 = 4 s of time)
2°13  = 8 min 52 s of time

Because Canberra is to the west of Sydney, noon at Canberra will be 8 min 52 s

later than noon at Sydney.
The alternative solution is to convert the longitudes direct to time using the table
in figure 2-5, and then obtain the time difference.

151°18E = 10 05 12
149°05E = 9 56 20
 Time difference = 0 08 52

As we will see shortly, we need to derive LMT when determining the times of the
beginning and end of daylight, which is essential data for us as VFR (day) pilots.

Coordinated Universal Time (Formerly Greenwich Mean Time)

UTC is the local mean time at the meridian of longitude that runs through the observ-
atory at Greenwich, London. The Greenwich meridian is longitude 0°E/W and is
known as the prime meridian. Because all our navigation, flight planning and radio
communications are in UTC, we need to be able to convert quickly and accurately from
whatever time we are using into UTC, and vice versa.

Meridians to the east are ahead in time. Longitude east, universal least.
Meridians to the west are behind in time. Longitude west, universal best.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

2: Time 41

Example 2-7
If it is 231531LMT on the 150°E meridian of longitude, what time is it in UTC?
Answer. 150°E = 10 hr ahead (longitude east, universal least) so subtract 10 hr from
LMT: 230531 UTC.
23 15 31 LMT at 150°E
– 10 00
23 05 31 UTC

Example 2-8
It is 282340 on the 138°15W meridian of longitude. Express this LMT in coordinated
universal time (UTC).
Answer. 138°15W = 9 hr 13 min behind (longitude west, universal best) so add
this to LMT: 290853 UTC.
28 23 40 LMT at 138°15W
+ 9 13
28 32 53 and of course 32 hr = 1 day 8 hr
29 08 53 UTC

Example 2-9
Convert 300825 UTC to LMT at the 138°15W meridian.
Answer. 138°15W = 9 hr 13 min behind (longitude west, universal best) so sub-
tract this from UTC: 292312 LMT.

30 08 25 UTC
– 9 13
29 23 12 LMT at 138°15W
Remember. LMT applies to one specific meridian. As you work through time con-
version problems, label each line appropriately as LMT, UTC or (as we shortly see)
standard time. It is also good practice to include the date (by using a six-figure date
and time group); this will ensure that you end up knowing whether the answer you
derive applies to the correct day. This is particularly critical in problems across the
international date line.

Standard (or Local) Time

Obviously, the use of LMT is not practical, particularly for day-to-day life and com-
merce, since every meridian (and thus every community within a particular area) would
have its own LMT. Consequently, there is a need to adopt for a given area, a standard
time or local time (not to be confused with LMT). With this in mind, Australia, like other
continents, is subdivided into arbitrary time zones that represent the agreed standard
time differences in relation to UTC.

Eastern Standard Time

The eastern states of Australia use the 150°E meridian as the datum for their local time,
known as Eastern Standard Time (EST). We now know that 150° of arc is equivalent to
10 hr, and as it is an easterly longitude, EST is ahead of UTC. Therefore, at 0400 UTC
it will 0400 + 10 = 1400 EST. EST is 10 hr ahead of UTC.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

42 Navigation

Because of the spread of the time zone across the states, if someone in Sydney is talk-
ing to someone in Mildura, their watches will tell the same time, EST. On the other
hand, when the sun is directly overhead in Sydney (it is noon LMT for the longitude of
Sydney), there will still be some 36 min to go before the sun is directly overhead Mil-
dura. (You have enough knowledge now to be able to work this out for yourself!) This
difference is of no significance when compared to the convenience of everyone having
the same time set on their clocks.

Central Standard Time

Central Standard Time (CST) is used in the central states of Australia (South Australia
and the Northern Territory) and Broken Hill in western New South Wales. It is based
on the 142°30E meridian of longitude, which is equivalent to 9 hr 30 min. Therefore,
at 0400 UTC, it is 1330 CST and 1400 EST. CST is 9 hr 30 min ahead of UTC.

Western Standard Time

Western Standard Time (WST) is used in Western Australia and is based on the 120°E
meridian of longitude, which is equivalent to 8 hours. Therefore, at 0400 UTC, it is
1200 WST, 1330 CST and 1400 EST. WST is 8 hr ahead of UTC.

Summary
These time differences between UTC and EST, CST and WST need to be remembered.
We recommend that when you are doing time problems, it is a good idea to work in
UTC, which you can think of as universal time. Convert from whatever time you are
in (be it one of the standard times, such as EST or LMT at a certain meridian) to UTC,
carry out whatever calculations you need to, and then convert back into the time unit
you want your answer to be in.

Example 2-10
You depart Melbourne at 150120 EST for a scheduled 4-hour flight to Perth. What is
your estimate for Perth in WST?
Answer. Convert the departure time for Melbourne to UTC:
15 01 20 EST
– 10 00 (correction for EST to UTC)
14 15 20 UTC

Add the flight time to obtain the estimate for Perth in UTC:
14 15 20 UTC
+ 4 00
14 19 20 UTC

Now convert estimate to WST to give 150320WST:

14 19 20 UTC
+ 8 00 (correction for WST to UTC)
15 03 20 WST

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

2: Time 43

Summer Time
To take advantage of the longer daylight hours and the better weather in summer, in
many places around the world, the clocks are put forward, usually by one hour. In some
Australian states, this occurs between October and March, as notified by NOTAM or
published in the media. What was 0800EST now becomes 0900ESuT (9 a.m. Eastern
Summer Time) to which everyone sets their clocks and uses as a standard or local time
to regulate their daily lives.
EST = UTC + 10 hr; for example, 1000EST = 0000 UTC.
ESuT = UTC + 11 hr; for example, 1100ESuT = 0000 UTC.
CST = UTC + 9 hr 30 min.
CSuT = UTC + 10 hr 30 min.
Note. All times around the world are related to UTC, and the basis of coordinated
universal time (UTC) does not change. Even if the United Kingdom itself changes
from UTC to Summer Time (when British Summer Time equals UTC + 1 hr,
and, say, 1200 UTC is the same as 1300 BST), the basis of UTC remains the same.

International Date Line

Suppose that the time at the Greenwich meridian was 270600 LMT (i.e. 270600 UTC).
Now, if you travelled eastwards from Greenwich to the 180°E meridian, the local mean
time there would be 12 hours ahead of the LMT at Greenwich, that is 271800 LMT at
180°E. However, if you travelled westwards from Greenwich to the 180°W meridian,
then the time there would be 12 hours behind Greenwich, i.e. 261800 LMT.
The 180°E and 180°W meridians are, of course, the one and the same meridian, the
anti-meridian to Greenwich, and we have the situation of it being midnight in its vicin-
ity, but on different dates depending upon which side of the 180° meridian that you are
on. Making a complete trip around the world, you would lose a day travelling westwards
or gain a day travelling eastwards.

26 1800 LMT 27 1800 LMT

180°

–11 12 +11
–10 +10
–9 +9
–8 +8

–7 +7

26 0000 LMT 090°W North 27 1200 LMT

–6 Pole +6 090°E

–5 +5

–4 +4
–3 +3
W

s
de
es

–2 +2
tu
tl

ng
gi
o

it u –1 0 +1 on
de s tl
s Ea
Greenwich
0°
27 0600 LMT 11-08.EPS

Figure 2-8 Although LMT is the same at the 180° meridian, the date is different,
depending on whether it is approached from the west or the east.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

44 Navigation

To prevent the date being in error and to

provide a starting point for each day, a date
line has been fixed by international agree-
The date line
ment. It is basically the 180° meridian, with 180° meridian
minor excursions to keep groups of islands of longitude
0° meridian
together. In crossing the date line, you alter
the date by one day, in effect changing your Apparent
180° 0° passage
time by 24 hours to compensate for the slow East
of the sun
change during your journey around the West long.
long.
world.
In summary, if you cross the date line Sun

travelling eastwards, you subtract one day to South Pole 11-09.EPS

your calculations (that is, as you go from east Figure 2-9

longitudes across the date line, which The date line runs
approximates the 180° meridian, into the basically along the 180° meridian.

west longitudes, subtract one day). Simi-

larly, if you cross the date line travelling
westwards, you add one day to your calcu-
lations.

Earth's rotation
180°

Russia
U.K
International

North
Date Line

Europe America Greenwich

Asia
Japan

Africa –1 day

+1 day South
America
180° Meridian

Sun Aus Sun

(Approx)

11-10.EPS

0° 090°E E 180° W 090°W 0°

Noon 3 pm 6 pm 9 pm Midnight 3 am 6 am 9 am Noon

Today Yesterday
Tonight Last Night
Tomorrow Today
Tomorrow Night Tonight
Dateline

Figure 2-10 If crossing the date line travelling eastwards, subtract one day; travelling westwards, add one day.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

2: Time 45

Astronomical Times

Sunrise and Sunset

Sunrise occurs when the upper limb of the sun (the first part visible) is on the visible hori-
zon. Sunset occurs when the upper limb of the sun (the last part visible) is just disap-
pearing below the visible horizon.

Twilight
As we are all aware, it starts to become light before the sun actually rises, and it stays light
until after the sun has set. This period of incomplete light, or if you like, incomplete
darkness, is called twilight, and the period from the start of morning twilight until the end
of evening twilight is called daylight.
Morning civil twilight begins when the centre of the sun is 6° below the celestial hori-
zon. It is usually light enough to see the horizon clearly, yet dark enough for bright stars
to be visible, depending, of course, upon atmospheric conditions. Similarly, evening civil
twilight ends, as does daylight, when the centre of the sun is 6° below the celestial hori-
zon.

otio n of the Sun around

re nt m the
Ea
A ppa r th
Sunlight

Daylight

Sunset Sunrise
6˚ 6˚
Sun Sun
Duration Duration
of evening g Earth Mo of morning
nin civ rni
twilight Eve ilight il tw ng twilight
il t w ilig
civ ht

Night Night
11-11.EPS

Figure 2-11 Morning and evening civil twilight.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

46 Navigation

Duration of Twilight
In the tropics, the sun will rise and set at almost 90° to the horizon, which will make
the period of twilight quite short and the onset of daylight or night quite dramatic. In
the higher latitudes, towards the north and south poles, the sun will rise and set at a more
oblique angle to the horizon, hence the period of twilight will be much longer and the
onset of daylight or darkness far more gradual (figure 2-12).

Sunlight Sunlight

Horizon

Twilight Twilight Twilight

6° below horizon

Darkness Darkness

11-12AB.EPS
Tropical latitudes Middle latitudes

Figure 2-12 Sunrise at tropical and middle latitudes.

At certain times of the year inside the Arctic and Antarctic Circles, the period of twi-
light might occur, but the sun may not actually rise above the horizon at all during the
day. This would be the winter situation (figure 2-13).
No sunlight
Horizon

Twilight only (in winter)

6° below horizon

Darkness

Polar latitudes 11-12C.EPS

Figure 2-13 Winter twilight in polar latitudes.

Daylight
Factors Affecting Duration of Daylight
The beginning of daylight (morning civil twilight) and the end of daylight (evening civil
twilight) depend upon two things: date and latitude.

Date North Pole

In summer, the beginning of daylight (BoD)
is earlier and the end of daylight (EoD) is Darkness A
later, that is, the daylight hours are longer in Sun
summer. The reverse occurs in winter. Equato
r
B

Latitude C 11-13.EPS

Places A, B, and C in figure 2-14 are all on Figure 2-14 Places A, B and C, although on the same
meridian, experience different conditions of daylight
the same meridian of longitude, and therefore and darkness due to being at different latitudes.
all have the same local mean time (LMT).

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

2: Time 47

However, as we can see, they are on different latitudes and so have totally different con-
ditions of daylight and darkness. At A, the sun is well up in the sky and it is in full day-
light. At B, the sun is just about to rise (i.e. beginning of daylight), while at C, the sun
has yet to rise, and it is therefore still dark (i.e. night-time). The shadow line caused by
the sun on the earth is called the terminator.

Factors Affecting Daylight Conditions

While to an observer at sea level, the sun may appear to have set and the earth is no
longer bathed in sunlight, an aeroplane directly above may still have the sun shining on
it. In other words, the time at which the sun rises or sets will depend upon the altitude
of the observer.
It follows, therefore, that you may be deceived by brightness at altitude only to find
a few minutes later after descending to a lower altitude and possibly under some cloud
cover that it may become very dark.
Sunset
Sunlight
Sun

Sunlight Twilight
Darkness
Daylight
11-14.EPS

Figure 2-15 An aeroplane can be in sight of the sun after it has set on the earth below.

High ground to the west of the aerodrome will also reduce the amount of light as
night approaches. (Remember this when flying!)
When the sun is below the horizon, the brightness (or darkness) of the sky may vary
considerably from day to day and place to place, depending upon such things as:
■ the amount of cloud cover;
■ other atmospheric variables, such as:
– visibility;
– air temperature;
– air pressure;
– humidity; and
– atmospheric refraction; and
■ the amount of high ground between the sun and your position, which must be a
consideration if you are depending upon daylight for the safety of your flight opera-
tions, particularly when your destination is in hilly or mountainous areas.

Sunlight
Light Dark

Airport
11-15.EPS

Figure 2-16 Local sunrise and sunset is affected by terrain.

Calculating Beginning and End of Daylight

We can calculate the beginning of daylight (BoD) and the end of daylight (EoD) from
beginning of daylight and end of daylight graphs in the Aeronautical Information Pub-
lication (AIP) and reproduced in figures 2-17 and 2-18 (pages 48 and 49).

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

 Daylight and darkness graph Beginning of daylight Southern Hemisphere
OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MARCH APRIL MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT
48

30 10 20 31 10 20 30 10 20 31 10 20 31 10 20 28 10 20 31 10 20 30 10 20 31 10 20 30 10 20 31 10 20 31 10 20 30
0710 0710
45°
LAT
0700 0700
40°
0650 0650
0640 0640
0630 30° 0630
0620 0620
0610 20° 0610
0600 0600
10° BoD
0550 0550 0555 LMT
0540 0° 0540
0530 0530
L 0° L
M 0520 LAT
Latitude 0520 M
T T
Tennant Ck
0510 10° 0510
0500 0500
0450 20° 0450
0440 0440
0430 30° 0430
0420 0420
35°
0410 0410
0400 0400
40°
0350 0350
0340 0340

Figure 2-17 Beginning of daylight in the southern hemisphere, based on graph from the AIP.
45° Example 11
0330 May 12 0330
0320 0320
30 10 20 31 10 20 30 10 20 31 10 20 31 10 20 28 10 20 31 10 20 30 10 20 31 10 20 30 10 20 31 10 20 31 10 20 30
11-17.EPS

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MARCH APRIL MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT
Navigation
 Daylight and darkness graph End of daylight Southern Hemisphere
OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MARCH APRIL MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT
2: Time

30 10 20 31 10 20 30 10 20 31 10 20 31 10 20 28 10 20 31 10 20 30 10 20 31 10 20 30 10 20 31 10 20 31 10 20 30
2040 2040
2030 ° 2030
45
2020 T 2020
LA
2010 Example 11 2010
° May 12
40
2000 2000

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

1950 1950
°
35
1940 1940
1930 30° 1930
1920 1920
1910 1910
20°
1900 1900
L L
M 1850 1850 M
T 10° T
1840 1840
LAT 0°
1830 0° 1830
1820 10° 1820
1810 1810
1800 20 ° 1800 EoD
1758 LMT
1750 1750
30°
1740 1740
35°
1730 1730
Latitude °
40
1720 Tennant Ck 1720

Figure 2-18 End of daylight in the southern hemisphere, based on graph from the AIP.
°
1710 45 1710
1700 1700
1650 1650
49

30 10 20 31 10 20 30 10 20 31 10 20 31 10 20 28 10 20 31 10 20 30 10 20 31 10 20 30 10 20 31 10 20 31 10 20 30
OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MARCH APRIL MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT 11-17.EPS
50 Navigation

To use these graphs, select BoD or EoD as appropriate. Enter with the local date, and
follow it vertically up or down to the latitude. Read across horizontally and extract the
local mean time (LMT) of BoD or EoD.

Example 2-11
Using the graphs in figures 2-17 and 2-18, what is the BoD and EoD at Tennant Creek
(19°38S 134°11E), Northern Territory, on 12 May? Express the answer in LMT, UTC
and CST. Also, calculate the duration of daylight.
Answer. First, read the LMT for BoD for the latitude of Tennant Creek from the
graph in figure 2-17. Convert the BoD to UTC and CST:

12 05 55 LMT at TC
– 08 57 (arc to time)
11 20 58 UTC
+ 9 30 (correction for CST)
12 06 28 CST

Read the LMT for EoD for the latitude of Tennant Creek from the graph in
figure 2-18. Convert the EoD to UTC and CST:

12 17 58 LMT at TC
– 08 57 (arc to time)
12 09 01 UTC
+ 9 30 (correction for CST)
12 18 31 CST

Calculate the duration of daylight:

EoD: 12 09 01 UTC
BoD: – 11 20 58 UTC
12 03

Example 2-12
What amount of daylight is available for a flight from Tennant Creek (19°38S 134°11E)
to Cairns (16°53S 145°45E) on 31 December?
Answer. Read the BoD for latitude of Tennant Creek from the graph in figure 2-17
and convert to UTC:

BoD at TC: 31 05 00 LMT at TC

– 08 57 (arc to time)
30 20 03 UTC

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

2: Time 51

Read the EoD for the latitude of Cairns from the graph in figure 2-18 and convert
to UTC:
EoD at CS: 31 19 00 LMT at TC
– 09 43 (arc to time)
31 09 17 UTC

Now calculate the duration of daylight:

EoD at CS: 31 09 17 UTC

BoD at TC: –30 20 03 UTC
13 14 hr (Answer)

Note. Remember that daylight can end earlier than the time extracted from the
appropriate graph for a number of reasons, including significant cloud cover, poor
visibility and high ground to the west of an aerodrome. Make allowances for these
when planning a flight that may finish near the end of daylight. The normal oper-
ational requirement is that you must plan to arrive at least 10 minutes before the
end of daylight. This is a legal requirement; however, commonsense should
encourage you to increase this time on long journeys or on flights where it is dif-
ficult to accurately estimate your time of arrival, such as with poor weather en
route or at the destination.

Example 2-13
You are planning a flight from Parafield (34°48S 138°38E), South Australia to Tam-
worth (31°05S 150°51E), New South Wales, on 25 May. To allow a margin for error,
you decide to plan your ETA at Tamworth at 20 minutes before the end of daylight.
Based on a flight time of 4 hr 20 min, calculate your latest ETD from Parafield. Give
your answer in Central Standard Time (CST).
Answer. First,
read the EoD for the latitude of Tamworth from the graph in figure
2-18 and convert to UTC:

EoD Tamworth: 25 17 33 LMT

– 10 03 (arc to time)
25 07 30 UTC

Subtract the safety buffer and flight time to obtain ETD in UTC and convert to
CST:
25 07 30 UTC
– 20 (safety buffer)
latest ETA: 25 07 10 UTC
– 4 20 (flight time)
latest ETD: 25 02 50 UTC
+ 09 30 (correction UTC to CST)
latest ETD: 25 12 20 CST

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

52 Navigation

Summary of Operational Time Problems

Time questions are simple, but you must consciously set out to keep them simple by
setting out your working in an orderly fashion so that the reasoning is easy to follow and
check through.
■ In general do the fundamental working in UTC. This usually means converting from
LMT at a given meridian or a local standard time, such as EST, CST or WST, to UTC
at the start of the problem. Then do the working of the problem in UTC.
■ If necessary, convert back into the required local standard time or local mean time.
■ Always include the date, when given, in your calculations.

Keep it clear, orderly, logical and simple.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

2: Time 53

Review 2
1. Express the following dates and times as a six-figure date and time group:
a. 29 November, 10.15 a.m.
b. 19 July, 3.17 p.m.
c. 1 April, 5 p.m.

2. Express the dates and times in question 1 as eight-figure date and time groups.
3. Convert the following time intervals to arc units:
a. 1 hr.
b. 3 hr.
c. 10 hr.
d. 9 hr 30 min.

4. Convert the following arcs to time:

a. 150°.
b. 135°.
c. 120°.

5. Travelling eastward across the date line from Sydney to Hawaii, you would expect
to (add/subtract) a day to any time calculations. The effect of this is to (gain/lose)
a day.
6. High ground to the west of an airport will cause the (earlier/later) onset of darkness.
7. Cloud cover will cause the (earlier/later) onset of darkness.
8. Heavy smog would cause the (earlier/later) onset of darkness.
9. Sunrise and sunset times vary with the . . . . . and the . . . . .
10. For Summer Time, clocks are (advanced/retarded) by . . . . . hr.
11. Express the following dates and times as six-figure date and time groups:
a. 8 March, 7.30 p.m.
b. 20 December, 10.15 a.m.
c. 3 April, 11.37 p.m.

12. Express the above dates and times as eight-figure date and time groups, i.e. include
the month.
13. Convert the following longitudes to time (to the nearest second of time):
a. 36°45.
b. 98°13.
c. 76°58.
d. 18°27.

14. Using the table in the AIP, reproduced on page 37, convert the following local mean
times (LMT) into coordinated universal time (UTC):
a. 281930 LMT at 150°E.
b. 280900 LMT at 131°W.
c. 150415 LMT at 147°E.
d. 212356 LMT at 119°W.

15. Daylight is defined as the period from . . . . . to . . . . .

16. Using the table from the AIP reproduced on pages 48 and 49, determine the times
of beginning or end of daylight (BoD or EoD) for the following positions on the
dates shown:
a. BoD on 15 May at 35°S.
b. EoD on 20 Oct at 10°S.
c. BoD on 10 Jan at 32°S.
d. EoD on 9 Mar at 20°S.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

54 Navigation

17. Determine the duration of daylight for the following dates.

a. 15 May at 35°S.
b. 20 Oct at 10°S.
c. 10 Jan at 32°S.
d. 9 Mar at 20°S.

18. You plan to depart Tyabb (Victoria) at 172240 UTC for a flight to Mt. Gambier
(South Australia) (37°45S 140°47E). The expected flight time is 85 min. What will
be your ETA at Mount Gambier in LMT, UTC and CST?
19. You are planning a flight from Warrnambool (Victoria) to Orbost (Victoria) on
23 March, and are to arrive at Orbost (37°47S 148°36E) 10 min before the end of
daylight. Based on an estimated flight time of 137 min, what will be your latest ETD
Warrnambool expressed in standard time and UTC?
20. Express 4.45 p.m. on 20 May 1992 as a six-figure and an eight-figure date and time
group.
21. When converting arc to time, 45° of earth rotation represents . . . . . hr, and 15° of
rotation represents . . . . . hr.
22. LMT at a helipad east of Adelaide (longitude 138°30E) is 1400. What will be the
LMT at that moment at Essendon (longitude 144°54E) to the nearest whole minute?
23. A NOTAM is current indicating that Central Summer Time (CSuT) is in effect.
When would you expect last light to occur on 1 January at Parafield (latitude
37°4741S longitude 138°3754E) expressed in UTC and CSuT?
24. Given that conditions are forecast to be clear on arrival at Parafield, what is the latest
time, in CSuT, that you should plan to arrive there?

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

 Chapter 3

Charts and Publications

To navigate an aircraft accurately and efficiently, you must be able to refer to a conven-
ient pictorial representation of the surface of the earth being flown over. This represen-
tation must, out of necessity, be considerably smaller in size than the real earth; that is,
a picture of a ‘reduced earth’ is required. We know from our discussions on the form of
the earth in chapter 1 that the earth’s shape approximates an oblate spheroid; that is, it
is a sphere that is slightly flattened at the north and south poles. However, for practical
navigation purposes, and, in particular, for the production of aeronautical charts and
publications, it is accepted that the earth is a perfect sphere.
Since the accepted shape for the earth is a perfect sphere, it follows that the most accu-
rate reduced earth would be a globe. However, a globe is far too cumbersome to serve
as an aid to navigation in an aircraft cockpit, and is unsuitable for displaying detailed
topographical and aeronautical information. Consequently, there is a need for suitable
charts that can portray any area with any desired level of detail and can be folded for
convenient carriage and use.

Chart Projections
The age-old problem for chart making is still with us: it is not possible to convert, or
project, a section of the curved surface of the earth onto the flat surface of a chart with-
out distortion. Try taking a spherical section of orange peel and flattening it out, and
you will quickly discover that it cannot be done without splitting the orange peel so that
sections of it are no longer connected.

A
duced Ear th
Re
A B
B Projected
C image
D on chart
Projecting C
light

D
Map
sheet
12-01.EPS

Figure 3-1 Making a chart.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE 55

56 Navigation

We can see that shapes, distances, angles and areas from the original, spherical surface
will always be distorted to a greater or lesser extent, depending on how you transfer
points of the surface of the earth onto the flat surface of the chart. The challenge facing
the chart maker (cartographer) is how to minimise the distortions and at the same time
produce a chart that has certain necessary properties for use in navigation. This is done
by using special mathematical techniques (which, you will be relieved to know, are of
no concern to us) in conjunction with different projection processes. However, it must
be stressed that this will only minimise the distortion of selected elements; we can never
correct all of them at the same time.

Basic Projections
As far as aeronautical charts are concerned, there are two basic projections that can be
used: the conic and the cylindrical.

Lambert projection (conic) Mercator projection (cylindrical)

12-02.EPS

Figure 3-2 A conic projection and a cylindrical projection.

Conic Projections
The developable surface employed is a cone. The best-known example is the Lambert
conformal conic projection, which is employed for a wide variety of aeronautical charts, such
as the World Aeronautical Charts (WACs). This projection is considered in greater detail
below.

Cylindrical Projections
In cylindrical projections, the developable surface employed is a cylinder. The Mercator
projection is the best-known example, but this type is not widely employed for the pro-
duction of aeronautical charts. An exception is the Australian Visual Terminal Chart
(VTC), which uses a modified Mercator projection.
The Mercator map projection is a conformal cylindrical map projection in which the
surface of a sphere or spheroid, such as the earth, is developed on a cylinder that is tan-
gential to the equator, that is, the surface of the cylinder touches only the equator.
Meridians appear as equally spaced, vertical lines, and parallels appear as horizontal lines
drawn further apart as the latitude increases, such that the correct relationship between
latitude and longitude scales at any point is maintained. The Mercator is not a perspec-
tive projection; as rhumb lines appear as straight lines and directions can be measured
directly, this projection is widely used in nautical navigation at sea. If the cylinder is tan-
gential to a meridian (the axis of the cylinder perpendicular to the equator), a transverse
Mercator map projection results; if the cylinder is tangential to an oblique great circle,
an oblique Mercator map projection results. The Visual Terminal Charts used in Australia
are transverse Mercator projections.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

3: Charts and Publications 57

Chart Scale
Charts represent a ‘scaled-down’ view of the earth’s surface that has been created firstly
by reducing the earth to an imaginary globe a fraction of its actual size, and then carry-
ing out the process of projection. Chart scale is defined as the ratio of a given chart
length in comparison to the actual earth distance that it represents; that is:
chart length-
scale = -------------------------------
earth distance
The greater the chart length for a given earth distance, the larger the scale and the
more detail that can be shown. A large-scale chart can portray a small area in great detail.
For example, a Visual Terminal Chart (VTC) (see figure 3-32, page 85), with a scale of
1:250,000, can show more detail within a given area than a smaller-scale chart, such as
a World Aeronautical Chart (WAC), which has a scale of 1:1,000,000 (See figure 3-28,
page 81). One centimetre on a 1:250,000 scale chart actually represents 250,000 cm on
the earth’s surface. However, on a 1:1,000,000 scale chart, it represents four times this
earth distance, or 1,000,000 cm. Consequently, not as much detail can be shown on a
smaller-scale chart. A Visual Navigation Chart (VNC) with a scale of 1:500,000 fits
between these other two charts (see figure 3-30, page 83).

12-03.EPS

Figure 3-3 Scale determines the degree of detail that

can be portrayed on a chart – 1:1,000,000 WAC vs 1:250,000 VTC.

There are a number of methods used to describe chart scale (or the extent to which
the original earth has been scaled down to produce a particular chart).

Representative Fraction
For example, the scale of a WAC expressed as a fraction is ⁄¡ð ð or 1:1,000,000 (one
in one million). One centimetre on a WAC will therefore represent 1,000,000 cm, or
10 km, on the earth’s surface. One nautical mile on the earth’s surface will be repre-
sented on the same chart by a distance equal to one millionth of a nautical mile.
Note. When chart scales are expressed as representative fractions, it becomes much
easier to assess whether one chart has a larger or smaller scale than another; for
example, ⁄¡ð ð is a smaller number than ⁄ ₅ ð , so we can say that a WAC is a
smaller-scale chart than a VTC.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

58 Navigation

Graduated Scale Line

The graduated scale line is usually located at the bottom of the chart. A graduated scale
line means that you can measure the distance between any two points on the chart and
then compare it directly with the scale line. Ensure that you use the correct scale line
(nautical miles), as there may be several scales for different units (such as nautical miles,
statute miles and kilometres). Even if there is no scale line provided on a chart, it is
always possible to measure distance by comparison of the chart length between any two
points with the latitude graduations marked on the chart (but not longitude), remem-
bering that 1 of latitude = 1 nm, and 1° of latitude = 60 nm.
25 0 25

NAUTICAL MILES SCALE 1: 375000

NAUTICAL MILES 5 0 5

KILOMETRES 5 0 5 10 15

Figure 3-4 Typical graduated scale lines.

Words
The scale may be expressed in words. For example, ‘1 cm equals 5 nm’ means that 5 nm on
the earth’s surface is represented by a length of 1 cm on the chart. For many reasons, this is
less convenient than the other two methods and is rarely employed on aeronautical charts.

Ideal Properties for Aeronautical Chart Projections

As mentioned, it is impossible to produce a perfect representation of a spherical surface on
a flat sheet of paper. The cartographer’s dilemma has always been the same: whatever type
of projection is used to produce a chart, some feature(s) of the original spherical surface
will inevitably suffer some degree of distortion. Accepting the fact that there is no such
thing as a perfect projection, the logical approach is to select the one most suitable for the
production of each different type of chart, so that those properties of greatest importance
to the intended user will suffer the least amount of distortion. As far as aeronautical charts
are concerned, the most desirable and important properties are as follows:
■ all surface features should be portrayed with their true shape;
■ the correct angular relationship between all surface features should be preserved. This
means that all parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude must intersect at right
angles (90°), as they would on the actual surface of the earth. Additionally, all angles
and bearings measured between features on the chart should be equal to the direction
measured between the same features on the earth’s surface. Projections that possess
this property are known as conformal or orthomorphic projections;
■ the projection should exhibit a constant scale, so that distances measured anywhere
on the chart correctly represent distances on the full-scale earth;
■ great circles should be represented by straight lines. Great-circle tracks are of consid-
erable significance in air navigation: not only do they constitute the shortest route
between two points on the earth’s surface, but all radio waves follow great-circle paths.
Great-circle tracking is therefore used extensively by IFR pilots and those operating
aircraft equipped with such systems as GPS and inertial navigation systems (INS); and
■ it is desirable that rhumb lines should also be represented as straight lines on a navi-
gation chart. However, this will always be impossible if great circles are to be straight
lines on the same chart; that is, the great circles and rhumb lines joining any two
points on the surface of a sphere are, almost always, completely different lines, only
one of which can be a straight line on a chart. As far as air navigation is concerned,
straight rhumb lines are of most value when navigating purely by reference to a mag-
netic compass or similar directional indication system.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

3: Charts and Publications 59

Lambert Conformal Conic Projection

Of the five properties listed above, the most vital for navigational purposes is conformality,
which is the correct and accurate representation of bearings. One type of projection that
satisfies this primary requirement is the Lambert conformal conic projection. There are a
number of other projections that are also conformal, such as Mercator and polar stereo-
graphic. However, the Lambert projection is used extensively for the production of aero-
nautical navigation charts, because as well as being conformal, it simultaneously provides
the minimum amount of distortion to the other desirable features that were listed above.

Production of the Lambert Projection

All conic projections are produced by transferring the surface features and the latitude–
longitude grid from an imaginary, reduced earth onto the surface of an imaginary cone.
A complex mathematical process is actually employed to achieve this projection proc-
ess. However, the production of a simple conic projection can be visualised by imagin-
ing a cone that has been placed directly over the spherical reduced earth, so that the
inner surface of the cone just touches the sphere along a single parallel of latitude and
the point, or apex, of the cone lies directly above the north or south geographic pole.
If a light source is imagined to be located at the centre of the reduced earth, the shad-
ows it casts creates an image of the original features on the inner surface of the cone.
Once the transfer has been completed, the cone may be removed from the sphere, cut
down the side and laid out as a flat sheet.

1 An image of the surface features and the 2 Cone may then be cut along any line from
lat-long grid of the reduced earth is base to apex (i.e. along any desired meridian).
projected onto the inner surface of a cone.

North
Imaginary Pole
light source Reduced
earth
Standard
parallel

Standard
parallel

South Standard
Pole parallel
South
Pole
Cone

Standard parallel = point where

inner surface of cone touches
outer surface of sphere.

3 Cone may now be laid flat

to produce the chart.
12-05.EPS

Figure 3-5 Production of a chart by use of a simple conic projection.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

60 Navigation

For all conical projections, the parallel of latitude along which the imaginary cone
touches the surface of the reduced earth is known as the standard parallel.
The Lambert conic, sometimes referred to as the conical orthomorphic projection, is a spe-
cial type of conic projection. Unlike the simple conic projection shown in figure 3-5, it
has two standard parallels. The cone onto which the latitude–longitude grid is trans-
ferred actually lies inside the reduced earth in between the two standard parallels (see
figure 3-6). Details of the two standard parallels are always printed on charts that have
been produced using this projection.

North
Pole
For a Lambert conformal conic projection
a hypothetical cone cuts the Earth's surface
along two parallels of latitude.

Lower standard
parallel

Upper standard
South parallel
Pole

Each Lambert conformal chart

comprises only a small portion
of the imaginary cone used for
the entire projection.

South
Pole

Upper standard
parallel

12-06.EPS
Lower standard
parallel

Figure 3-6 Production of the Lambert conic projection.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

3: Charts and Publications 61

Properties of Lambert Charts

The ideal properties of aeronautical navigation charts have been summarised previously.
The specific properties of the Lambert conformal conic will now be discussed, item by
item, to see how closely this projection comes to satisfying those requirements.

Conformality
All Lambert charts are conformal, and so all angles and bearings between features on the
earth’s surface are correctly represented over the whole of the chart. In addition, the
actual shapes of surface features are correctly portrayed.

Latitude–Longitude Grid
Meridians of longitude are straight lines radiating from the nearer geographic pole,
while the parallels of latitude are circles concentric to the same pole. Meridians and par-
allels all intersect at 90°, providing further confirmation of conformality.

Great Circles
On a Lambert chart, great circles may be treated as being straight lines (actually, great
circles are curved very slightly, but for all practical purposes, this fact may be ignored).

Rhumb Lines
On all Lambert charts, rhumb lines are curved, concave to the nearer pole.

Scale
This is effectively constant over the whole of an individual chart. However, on all Lam-
bert charts there is an inevitable distortion of the latitude scale. Specifically, the area
between the two standard parallels suffers a small degree of ‘compression’, while the areas
above and below the standard parallels undergo a small amount of ‘expansion’. In order
to preserve conformality, correction for this scalar distortion is necessary. It is achieved
by a corresponding mathematical adjustment to the longitude scale at every point on
the chart. The effects of this scalar distortion are not significant because most aeronau-
tical charts only cover a small range of latitude (for example, a typical World Aeronautical
Chart only covers 4° of latitude).
To further minimise the effect of their inherent scale variations, the standard parallels
of each individual Lambert chart are chosen very carefully. Specifically, the upper
standard parallel should lie approximately ⁄ž of the way from the top of the chart, and
the lower standard parallel should lie approximately ⁄ž of the way from the bottom of
the chart.
For practical purposes, then, the scalar distortions present on all Lambert conic charts
may be considered insignificant, that is, a constant scale may be assumed.

Distance
Distance measurement on a Lambert chart is greatly simplified, because for all practical
purposes, we can assume a constant scale.

Conclusion
We have seen that there are considerable advantages in using the Lambert conformal
conic projection for the production of air navigation charts. Desirable properties can be
optimised to an unequalled degree, with the only exception to this rule being those
charts depicting polar areas, above about 80° latitude, where other types of projection
can offer increased accuracy. The measurement and plotting of bearings, tracks, positions
and distances on Lambert charts will be considered shortly.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

62 Navigation

Aeronautical Charts for Visual Navigation

Principle Types of Chart

The principal types of aeronautical charts currently produced in Australia to satisfy the
requirements for visual (VFR) air navigation (see AIP GEN 3.2) are given below.

World Aeronautical Chart

The World Aeronautical Charts (WACs) are the primary reference for preflight planning
and for visual en route navigation outside the main terminal areas. They portray signif-
icant topographical and cultural information and are based on the Lambert conformal
conic projection. Each sheet is produced to a scale of 1:1,000,000.

Visual Navigation Chart

The Visual Navigation Charts (VNCs) have been designed to provide the pilot operating
under VFR and navigating by visual reference with controlled airspace overlay on a top-
ographic base. The charts are based on the Lambert conformal conic projection to a
common scale of 1:500,000.

Visual Terminal Chart

The Visual Terminal Charts (VTCs) present complete topographic, cultural and aero-
nautical information within and around major terminal areas in Australia. Visual pilots
must use these charts for navigation within the areas depicted, instead of separate WAC,
VNC and ERC. The VTCs are a little unusual, as they are the only Australian aeronau-
tical chart based on a cylindrical projection, in this case the transverse Mercator projec-
tion. All VTCs have a scale of 1:250,000.

Low-Altitude En Route Chart

The low-altitude en route charts (En Route chart – Low (ERC-L)) present significant
en route aeronautical information of concern to visual pilots, such as restricted areas,
limits of controlled airspace, aerodromes and radio navigation aids.
The ERC-Ls are also based on the Lambert conformal conic projection, but unlike
the WAC, where all sheets are produced to a standard 1:1,000,000 scale, each ERC-L
sheet has its own scale, depending on the area covered. High-altitude en route charts
(En Route Chart – High (ERC-H)) are available for operation above Flight Level 200
(FL200), but these are not used for visual navigation.)

Other Charts
In addition to these charts, there is the Planning Chart Australia (PCA). This chart pro-
vides the following information for flight planning:
■ ARFOR boundaries;
■ WAC coverage and chart titles;
■ location names and abbreviations;
■ estimated FIS VHF coverage at 5,000 ft;
■ estimated FIS VHF coverage at 10,000 ft;
■ HF network boundaries;
■ AERIS outlets; and
■ FLIGHTWATCH frequencies and agencies.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

3: Charts and Publications 63

Figure 3-7 Extract from AUS PCA.

World Aeronautical Chart

General Description
World Aeronautical Charts (WACs) are indispensable for the VFR pilot. These aeronau-
tical topographic charts are designed to assist both visual en route navigation and pre-
flight planning. They provide the pilot with:
■ topographic information (such as mountains, cliffs, sand ridges, rivers, lakes, contours
and coastlines);
■ cultural information (such as cities, towns, roads, railway lines and other significant
landmarks); and
■ a limited amount of aeronautical information (such as aerodromes, aeronautical bea-
cons, broadcast stations and isogonals).
WACs are produced to the same scale of 1:1,000,000. They use a standard set of sym-
bols, colours and terminology to present information.
WACs are based on the Lambert conformal conic projection. Consequently, all angular
relationships and the shapes of surface features are correctly presented, and for all practical
purposes a constant scale may be assumed to exist over the entire chart. A straight line
drawn anywhere on the chart will correspond almost exactly to a great-circle track.
The standard parallels of the projection that are used to produce a particular WAC are
indicated at the top right-hand corner of each chart. The production of WACs has been
organised on a worldwide basis by the International Civil Aviation Organisation
(ICAO), with each member nation being responsible for the production of charts cov-
ering its own territory. In Australia, the production and issue of WACs is the responsi-
bility of the Australian Surveying and Land Information Group (AUSLIG).

Figure 3-8 Standard parallels on a WAC.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

64 Navigation

Each WAC is assigned an identification number that appears at the top of the chart,
alongside the unique name given to it. For example, WAC number 3470 has been
assigned the name Melbourne. The numbers of all adjoining charts are labelled around the
edges. A small diagram showing the coverage of WACs available for Australia, with the
name and number of each chart, is displayed on each individual chart.
The WAC is primarily intended for use by visual pilots conducting flights in areas
located away from busy terminals. Although some aeronautical information is presented
on WACs, the primary source of this vital information (such as the limits of controlled
airspace and restricted areas) is the ERC-L and where applicable, the VTC.
An example of a section of a WAC is shown in figure 3-28 (page 81), and the legend
used to interpret the symbology is in figure 3-27 (page 80).

Sheet number and title

Edition number
Check with AIP
Supplement for
latest edition

Number of adjoining sheet

SAMPLE ONLY
not to be used conjunction
with flight operations
or flight planning

12-09.EPS

Figure 3-9 Extract from a typical WAC sheet.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

3: Charts and Publications 65

Topographic Information
The topographic information depicted on a WAC is
that considered to be of greatest significance to the
pilot. Individual topographic or cultural features, such
as an isolated collection of rocks (like the Devil’s Mar-
bles, south of Tennant Creek) or a large open-cut mine,
will only be shown if they are suitable landmarks that
can aid visual navigation.
Accurate topographic surveys have not been carried
out in every region of the world. Australia has some
regions where the surveyed data is deemed unreliable.
To alert users to the possibility of unreliable informa-
tion, a small topographic base reliability diagram is
included on the bottom left-hand corner of each WAC.
Drainage and water features (hydrographic features)
are usually depicted in blue. Hydrographic features
include creeks, streams, rivers, canals, lakes, reservoirs, Figure 3-10 WAC topographic
swamps, waterholes, wells and bores. The exact manner base reliability diagram.
in which they are presented is detailed on the chart leg-
end.
Common sense (airmanship) is a necessary ingredient for the correct use and inter-
pretation of all the information depicted on a WAC, and this applies especially to hydro-
graphic features. For example, in many parts of Australia, a feature that is shown as a dry
river bed may become a raging torrent after a period of heavy rain. This would be a sig-
nificant consideration for any pilot operating in these regions.
Relief, which is the variation in height and slope of the earth’s surface above and
below mean sea level, can be depicted on maps and charts in many different ways. On
WACs, topographic relief is shown using a combination of several different techniques:
■ Contours are lines that join all places of equal height above mean sea level (AMSL).
Standard contour lines, for a selected series of regularly spaced elevations, are used on
WACs. The closer together contour lines are, the steeper the slope of the terrain being
depicted.
METRES FEET
6,560 ft 2500 8200

4,920 ft
2000 6560
3,280 ft

1,640 ft
660 ft amsl 1500 4920
MSL MSL

1000 3280

500 1640
3,280 ft 6,560 ft
1,640 ft 4,920 ft
200 660
3,280 ft
660 ft
1,640 ft
12-11.EPS MSL 660 ft SEA LEVEL

Figure 3-11 Contour lines and hypsometric tinting are used to present relief on WACs.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

66 Navigation

■ Colour tinting is used in conjunction with the contour lines in order to further high-
light topographic relief. Each layer between the standard contour lines employed on
a WAC is allocated a specific colour, according to a hypsometric tint table located on
the side of the chart (hypsometric is defined as the establishment of vertical heights
or elevations). The shades of colour start with green (below 200 m AMSL), progress-
ing through yellow (200 m or less than 500 m), to shades of brown that darken pro-
gressively as elevation of the terrain increases. Note that a particular hypsometric tint
can indicate ground elevations up to the level of the next highest contour.
■ Spot heights are shown as a single black dot, with an accompanying number to indicate
the elevation of the feature (height AMSL) in feet. You can assume that all spot
heights are accurate, unless amended by NOTAM. They are normally used to high-
light local peaks and certain other elevations that are significantly higher than the
surrounding terrain. It is important to note that spot elevations represent ground level
and not tree-top height. The highest spot elevation within each 30 graticule square
is shown in enlarged bold type. Any spot elevations that are enclosed in brackets are
derived from interpretation of contour information, rather than accurate ground sur-
veys. Always remember that spot elevations do not always represent the maximum
elevation of land within a given area.
■ Hill shading and hachuring is used to convey a three-dimensional impression of the
terrain. Relief shading takes the form of irregular darkened areas, representing the
shadows that would be cast by the terrain at any given location when the sun is at the
1400LMT position. Hachuring consists of groups of short, closely spaced lines radi-
ating from high terrain and is sometimes employed to accentuate cliffs, bluffs and
other exceptionally steep slopes.

Cultural Features
Cultural features shown on WACs are those considered to be of greatest significance and
assistance to the pilot. Naturally, it is impossible to show every house, town or road on
such a small-scale chart. For example, a group of 100 houses is of little significance if it
lies within the confines of a city the size of Sydney. However, the same number of
houses grouped together on the edge of the Simpson Desert would be extremely signif-
icant and portrayed accordingly on a WAC. In fact, in remote areas, WACs will even
depict isolated homesteads, out-stations and water tanks.
Roads and railways can be of great assistance to visual air navigation and the most sig-
nificant will be clearly portrayed on WACs. Distinctive patterns, such as curves, roads
running parallel to railway lines, junctions, forks, overpasses, bridges and tunnels can be
especially useful for en route navigation. A wide variety of other useful cultural features
can be included on WACs (such as wheat silos, pipelines, fences and telegraph lines). You
should study the legend carefully and become familiar with all the symbols.

Aeronautical Information
Only a limited amount of very basic aeronautical information is included on WACs. This
includes aerodromes (civil, military and joint-user facilities), aerodrome beacons, land-
ing grounds, and, in the latest editions, radio-navigation beacons. The date at which this
aeronautical information is current is noted on each chart. Remember that information
regarding the division of airspace (controlled airspace, restricted areas, etc.) is not
depicted on WACs. Reference must be made to ERCs and VTCs for this purpose, unless
you have a VNC.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

3: Charts and Publications 67

Position information is available on WACs through the inclusion of a clearly marked

latitude–longitude grid called a graticule.

Figure 3-12 Presentation of the latitude–longitude grid on a WAC.

Parallels of Latitude
Parallels of latitude indicating degrees north or south of the equator (always south in
Australia of course) are depicted as slightly curved lines running across the chart, repre-
senting each whole degree and each half degree. Being rhumb lines, parallels of latitude
can never be straight lines on a Lambert chart. The whole degrees are labelled down the
side of the chart. Additionally, graduations representing each minute of a whole degree
of latitude (60 min = 1°) are presented on the sides of the chart and along those vertical
lines representing whole degrees of longitude.

Meridians of Longitude
Meridians of longitude are depicted as straight lines that are approximately vertical but
that gradually converge toward the nearer pole (that is, towards the bottom of the chart
in the southern hemisphere). This convergence is not readily apparent within the small
area covered by a single WAC. Meridians are labelled at the top and bottom of the chart
in degrees east or west of the prime meridian (always east in Australia). Graduations cor-
responding to each minute of longitude are also included along these edges, as well as
along those lines representing whole degrees of latitude.

Isogonals
Isogonals are lines joining all places of equal magnetic variation. They are depicted on WACs
as dashed, purple-coloured lines, labelled in whole degrees and half-degrees east or west.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

68 Navigation

Rhumb Lines and Great Circles on the WAC

As we saw in chapter 1, the shortest distance between two points on the spherical earth is
along a great circle. Radio waves also follow great-circle paths. Therefore, it is convenient
to use aeronautical charts designed so that a straight line closely resembles a great-circle track.
We have seen that the WACs are based on the Lambert conformal conic projection, and
that the meridians of longitude converge towards the nearer pole. This means that a straight
line on the chart (which closely resembles a great circle track) will cross the meridians of
longitude at varying angles. A pilot trying to fly a great-circle track using a magnetic com-
pass would therefore have to fly a continually changing heading – not a very tidy procedure.
It is more convenient and easier for a pilot using a magnetic compass to be able to fly
a constant heading. This can be achieved by following a rhumb-line track rather than a
great-circle track. The disadvantage is that a rhumb line is not the shortest distance
between two points on the earth.

Earth
12-13.EPS

Earth
Earth Chart

Figure 3-13 Great circles cross successive meridians of longitude at different angles.

A rhumb line crosses all meridians of longitude at the same angle and will appear on
the surface of the earth and on a Lambert conformal chart as a curved line concave to
the nearer pole.

line
umb
Rh

ine ircle
mb l at c
Rhu Gre
circle
Great

Earth
Earth
Earth Chart
12-14.EPS

Figure 3-14 Comparison of rhumb line tracks with great circle tracks.

From the point of view of light aircraft navigation, the difference between the rhumb
line track and the great-circle track is not significant, and you will normally fly along a
rhumb-line track if you are navigating using the magnetic compass, and along a great-cir-
cle track if you are using radio navaids. (Remember, radio waves follow great-circle paths.)

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

3: Charts and Publications 69

Note. Over short distances (i.e. less than 200 nm), the rhumb-line track and great-
circle track are almost identical – the rhumb line will be slightly on the equatorial
side of the great circle. The direction of the rhumb line track and the great circle
track are identical at the mid-meridian of longitude between the two points.

Measuring Latitude and Longitude 131° 132°

27°
Finding the Latitude and Longitude of a 2. Read off
Known Place longitude
131°21´E
To find latitude:
■ Place a straight edge east–west through
the place parallel to the parallels of lati-
tude. 1. Read off
■ From the latitude scales running north– latitude
27°23´S Known
south down the page, you can read off place
the exact latitude. (It should be the
same latitude on the scale either side of
the place; checking this ensures that the
straight edge is placed correctly on the
chart.) 28°
12-15.EPS

Note. In the southern hemisphere, the Figure 3-15 Finding the latitude and
latitude increases towards the south and longitude of a known place.

bottom of the chart, and that the scale

lines break up each degree of latitude into 60, with large marks each 10. (Make
sure that you count from the top down the page.)
To find longitude:
■ Place a straight edge north–south through the place parallel to the closest meridians
of longitude.
■ From the longitude scales running east–west across the page, you can read off the
exact longitude. (It should read the same on the scales above and below the place;
checking this ensures the straight edge is placed correctly on the chart.)

Plotting a Known Position Given Latitude 143° 144°

and Longitude 18°

The reverse situation of plotting a given 2. Plot given

longitude of A
latitude and longitude on the chart is just 143°45´E
as easy:
■ Mark the latitude given on the two 1. Plot given
nearest latitude scales either side of the latitude of A
18°16´S
position.
■ Mark the longitude given on the two
nearest longitude scales north and 3. Position of A
south of the position.
■ Join the latitude marks and then join the
longitude marks, their point of intersec-
tion being the known position. 19°
12-16.EPS

Note. You are required to be able to

Figure 3-16 Plotting a known latitude and longitude.
specify or mark a position to an accu-
racy of 1 min of arc.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

70 Navigation

Measurement of Bearings
If you are to track between two points, then on a chart you will draw a straight line join-
ing them. This will be an approximate great circle. Its direction will be the same as that
of the rhumb line at the mid-meridian of longitude, so it is common practice to measure
direction at the mid-meridian. This is usually taken as the meridian that the track crosses
closest to the half-way mark.
The true direction can be measured where the mid-meridian of longitude crosses the
track by using either a plotter or protractor.
Prior to any accurate measurement of direction, you should always have an approxi-
mate value (to say the nearest 30°) in mind. This avoids any gross errors.

Measuring Direction with a Protractor

The best way to measure direction with a protractor is to align its north–south axis with
true north along the mid-meridian and then to read off the direction on the outer scale.

Figure 3-17 Measuring direction with a protractor.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

 3: Charts and Publications 71

Measuring Direction with a Plotter

A plotter is a simple device that combines the functions of both a protractor and a scale
rule. The advantage of this arrangement is that only one instrument is required in the
cockpit to measure both track direction and distance, instead of two separate ones. This
can be of great benefit in flight.

Mid-meridian
Set

Read (293°T Port Macquarie – Narrabri)

Set

Read (113°T Narrabri – Port Macquarie)

Distance scales for various charts

Measuring direction with a plotter

1. Place the centre of the plotter over the approximate mid-point of the track (where it crosses the mid-meridian).
2. Align the edge of the plotter with the track line.
3. Align the north-south graticule on the rotatable protractor with the true north/true south latitude-longitude
grid of the chart, ensuring that the arrowed lines on the protractor point north.
4. Read off the true track against the course arrow which points in the direction of travel. The other arrow
indicates the reciprocal of the desired track.
Note: Roughly north-south tracks may not cross a meridian of longitude unless they are extended.
To overcome this minor problem, you can align the east-west lines of the grid.

Figure 3-18 Use of a plotter.

Magnetic Variation
Remember that the bearings you measure on a chart are true bearings, and these will
need to be converted to magnetic for flight planning. The isogonals (lines joining places
of equal magnetic variation) are indicated on the WAC by dashed purple-coloured lines.
The eastern states of Australia experience variation east (magnetic least), while in West-
ern Australia there is also variation west (magnetic best).
Because the magnetic poles are gradually moving, the amount of variation at a particular
place will also gradually change over a period of years. Every few years the isogonic infor-
mation on the charts is updated, and the year of the information shown on the chart.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

72 Navigation

Measurement of Distances
Distances may be measured by various methods, and you should be able to achieve an
accuracy to within 1 nm by using one of the following methods.

The Graduated Scale Line

The graduated scale line is found at the bottom of the WAC. Using dividers, or some
other means, transfer the distance between the two positions on the chart down onto
the scale line. If more than one scale is provided (such as nautical miles, kilometres and
statute miles), be very careful to use the correct distance units.

12-19.EPS

Figure 3-19 Graduated scale lines on the WAC.

The Graduated Scale Rule

Most navigation plotters have graduations suitable for 1:1,000,000 maps such as the
WACs, which are all 1:1,000,000. Thus a plotter is a protractor and scale rule combined.
If you prefer to measure direction with a protractor, you will need a separate, suitably
graduated scale rule for measuring distances on the charts.
Note.Some plotters and scale rules have a 1:500,000 scale line for use with the
VNC, and a 1:250,000 scale line for the VTC. Remember, the ERC series are not
produced to a constant scale, and you must not use a scale rule on these charts.

Set
Read

Figure 3-20 Measuring the distance between Mount Garnet and

Cairns on the WAC using the 1:1,000,000 distance scales on the plotter.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

3: Charts and Publications 73

Amendments to the WAC Series

The WAC series is generally amended every three years by the Australian Surveying and
Land Information Group (AUSLIG). As part of the amendment service to your Airser-
vices publications, you will receive an AIP Supplement, as shown in the example in fig-
ure 3-21, containing all hand amendments required to be made to WACs, and a listing
of the current charts showing the latest edition, and where applicable, and indication of
when a new edition is due to be issued.

not to SAMP
b LE
with e used in ONLY
fl c
or fl ight ope onjuncti
ight
plan rations on
ning

12-21.EPS

Figure 3-21 Example of a typical AIP Supplement showing amendments to WACs.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

74 Navigation

Visual Navigation Chart

Uses and Properties
As explained earlier, the Visual Navigation Chart (VNC) has been produced to provide
a suitable chart for use by the pilot navigating by visual reference, with the added benefit
of having aeronautical information overprinted. This will mean that, in the areas covered
by the VNC, it will not be necessary to refer to the ERC to extract the airspace data
appropriate to the route being flown. Like the WAC, the VNC provides the following:
■ topographic information (such as mountains, cliffs, sand ridges, rivers, lakes, contours
and coastlines); and
■ cultural information (such as cities, towns, roads, railway lines and significant landmarks).

All VNCs are drawn to a scale of 1:500,000 on a Lambert conformal conic projec-
tion, and they therefore have the same properties as described for the WAC. The cover-
age of all the VNCs is shown on the front of each chart, as in figure 3-22.
An example of a Visual Navigation Chart is shown in figure 3-30 (page 83), and the
associated chart legend to interpret the chart symbols is in figure 3-29 (page 82).

Figure 3-22 Example of coverage of VNCs.

Aeronautical Information
The VNC shows the aeronautical information summarised as follows:
■ Class C and D airspace, Class E airspace, GAAP control zone boundaries, and military
control zones;
■ MBZ and CTAF boundaries and details;
■ ATC sector boundaries and FIA boundaries plus their appropriate VHF frequencies;
■ restricted and danger areas, and fly neighbourly areas;

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

3: Charts and Publications 75

■ radio navigation aids (NDBs, VORs and DMEs) and their geographic coordinates,
identification code and frequencies;
■ FIR boundaries and FIS frequencies;
■ FLIGHTWATCH and AERIS frequencies and locations;
■ aerodromes;
■ en route reporting points;
■ areas for which a VTC is provided; and
■ VFR routes and lanes of entry.

Visual Terminal Chart

Uses and Properties
Because you need to have your wits about you in often-busy terminal areas, and because
one chart on your knee is easier to handle and comprehend than two, Airservices provides
the Visual Terminal Chart (VTC) to show both topographical and cultural information
that is significant, as well as aeronautical information. This means that the VTC should
be used instead of the VNC or WAC and ERC in those terminal areas that have a VTC
published. An example of a VTC is shown in figure 3-32 (page 85), and the associated
legend is shown in figure 3-31 (page 84). They are of a larger scale (1:250,000) than the
WAC, and, as such, show much more detail around aerodrome terminal areas.
A checklist of the available VTCs and the terminals covered is provided with the reg-
ular amendments, as shown in figure 3-24 (page 76).
As we explained earlier, the VTC is produced using the transverse Mercator projec-
tion. Unlike a normal Mercator chart, which is prepared by projecting the graticule of
the reduced earth onto a cylinder around the equator, the transverse Mercator is based
on a chosen central meridian of longitude, with the cylinder wrapped around the
reduced earth horizontally. The result is a complex graticule, with the central meridian
appearing as a straight line.
In common with all other aeronautical Central
charts used for navigation, the transverse meridian
Mercator is an orthomorphic projection.
Because the VTC is produced to cover rel-
E Q
atively small areas, the scale of the chart can
be taken as constant. Rhumb lines are com-
plex curves, while great circles near the
central meridian can be assumed to be 12-24.EPS

straight lines for practical purposes. Figure 3-23 Production of the transverse Mercator.

Aeronautical Information
The aeronautical information published on the VTC includes the following:
■ prohibited, restricted and danger areas within the terminal area;
■ control zones and associated control areas at an enlarged scale;
■ lanes of entry into and out of general-aviation airports (GAAP);
■ mandatory broadcast zones (MBZ) boundaries and CTAF aerodromes (detailed infor-
mation to be found in the ERSA);
■ aeronautical beacons, lights and obstructions;
■ air traffic control (ATC) checkpoints and en route reporting points;
■ visual flight rules (VFR) approach points and routes, over which pilots should plan to
fly when making a VFR entry to primary and general-aviation control zones;
■ an approximate runway layout for the major aerodromes that the VTC covers;

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

76 Navigation

■ VFR approach points for GAAP aerodromes;

■ special arrival and departure points for supplementary airline operations (SAL) at
GAAP aerodromes;
■ flight information service (FIS) and associated VHF frequencies;
■ FLIGHTWATCH and AERIS frequencies and locations; and
■ colour-shaded areas where less than 500 ft clearance exists between terrain and the
overlying CTA.
The VTC also contains diagrams of the major aerodromes covered by the VTC, along
with the following information:
■ runway, helipad and taxiway layout;
■ runway lengths;
■ runway directions;
■ position of wind indicators;
■ aerodrome elevation; and
■ siting of the radio navigation aids with respect to the runways, etc.

Figure 3-24 Checklist of available VTCs.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

3: Charts and Publications 77

Low-Altitude En Route Chart

Uses And Properties

Although the low-altitude en route chart (ERC-L) is designed primarily for use in IFR
operations, you will need to refer to it when planning your visual navigation outside the
coverage of the Visual Terminal Chart and Visual Navigation Chart. An example of an
ERC-L is shown in figure 3-34 (page 87), and the associated legend used to interpret
the conventional symbols is shown in figure 3-33 (page 86). The charts provide com-
plete details of aeronautical information over a large area, covering such items as airspace
usage, position of aerodromes, radio navigation aid details and IFR routes. The coverage
of these charts is shown in figure 3-25.

Figure 3-25 Example of the ERC-L coverage.

Aeronautical Information
Because the ERC-L must be used for both VFR and IFR operations, it gives more
details than you will need for normal day-to-day VFR navigation, and it has only limited
topographical information. The ERC-Ls show the following aeronautical information:
■ all controlled airspace (control zones around controlled aerodromes, and control
areas) with blue for civil and red for military, and a lower limit labelled LL, such that
LL8000 indicates that you can fly up to 8,000 ft altitude without entering controlled
airspace;
■ mandatory broadcast zone (MBZ) areas and CTAF aerodromes (for which detailed
information is found in ERSA);
■ prohibited, restricted, and danger areas in red (detailed information in ERSA);
■ radio navigation aids (NDBs, VORs, and DMEs), some shown with an asterisk mean-
ing some form of limitation applies, details for which are in ERSA;
■ selected broadcasting stations;

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

78 Navigation

■ flight information area (FIA) boundaries and associated VHF frequencies;

■ aerodromes and their location identifier;
■ en route reporting points;
■ areas for which VTCs are provided;
■ boundaries between adjoining flight information regions; and
■ tables that show appropriate cruising levels.
Other information shown on the ERC-L includes:
■ coastlines and major lakes;
■ a latitude and longitude graticule at whole degree intervals, with 5 min of arc grad-
uations;
■ lines of magnetic variation; and
■ route details for IFR traffic as shown in figure 3-26.
When planning a cross-country flight, you should plot the tracks on the appropriate
ERC-L and then check for any potential airspace conflictions.

Aerodrome with Radius in nm of arc centred on

80

co-located BONGO aerodrome reference point

VOR 114.1
VOR/DME, NDB; }
DME 88X
reverts to S20 30.5 E118 40.0 B LL FL 200 Lower limit, FL 200,
MBZ after hours NDB 365 of Class B airspace
MBZ AH119.9
Lower limit of
C LL 6500 Class C airspace HOME
CTAF 126.7
11
Compulsory reporting 0
point for all aircraft Aerodrome
W1 with CTAF
LIZARD 23 Sector mileage
FIS frequency
26
11 00
5 21
Lowest safe 28
6 Track °M
altitude in 00 Aerodrome with
Designated 11 NDB in MBZ
30 2 direction
ATS route 00 of arrow 29
0
29 MASDA
5
NDB 374
Lowest safe MORGAN 080 115 260 S21 42.8 E122 12.7
altitude in both MBZ 126.7
directions Waypoint (no report required), underline
letters indicate place name abbreviation 12-26.EPS

Figure 3-26 Example of a route segment on an ERC-L.

Summary of Visual Charts

The following summarises the principal charts for use in VFR operations:
■ for en route navigation, use the WAC primarily, backed up by the VNC (where avail-
able) and ERC-L;
■ use the WAC for the selection and identification of landmarks, terrain, LSALT and for
position fixing;
■ use the VNC (if appropriate for local flights) and ERC-L for airspace boundaries and
radio navaid information; and
■ for flight in major terminal areas, use only the VTC.

All aeronautical charts other than WACs are a part of AIP and are amended by a total
reissue of all charts at the time of the periodic AIP amendments.

Amendment Service
VNC, VTC, TAC and ERC are updates and reissued twice per year – usually in June
and November, but there may be interim reissues quarterly.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

3: Charts and Publications 79

Availability
All charts can be obtained from:

Airservices Publications Centre

Locked Bag 8500
Canberra ACT 2601
Tel: (02) 6268 5500
or freecall 1300 306 630
Fax: (02) 6268 5111

Charts can be purchased individually or as a package, details of which can be obtained

from Airservices. In addition, many pilot supplies outlets around the country stock
Airservices charts.
You may also purchase charts over the web at:

www.airservicesaustralia.com/publications
or email at:
publications.centre@airservicesaustralia.com

Publications for Use by the VFR Pilot

ERSA
In addition to the various aeronautical charts, the En Route Supplement Australia (ERSA)
has important information for the VFR pilot. ERSA contains operational information
and diagrams in specific sections as follows:
■ FAC lists the most important aerodromes and facilities and includes aerodrome layout
(where available), navigation aids, air traffic services, ground services and any special
procedures;
■ PRD contains details of prohibited, restricted and danger areas;
■ GEN is a most important section which contains much useful flight-panning infor-
mation, including:
– aerodrome, IFR and VFR waypoint codes and decodes;
– route flight planning requirements and restrictions for IFR flights;
– unit conversion tables;
– special procedures not associated with aerodromes;
– ‘fly neighbourly’ advice;
– preflight information and flight notification information, including information
about AVFAX and DECTALK;
– the AERIS service;
– FLIGHTWATCH organisation; and
– designated remote areas;
■ MET lists locations of weather watch radar sites and AWIB sites with phone numbers
and radio frequencies as appropriate;
■ NAV/COMM contains information on radio communications and a list of AM
broadcast radio stations and their frequencies and transmitter locations for use as
NDBs; and
■ EMERG contains emergency procedures.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

80 Navigation

Figure 3-27 Example of the WAC legend.

3: Charts and Publications 81

Figure 3-28 Example of a section of a WAC.

82 Navigation

Figure 3-29 Example of the VNC legend.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

3: Charts and Publications 83

Figure 3-30 Example of the VNC.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

84 Navigation

Figure 3-31 Example of the VTC legend.

3: Charts and Publications 85

Figure 3-32 Example of a VTC.

86 Navigation

Figure 3-33 Example of an ERC-L legend.

3: Charts and Publications 87

Figure 3-34 Example of an ERC-L.

88 Navigation

Review 3
1. List three methods of representing scale on a chart.
2. List the three major aeronautical charts considered essential for VFR pilots.
3. Which of the above charts is not produced from the Lambert conformal projection?
4. If no scale is provided on an aeronautical chart, how would you measure distance?
In doing so, what precaution would you need to take?
For questions 5 to 12 refer to the extract from the Rockhampton WAC (3235) on page 81.
5. What type of aerodrome is there at S22 05 E148 04?
6. List the artificial features that you can identify to the immediate north of the aero-
drome within 10 nm.
7. What is the magnetic track and distance in nautical miles from Proserpine aero-
drome to Mackay aerodrome (use 9°E variation)?
8. On this chart, is the track a rhumb line or a great circle?
9. What is the distance in kilometres and bearing in degrees (T) from Mackay aero-
drome to the radio mast on Mount Blackwood (NW of Mackay)?
10. What is the meaning of the star in the centre of the symbol representing Mackay
aerodrome?
11. The 4198 spot height WNW of Mackay is shown in brackets with ‘±’. What is the
significance of the symbols?
12. With regard to Lake Eungella (S21 10 E148 23), name two man-made features that
you would expect to see when overflying the lake.
13. On a VTC, what is the meaning of the heavy purple two-way arrowhead?
14. On a WAC, a rhumb-line track of 060°T crosses successive meridians at a (constantly
increasing angle/a constant angle/constantly reducing angle).
15. A chart with a scale of 1:500,000 is a (larger/smaller) scale chart than one with a
scale of 1:250,000.
16. Name the two methods to indicate topographic relief on a WAC.
17. The ERC-L is based on the (Mercator/Lambert/transverse Mercator) projection.
18. The VTC is based on the (Mercator/Lambert/transverse Mercator) projection.
19. Amendments to WACs are notified by . . . . .
20. When measuring a track on a WAC, you should use the meridian nearest to the
(start/middle/end) of the track.
21. If you decide to measure a distance using the latitude scale on a WAC, you must
remember that 1 nm is equal to (1°/1) of (latitude/longitude).
22. List five properties of a Lambert conformal chart.
23. On the Lambert conic projection, a great circle is (approximately a straight line/a
curve concave to the nearer pole/a curve convex to the nearer pole).
24. On a Lambert projection, there are . . . . . standard parallels.
25. The Lambert projection (is/is not) suitable as a polar projection.
26. On a Lambert projection, the scale (expands/is constant/contracts) outside the
standard parallels.
27. A conformal projection means that (areas/bearings) are correct.
Note. The methods for plotting of positions and measurement of tracks and distances
on the VNC, ERC-L and VTC are essentially the same as those described above.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

 Chapter 4

Computations

Introduction to Computers
There are several types of navigation (or flight) computers available for use by the gen-
eral-aviation pilot, and they all provide an easy and accurate means to carry out the nec-
essary navigation computations. The computer has two sides (or faces):
■ a calculator side used for arithmetic calculations, such as multiplication and division, for
speed, distance, time and fuel computations, and for conversions between different
units of measurement; and
■ a wind side used to solve triangle-of-velocities problems and hence find the heading
to steer to make good the planned track and the groundspeed.
Among the more common computers are the Airtour CRP-1, the Jeppesen Flight
Computer and the ASA E6-B. These three computers are similar in appearance, differ-
ing only in their presentation of data and terminology because of their country of ori-
gin. The actual operation of each computer to solve any particular problem is essentially
the same. In the pages that follow, we show examples of each.
Finally, there are circular computers like the Jeppesen CR series. There is a pocket-
size version (CR-5), which is the preferred equipment of many airline pilots. They solve
the basic triangle of velocities problem by a totally different method, and we will not be
describing their use in this volume.
Note. For those of you who are addicted to electronics, there are such navigation
calculators available. However, the accuracy you can achieve with these is beyond
that necessary (your magnetic compass can be read only to an accuracy of about 5°,
as you have probably discovered already, and you cannot really expect to be able to
calculate the TAS to better than within about 3 kt), you have no visual (graphic)
means of ensuring that the data you have entered is correct, and the calculator’s bat-
tery may go flat. Therefore, we strongly recommend that at this stage of your flying
career you should concentrate on acquiring total proficiency in the use of the ordi-
nary navigation computers as described in this section.

Figure 4-1 ASA E6-B and Jeppesen CR-3 computers.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE 89

90 Navigation

Calculator Side of the Navigation Computer

The calculator side of the navigation computer may look a bit complicated at first, but
once you become familiar with it, you will find it very straightforward. It is invaluable
in solving quickly and accurately the numerous small calculations that are involved not
only with navigation but with all aircraft operations.
As you read the following text, we suggest that you have your computer and its hand-
book close by and follow our examples through. If you have a sound understanding of
the navigation computer’s calculator side from early in your training, it will greatly sim-
plify the subject and stay with you throughout your flying career.

Figure 4-2 Calculator sides of typical navigation computers.

Finding True Airspeed from Indicated Airspeed

The use of a computer to determine true airspeed (TAS) given indicated airspeed (IAS),
pressure height and temperature was explained in our Basic Aeronautical Knowledge. How-
ever, because of the importance of knowing the correct TAS for navigation purposes,
we will refresh your memories on this subject.

Calculating TAS on the Navigation Computer

Step 1
In the true-airspeed window, set the pressure altitude against the outside air temperature.
(Finding pressure altitude was explained in chapter 1.)

Step 2
Against the IAS on the inner scale, read the TAS on the outer scale.
Note. Remember, many navigation computers have the term pressure altitude en-
graved on them. This has the same meaning as pressure height.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

4: Computations 91

Example 4-1
For an IAS of 115 kt, temperature of –10°C, and pressure altitude of 12,000 ft, find the
TAS.

Step 1
Set the temperature of –10°C against the pressure altitude of 12,000 ft in the true-air-
speed window.

Step 2
Against the IAS of 115 kt on the inner scale, read off the TAS of 138 kt on the outer
scale.

11 Set
22 Read

13-03.EPS

Figure 4-3 Calculating TAS on the navigation computer.

Finding IAS for a Given TAS

When you come to calculate your flight plan, you will extract from the pilot’s operating
handbook for your aeroplane the true airspeed (TAS) for a particular power setting.
Clearly, you need to know what the corresponding indicated airspeed (IAS) will be.

Example 4-2
For the following conditions, calculate IAS:
■ planned TAS of 184 kt;
■ cruise pressure altitude of 8,000 ft; and
■ outside air temperature of +10°C.

Step 1
Set the temperature of +10°C against the pressure altitude of 8,000 ft in the true-air-
speed window.

Step 2
Against a TAS of 184 kt on the outer scale, read off the IAS of 160 kt on the inner scale.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

92 Navigation

Circular Slide Rule

Multiplication and division can be performed very accurately by electronic calculators or
by the use of logarithms. One of the properties of logarithms is that they can be set out in
tables making it possible to work out problems by adding and subtracting numbers instead
of multiplying and dividing. A slide rule is just a pictorial means of using logarithms.
To avoid the need for pilots to carry long straight slide rules, a circular slide rule has
been cleverly devised. It is very fast, never has flat batteries and is accurate enough for
our purposes as well as small enough to fit into a flight case.
A circular slide rule has two scales:
■ the inner rotary scale; and
■ the outer fixed scale.

Both scales are marked with logarithmic graduations, making it possible to multiply
and divide simply by the physical addition or subtraction of lengths of the graduated
scales. The scales are marked off in sequence from 10 around to 100, but the spacing
between numbers is not constant: the larger the number, the closer it is to its neighbour
in accordance with the logarithmic scale.
1 10 100
2 3 4 5 6 7 89 20 30 40 50 60 80 200

13-04.EPS

Figure 4-4 A simple logarithmic scale.

If you look at your circular slide rule you will see that the numbers 1, 10, 100, 1,000,
0.1, 0.001 are completely interchangeable. All are labelled at the one point as 10. Simi-
larly 5, 50, 500, 0.5, 0.005 are interchangeable and are labelled at the one point as 50.

Significant Figures
As slide rules and navigation computers are fairly small in size, the accuracy to which
you can read them depends upon your eyesight. Most scales on a slide rule allow you to
read to an accuracy of three digits. Now when we read the scale, say in figure 4-5, we
do not know if these three significant figures should be written as 847, 84.7, 8.47, 0.847,
0.0847, 0.00847, 8,470, or 84,700,000.
80 90
81 82 83 84 85 86 88

847 13-05.EPS

Figure 4-5 This scale reads 847.

To know where to place the decimal point requires us to estimate the approximate
answer to whatever the question is, which we can do by quick mental arithmetic. Mental
checks give us a very approximate answer (allowing us to place the decimal point cor-
rectly); the slide rule manipulations give us that answer accurate to three significant figures.
When using the slide rule facility of the computer, it is good practice always to follow
the procedure:
■ rough mental check;
■ slide rule manipulation to obtain three significant figures; and lastly
■ place the decimal point (determined by the rough check).

As well as allowing you to place the decimal point, the rough mental check will con-
firm that your computer manipulations were at least approximately correct and your

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

4: Computations 93

answer not grossly in error. Carrying out the mental check first will result in fewer errors
and is also good practice for the many times in flight and on the ground when mental
checks are needed.

Basic Arithmetical Problems on the Circular Slide Rule

Multiplication
Example 4-3
Multiply 3.25 by 4.28 using a circular slide rule.
Rough check: 3  4= 12.

Step 1
Treat 10 on the outer scale as the starting point and find 3.25. Set 10 on the inner scale
below 3.25 on the outer (or 32.5 or 325 or 3,250).

Step 2
Find 4.28 on the inner scale and mark the number directly above it on the outer scale,
which should read 139. Determine position of decimal point by rough check (3  4 =
12), so the answer is 13.9. It is not 1.39 or 139.

1 Set 10 on inner
scale against
3.25 on outer

2 Against 4.28 on
inner scale, read
ANS: 13.9 on outer
13-06.EPS

Figure 4-6 The multiplication 3.25  4.28 on the circular slide rule.

Division
Example 4-4
As an easy one to begin with, divide 36 by 12.
Rough check: 36  12 = 3 (so easy that we do not need the computer).

1 Set 12 on inner
scale against
36 on outer

2 Against 10 on
inner scale, read
ANS: 30 on outer

13-07.EPS

Figure 4-7 The division 36  12 on the circular slide rule.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

94 Navigation

Step 1
Treat 10 on the outer scale as the starting point; the logarithm of 36 is the distance from
10 to 36 on the outer scale. Beneath 36 place 12 (the logarithm of 12 is the distance
from 10 to 12 on the inner scale).

Step 2
Next, locate 10 on the inner scale and looking above it find the answer 30. (The log of
12 has thus been subtracted from the log of 36.) Do not confuse 10 with 1:00, which
symbolises 1 hr, or 60 min on some computers. Placing the decimal point is easy in this
case; we know that 36  12 = 3, and so the answer is not 30 or 300 but 3.0.
Combined Multiplication and Division
Occasionally our calculations involve multiplication and division together, and the cir-
cular slide rule is ideal for this. The best approach is to commence with a division and
follow with the multiplication. This process can be repeated as many times as necessary.
Example 4-5
Calculate 25 times 15 divided by 5. (Another simple one that can be done mentally, but
a good example to begin with.)
Rough check: 25  5 = 5, which multiplied by 15 gives 5  15 = 75.

Step 1
Carry out the division (25  5) by placing 5 on the inner scale against 25 on the outer scale.

Step 2
The answer to this appears on the outer scale above the 10 on the inner scale, and the
setting does not have to be altered to carry out the multiplication of this answer by 15.

Step 3
Carry out the multiplication by finding 15 on the inner scale and noting the answer
above it on the outer scale; it should be 75. The position of the decimal point is con-
firmed by the mental check carried out by the rough check.

2 Against 10 on
inner scale, read
ANS: 5 on outer

1 Set 5 on inner
scale against
25 on outer

3 Against 15 on
inner scale, read
ANS: 75 on outer
13-08.EPS

Figure 4-8 The calculation 25  15  5 on the circular slide rule.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

4: Computations 95

Example 4-6 1 Set 25.7 on outer

25.7  3.96 scale against
Calculate --------------------------- 2 Against 3.96 on 5.12 on inner scale
5.12 inner scale, read
ANS: 19.9 on outer
Rough check: (25  4) 5 = 100  5 = 20.
Step 1
Set 25.7 on the outer scale against 5.12 on
the inner scale.
13-09.EPS

Step 2 Figure 4-9 Example 4-6.

Against 3.96 on the inner scale, read off on
the outer scale the number 199. From our
mental check, the decimal point should be
placed thus: 19.9.
A Different Way of Expressing a 1 Set 25 on outer
Similar Problem 2 Against 4 on scale against
inner scale, read 5 on inner scale
The equation D = (25  4)  5 may be ANS: 20 on outer

expressed slightly differently as a ratio:

20
D=
D
---- = 25
-----
4 5
In this simple example, the mental check 13-10.EPS

indicates that D is 20. The setup on the cir- Figure 4-10 Finding ratios on the circular slide rule.
cular slide rule is shown in figure 4-10. The
answer is of course 20.
The equation could be used to answer the following question: ‘If an aeroplane travels
25 nm in 5 min, how far would it travel in a further 4 min?’ The answer is 20 nm. Or
it could be the answer to this question: ‘If an aeroplane burns 25 L of fuel in 5 min, how
many litres would the aeroplane have burned at the same rate in 4 mins?’ The answer is
20 L. Or it could be the answer to this question: ‘If an aeroplane travels 25 nm in 5 min,
how far would it travel in 40 min?’ The answer is 200 nm. Or it could be the answers
to these questions: ‘If you descend 2,500 ft in 5 min, how far would you expect to
descend in the next 4 min? What is your rate of descent? The answers are 2,000 ft and
500 fpm. These are all very common everyday navigational calculations and as a pilot
you must be able to perform them with speed and accuracy.
Solving Speed, Distance,
Time and Ratio Problems 140 Distance
Speed is the ratio of distance to time. As there
are 60 min in 1 hr, a speed of 140 kt is the
Time
same as travelling a distance of 140 nm over
the ground in 60 min. We can set this up on
60
the circular slide rule by placing the 60- 13-11.EPS

minute index, marked with a ▲ (sometimes Figure 4-11 Speed 140 kt set on a circular slide rule.
written as 1:00), on the inner time scale
against the 140 on the outer distance scale.
On navigation computers, the inner scale is marked time and the outer scale marked
distance (usually somewhere near the 60-minute mark). It is important to keep in mind
that time is always on the inner scale and distance and speed on the outer scale.
The circular slide rule is now set up to answer many questions, such as the following.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

96 Navigation

Example 4-7
At a groundspeed of 140 kt, how far will you travel in 30 min?
Rough check: 30 min is half an hour which, at 140 kt, is 70 nm.
Find 30 min on the inner time scale and read off the answer of 70 nm on the outer
distance scale. See ‘A’ in figure 4-12.
Example 4-8
At a GS of 140 kt, how far will you travel in 15 min?
Rough check: 15 minutes = hour at 140 kt, gives  ⁄¢ = 35 nm.
Find 15 min on the inner time scale and read off the answer of 35 nm on the outer
distance scale. See ‘B’ in figure 4-12.
Example 4-9
At a GS of 140 kt, how long will it take you to travel 65 nm?
Rough check: 65 nm is slightly less than of 140 nm which, at 140 kt, will take
slightly less than 30 min to cover.
Find 65 nm on the outer distance scale and read off the answer of 28 min (approxi-
mately) on the inner time scale. See ‘C’ in figure 4-12.

140 Distance

Time

60

13-12.EPS

Figure 4-12 Speed, time and distance problems.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

4: Computations 97

Further Problems
The computer can be used to solve many different types of problems involving multi-
plication, division or ratios.

Example 4-10
If you cover 16 nm over the ground in 10 min, what is your groundspeed?

2 Against 60 on 1 Set 16 on outer

inner scale, read Distance scale against
ANS: 96 on outer 10 on inner scale

Time

60 13-13.EPS

Figure 4-13 Finding groundspeed.

96
Distance
A
Time

60

13-14.EPS

Figure 4-14 Time–speed–distance setup.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

98 Navigation

Step 1
Set up 16 nm on the outer distance scale against 10 min on the inner time scale.
Step 2
Against 60 min on the inner time scale, read off on the outer distance scale the distance
you would travel in that time, which of course is 96 nm, that is, the groundspeed is 96 kt.
The computer is now set up to answer lots of other questions relevant to this situation,
such as the following:
■ How far will the aeroplane then travel in a further 5 min?

Answer. 8 nm. See ‘A’ in figure 4-14.

■ How long will it take to travel 24 nm?
Answer. 15 min. See ‘B’ in figure 4-14.
In each of these three questions, a rough mental check will confirm that the answers are
96 kt (and not 960), 8 nm (and not 80 or 0.8) and 15 min (and not 150 or 1.5) respectively.

Fuel Consumption Problems 1 Set 30 on outer

scale against 2 Against 8 on
Example 4-11 60 on inner scale inner scale, read
ANS: 4 on outer
If an aeroplane is burning fuel at the rate of
Litres
30 L/hr, what fuel burn-off can you expect
in 8 min?
Time
Rough check: 30 L/hr is 0.5 L/min, which,
for 8 min, will give a burn-off of 4 L.
60
Step 1 13-15.EPS

Set 60 min on the inner time scale against Figure 4-15 A typical fuel consumption problem.
30 L on the outer scale (figure 4-15).
Step 2
Against 8 min on the inner time scale read off 4 L on the outer scale. (The rough check
indicated that the answer is 4 and not 40 or 400 or 0.4.)

Another Type of Fuel Consumption Problem

Example 4-12
If we have burned 4 L in 10 min, how much will we burn in the next 25 min?
Rough check: 4 L in 10 min = 24 L in 60 min (i.e. 24 L/hr), so we expect to use
slightly less than 12 L in 25 min (or 25 min is 2 times 10, so 2  4 = 10L).
Step 1
Set up 10 min on the inner time scale against 4 L on the outer scale (figure 4-16).
Step 2
Against 25 min on the inner time scale, read off 10 L on the outer scale (and not 1 or
100 or 1,000).
The circular slide rule is now set up (figure 4-16) to answer many other problems rel-
evant to this situation, such as the following:
■ How long would it take to burn 28 L?

Answer. 70 min (figure 4-16 ‘B’).

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

4: Computations 99

■ What is the rate of fuel consumption in litres per hour?

Answer. 24 L/hr (figure 4-16 ‘C’).

1 Set 4 on outer
scale against
10 on inner scale

Litres

Time

B 2 Against 25 on
inner scale, read
ANS: 10 on outer
60

13-16.EPS

Figure 4-16 Another fuel consumption problem.

A Further Type of Fuel Consumption Problem

Example 4-13
You have 98 L of flight fuel available, and the consumption rate is 21 L/hr. What is the
remaining endurance?
Rough check: 100 L at 20 L/hr gives an approximate endurance of something less
than 5 hr.

Step 1
By computer, with 60 min on the inner scale against 21 L/hr on the outer scale, we can
read off the answer of 280 min (4 hr 40 min) on the inner scale against 98 L of the outer
scale.

Remember the Rough Mental Check (Ball Park Figures)

The rough mental check will avoid gross errors being made. For example, an answer of
28.2 min to the above question may not seem in error to a pilot who does not back up
his or her computer manipulations with mental checks, yet it is in error by a factor of
10. As well as allowing you to place the decimal point correctly, a mental check also
allows an approximate check of the numbers involved.
Do not neglect the mental check in order to save time and energy. What is the point
of calculating the fuel to be 139 L and ordering 1.39 L or 13.9 L, rather than 139 L?
It seems a little ridiculous, but rough estimates to back up computer calculations
could have prevented a large number of accidents, some involving large jet airliners.
Learn the value of mental checks early in your flying career. A competent, self-disci-
plined pilot will make mental checks all the time.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

100 Navigation

Off-Track Problems
Example 4-14
If an aeroplane is 5 nm off track after travelling 20 nm, how far off track will it be after
travelling 45 nm?
5 = -----
?
This is a simple ratio problem of: -----
20 45
Rough check: ?⁄ = ⁄¢. Answer will be slightly greater than 11 (⁄¢ of 45 is 11+).

2 Against 45 on
1 Set 5 on outer inner scale, read
ANS: 11.2 on outer
scale against
20 on inner scale

13-17.EPS

Figure 4-17 A typical off-track problem.

Step 1
Set up 20 against 5.

Step 2
Against 45, read off the answer 11.2.

The computer is now set up to find answers to other problems such as: If you are
5 nm off track after travelling 20 nm, how far off track will you be after travelling a total
of 60 nm?
Answer. 15 nm.

2 Against 60 on
inner scale, read
ANS: 15 on outer

1 Set 5 on outer
scale against
20 on inner scale

15
15° 5
13-18.EPS
20 60

Figure 4-18 An off-track problem.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

4: Computations 101

Conversions on the Computer

As a pilot, you will often have to convert from one unit to another. Some of the com-
mon conversions are labelled on the scales of the circular slide rule to help you, but
which ones and precisely how they are used varies from computer to computer, so refer
to your computer handbook as well as to this manual.

Temperatures
Even though the standard unit for temperature throughout the world of aviation is the
degree Celsius, a few places still use the Fahrenheit scale. Almost all computers have a
separate Fahrenheit-to-Celsius scale that allows us to convert very easily from one to the
other.

Example 4-15
Convert +15°C to °F.
Simply find +15°C on the temperature scale and read off the answer in °F (figure 4-19).
Answer. +60°F.

13-19.EPS

Figure 4-19 Computer set up for example 4-15: +15°C = +60°F.

Distances

Conversions Between Nautical Miles, Statute Miles and Kilometres

As we saw in chapter 1, we use the nautical mile as the standard unit of distance for nav-
igation, whereas shorter distances such as visibility and runway dimensions are now
measured in kilometres and metres.
In addition to the nautical mile and the kilometre, there is another unit of distance in
use in many countries for day-to-day, non-technical purposes, such as road distances and
speeds of cars. This unit is the statute mile. Although it is unlikely that you will have a
need to carry out conversions between nautical miles, statute miles and kilometres, all
computers have indices for these units marked on the outer scale, making it quite
straightforward to convert between them.
The relationship between the various distance units is:
1 nm = 1.15 sm = 1,852 m
To convert from one unit to another:
■ set the known quantity on the inner scale against its index on the outer scale; then
■ against the index of the required unit on the outer scale, read off the answer on the
inner scale.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

102 Navigation

Example 4-16
Convert 10 nm to statute miles and kilometres.
1 nm = approximately 1.2 sm = approximately 2 km
Rough check:
10 nm = approximately 12 sm = approximately 20 km

3 Opposite KM on outer
scale, read second
ANS: 18.5 km on inner
2 Against STAT index on
outer scale, read ANS:
11.5 sm on inner

1 Set 10 nm on inner
scale against NAUT
index on outer 13-20.EPS

Figure 4-20 Computer set up for example 4-16: 10 nm = 11.5 sm = 18.5 km.

Step 1
Set the value 10 on the inner scale against the nautical mile index on the outer scale.

Step 2
Read off the value for statute miles and kilometres using their indices on the outer scale.

Step 3
The answer is 11.5 sm and 18.5 km.
This method may also be used to convert speeds.

Example 4-17
Convert 231 kph to miles per hour and knots.
Rough check: 2 km  1.2 s.m.  1 nm
30 km  15  1.2 s.m. = 18 s.m.  15 nm
200 km  100  1.2 s.m. = 120 s.m.  100 nm
230 km  138 s.m.  115 nm
1 Set 231 on inner scale
2 Against STAT index against KM index on outer
on outer scale, read
off 144 mph on inner
or
2 Against NAUT index
on outer scale, read
off 125 kt on inner

13-21.EPS

Figure 4-21 Example 4-17.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

4: Computations 103

Step 1
Set the value 231 on the inner scale against the kilometre index on the outer scale.

Step 2
Read off the values against the statute miles and nautical miles indices.

Step 3
The answer is 231 kph = 144 mph = 125 kt.

Converting Feet to Metres and Vice Versa

As agreed by ICAO, for the foreseeable future the standard unit for measurement of
height is the foot. However, some countries use the metre, and you may find some aero-
nautical charts with elevations of high ground marked in metres.
If you use a chart with heights above mean sea level marked in metres but you are
flying an altitude in feet, then you must be able to convert confidently between these
two units. For approximate checks, we can use 1 m = 3.3 ft.
Depending on the computer you are using, there are two different ways to convert
from metres to feet (and vice versa). With the Airtour CRP-1, the index marks for both
units are marked on the outer scale in red. To convert from metres to feet, set the metres
value on the inner scale against the red index mark for metres on the outer scale. Then,
against the red index mark for feet, read off the answer in feet on the inner scale. To
convert from feet to metres, the process is similar: you set the feet value against the red
index for feet and then read off the value against the red index for metres.
On the Jeppesen Flight Computer and the ASA E6-B, there are two small arrows: one
on the outer scale labelled FT (near the 14 mark), and one on the inner scale labelled
METERS (near the 45 mark). (Note that metres is the English spelling; the Americans
write it as meters.) If you align these two indices, then feet on the outer scale can be read
off against metres on the inner scale. The ratio of 1 m to 3.28 ft is now set up on the
computer with the 1.0 on the inner metre scale aligned with the 3.28 on the outer foot
scale.

Example 4-18
Convert 1,000 m to feet.
Rough check: 1 m  3.3 ft
1,000 m  3,300 ft

(Multiply by 3 and add 10% = 1  3 + 0.3 = 3.3.)

1 Set 1000 metres on inner scale

against metre index on outer 2 Against feet index on outer scale,
read off 3,280 ft on inner

13-22.EPS

Figure 4-22 Airtour CRP-1 set up to for example 4-18: 1,000 m = 3,280 ft.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

104 Navigation

Steps 1 and 2
Depending on the computer, do either of the following:
■ for the Airtour CRP-1 style of computer, set 1,000 on the inner scale against the
metres index on the outer scale and read off the value on the inner scale (3,300)
against the feet index on the outer scale (figure 4-22); or
■ for the Jeppesen or ASA style of computer, set the metres index against the feet index
and read off the value (3,300) on the outer wheel against 1,000 on the inner wheel.

Example 4-19
Convert 2,000 ft to metres.
Rough check:
1
1 ft  ------- m
3.3
1
2,000 ft  2,000 ft  ------- m/ft
3.3
2,000
= ------------- m  600 m
3.3

(Or deduct 10% and divide by 3 = 2,000 – 200 = 1,800  3 = 600.)

Steps 1 and 2
Depending on the computer, do either of the following:
■ for the Airtour CRP-1 style of computer, set 2,000 on the inner scale against the feet
index on the outer scale and read off the value on the inner scale (610) against the
meter index on the outer scale; or
■ for the Jeppesen or ASA style of computer, set the meters index against the feet index
and read off the value on the inner wheel (610) against 2,000 on the outer wheel
(figure 4-23).

1 Set METERS on inner scale 2 Against 2000 ft on outer scale,

against FT index on outer read off 610 metres on inner
13-23.EPS

Figure 4-23 ASA E6-B set up for example 4-19: 2,000 ft = 610 m.

Weights and Volumes

In aviation, we are faced with the problem of having different units of measurement for
weight, and we need to be able to convert from one to the other. In a similar way, we
have different units for volume.
The internationally accepted unit of weight for use in aviation is the kilogram. How-
ever, there are still some occasions when you will find reference to the pound as the unit
of weight, and you need to be able to convert from one to the other.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

4: Computations 105

There are three volumetric units in common use, and although Australia has adopted
the litre as its standard, most general-aviation aeroplanes have fuel gauges calibrated in
US gallons. Since you will order the fuel you want from the fuel agent in litres, there is
a possibility for confusion here, and you must therefore become very confident and
competent in converting from one unit to the other. Just to confuse matters still further,
you may run across the older unit of imperial gallons from time to time.

Conversions Between Kilograms and Pounds

As with the conversions between feet and metres, there are two different methods
depending on which computer you use. For your rough mental checks, the conversion
factor is:
1 kg = 2.2 lb

On the Airtour CRP-1 computer, the index for kilograms is marked in red on the outer
scale near the 80 mark. The index for pounds is near the 18 mark on the outer scale.
On the Jeppesen Flight Computer and the ASA E6-B, the kilogram index is near the
16 on the inner scale and the pounds index is near the 35 on the outer scale. When they
are aligned, notice that 1.0 kg on the inner kilograms scale is aligned with 2.2 lb on the
outer pounds scale.

Example 4-20
Convert 83 lb to kilograms.
Rough check:
2.2 lb = 1 kg
83 lb  2.2 lb/kg  40 kg
Steps 1 and 2
Depending on you computer, do either of the following:
■ for the Jeppesen and ASA style of computers, align the kilogram index on the inner
scale with the pounds index on the outer scale, and then read off the value (37.6) in
kilograms on the inner scale against 83 pounds on the outer scale; or
■ for the Airtour style of computers, set 83 on the inner scale against the pounds index
on the outer scale, and against the kilometres index on the outer scale read off 37.6 on
the inner scale, which is the answer in kilometres (figure 4-24).
Note. You can use the rotating arm to help you align the numbers with the index.

2 Against kg read off 37.6

1 Set 83 against lbs

13-24.EPS

Figure 4-24 Airtour CRP-1 set up for example 4-20: 83 lbs = 37.6 kg.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

106 Navigation

Example 4-21
Convert 293 kg to pounds.
Rough check:
1 kg  2.2 lb
300 kg (approx)  2.2 lb/kg  660 lb

1 Align LBS against KG

2 Against 293 kg read off 648 lbs

13-25.EPS

Figure 4-25 ASA E6-B set up for example 4-21: 293 kg = 648 lb.

Steps 1 and 2
Depending on your computer, do either of the following:
■ for the Airtour CRP-1 style of computer, set 293 on the inner scale against the kilo-
grams index on the outer scale, and then read off the value on the outer scale against
the pounds index on the inner scale; or
■ for the Jeppesen and ASA style of computer, align the kilometres index on the inner
scale with the pounds index on the outer scale, and then against 293 on the inner scale
read off 648 on the outer scale, which is the answer in pounds (figure 4-25).

Conversions Between US Gallons, Imperial Gallons and Litres

For rough checks, use the following approximate conversion factors:
1 USG = 0.8 imperial gallons = 4 L

This is a very simple exercise on all navigation computers, using indices marked on
the outer scale for US gallons, imperial gallons and litres. The method is as follows:
■ set the known quantity on the inner scale against its index on the outer scale; and
■ read the answer on the inner scale against the desired index on the outer scale.

Example 4-22
Convert 24 USG to imperial gallons and litres.
Rough check:

1 USG = 0.8 imp. gal.

24 USG = 0.8 imp. gal./USG  24 USG  20 imp. gal.
1 USG = 4L
24 USG = 4 L/USG  24 USG = 96 L

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

4: Computations 107

Step 1
Set 24 on the inner scale against the US gallons index on the outer scale.

Steps 2 and 3
Read the values on the inner scale against the imperial gallons and litres indices on the
outer scale giving 20 imp. gal. and 91 L respectively (figure 4-26).

2 Against IMP GAL read off 20 gal

1 Set 24 against US GAL

3 Against LITERS read off 91 litres

13-26.EPS

Figure 4-26 ASA E6-B set up for example 4-22: 24 USG = 20 imp. gal. = 91 L.

Converting Volumes to Weight

As we have just seen, we have to cope with three different units of volume: imperial
gallons, US gallons and litres. For aeroplane performance calculations, we need to know
the weight of our aeroplane. This means that we must convert a known volume of fuel
to its equivalent weight, and this requires a knowledge of weight of a unit volume of
fuel. This is called the specific gravity of the fuel.
Different fuels have different specific gravities, and even the same fuel can have a
slightly changed SG under extremes of temperature.
The specific gravity (SG) is defined by the expression:
weight of a particular fluid
SG = -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
weight of the same volume of water
We should know from our studies as a student pilot that the aviation fuel used in
piston-engine aeroplanes in Australia, AVGAS (either 100LL or 100/130), has a specific
gravity of 0.71. This means that a given volume of AVGAS will weigh only 0.71 times
as much as the same volume of water.
The specific gravity of water is 1.0, and 1 L of water weighs 1 kg. Therefore 1 L of
AVGAS weighs 0.71 kg. Although we do not normally deal with fuel in imperial gal-
lons, it is worth noting that 1 imp. gal. of water weighs 10 lb, and the weight of 1 imp.
gal. of AVGAS will be 10  0.71 = 7.1 lb.
In your fuel calculations, use the following:
■ for metric units, weight of fuel (kg) = SG  volume (L); and
■ for imperial units, weight of fuel (lb) = SG  10  volume (imp. gal.).

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

 108 Navigation

You will have noted that we have made no mention of the weight of a US gallon of
AVGAS. Depending on the type of computer you use, the conversion from US gallons
to weight (pounds or kilograms) can be done directly without any intermediate calcu-
lations, or you may need to actually multiply the volume by the weight of one US gal-
lon. If you have to do this:
1 USG of AVGAS weighs 2.69 kg.

Using the Airtour CRP-1 Computer

The one advantage that the Airtour CRP-1 computer has over both the Jeppesen and
ASA computers is that it enables the conversion of any one of the three volumetric units
directly into either kilograms or pounds. In addition, it has two scales (one graduated in
kilograms and the other in pounds) to cater for fuels of differing specific gravity.
To convert a volume to weight, do the following:
■ set the volume on the inner scale against the appropriate index mark on the outer
scale; and
■ against the appropriate SG scale (kilograms or pounds) read off the weight on the
inner scale.

Example 4-23
Convert 37 USG of AVGAS (SG 0.71) to pounds and kilograms.
Rough check: 1 USG = 2.5 kg
40 USG = 100 kg
1 kg = 2.2 lb
Step 1 100 kg = 220 lb
Set 37 on the inner scale against the US gallons index on the outer scale.

Step 2
Read the values against the pounds and kilograms indices giving 220 lb and 99.5 kg
respectively (figure 4-27).

2 Against Sp.G (in lbs) 0.71

read off 220 lbs on inner

2 Against Sp.G (in kgs) 0.71

read off 99.5 on inner

1 Set 37 against US gal

on outer scale

13-27.EPS

Figure 4-27 Airtour CRP-1 set up for example 4-23: 37 USG = 220 lb = 99.5 kg.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

4: Computations 109

Using Other Computers

Navigation computers made in the United States, such as the Jeppesen and ASA E6-B,
appear at first sight to have a similar facility to the Airtour for making conversions from
volume of AVGAS to weight. Both these computers are based on using a SG of 0.72 for
AVGAS. The answers obtained will be in error by a small amount. They also do not have a
facility for converting directly to kilograms.
However, since we now know how to carry out simple multiplication problems on
the circular slide rule, it is still a simple exercise to determine the weight of fuel, know-
ing that 1 USG of AVGAS weighs 2.69 kg.

Example 4-24
Convert 40 USG of AVGAS to kilograms.
Rough check: 40 USG  2.5 = 100 kg.

Step 1
Set the value 1 on the inner scale against 2.69 on the outer scale. The computer is now
set up for multiplication by 2.69.

Step 2
Read off the value 108 (kg) on the outer scale against 40 (USG) on the inner scale.

1 Set 1 against
2 Against 40, read off 108 kg
2.69 on outer

13-28.EPS

Figure 4-28 ASA E6-B set up for example 4-24: 40 USG = 108 kg.

Other Means of Making Conversions

You should be aware that AIP GEN and ERSA GEN have tables that allow you to make
conversions between various units of measurement, as well as a list of most of the con-
version factors that you are likely to need. The conversion factors can, of course, be used
with your circular slide rule or with any pocket calculator.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

110 Navigation

Wind Side of the Navigation Computer

The slide navigation computer is the oldest
type used in aviation and allows us to handle Sliding plate
the triangle-of-velocities (vector-type) nav-
igation problems introduced in chapter 1 in Index
a fast and accurate manner. Drift scale
During your training, these vector prob-
lems can be drawn by you graphically on
the plotting disc in the same relationship
that they have in the actual flight situation,
making it easier to visualise that the vectors Transparent Centre dot
plotting disc
have been applied correctly.
The components of the slide navigation
computer are the following: Drift line
■ a circular, rotatable compass rose (or azi-
muth) set in a fixed frame marked with Speed arc
an index at the top;
■ a transparent plastic plotting disc attached
to the rotatable compass rose, marked Rotatable
compass rose
with a centre dot (or grommet); and
■ a sliding plate, printed with concentric 13-29.EPS

speed arcs and radial drift lines, that slides

Figure 4-29
through the frame and compass rose Wind side of a typical navigation computer.
assembly, hence the term slide-graphic nav-
igation computer.
The computer is designed such that it is unnecessary to draw in the whole of the tri-
angle of velocities, and the plastic window enables us to mark known vectors, which can
later be removed easily.
Prior to using the navigation computer to solve triangle-of-velocities (vector-type)
problems, you should first ensure that you understand the triangle of velocities and how
to find answers graphically.

Reminder of Triangle of Velocities W/V

B C
Just to remind you, the triangle of velocities
has three sides representing the following
TR/GS
vectors:
■ heading/true airspeed (HDG/TAS); HDG/TAS

■ wind velocity (i.e. direction and speed)

(W/V); and
■ track/groundspeed (TR/GS).

From the point of view of setting up the Drift

situation on the wind side of the computer,
you should note very carefully that the wind 10-30.EPS A
always blows the aeroplane from its heading to its Figure 4-30 The triangle of velocities.
track.
In other words, the wind vector must
start at the HDG/TAS vector and end at the TR/GS vector. If you have this firmly fixed
in your mind, then computer solutions will follow easily and correctly.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

4: Computations 111

Drift and Wind Correction Angle

As we can see from figure 4-31, the wind blows the aeroplane from its heading onto its
track. In other words, the aeroplane drifts off its heading towards the track. The drift
angle is measured from heading to track. A useful rule to remember when describing
drift direction is:
Track left of heading, drift left.
Track right of heading, drift right.
To counteract the effect of the wind and thus ensure that we fly along a planned track,
we need to steer our aeroplane into the wind by an amount equal to the number of
degrees of drift we expect. For example, in figure 4-31, we are expecting 10° right drift.
Therefore, we must steer a heading 10° to the left of the planned track.
The amount that we steer into the wind to offset the drift is called the wind correc-
tion angle (WCA). It is measured from track to heading, and is of course equal and
opposite to drift. In the above example, the WCA is 10° left.

HDG HDG

TR TR

Wind correction angle

Drift 10˚ RIGHT – (WCA) 10˚ LEFT –
measured from measured from TR to HDG
HDG to TR (equal and opposite to drift)
13-31EPS

Figure 4-31 Drift and wind correction angle (WCA).

Components of the Triangle of Velocities

In the triangle of velocities, there are six components derived from the magnitude and
the direction of each of the three vectors:

Vector Magnitude Direction

HDG/TAS TAS HDG (to)

W/V Wind speed Wind direction (from)

TR/GS GS TR (to)

Table 4-1 Components of the triangle of velocities.

Typical situations involve knowing four of these six components and finding the other
two – it is as simple as that. If you can sketch a triangle of velocities with the three vec-
tors placed properly, then the wind side of the computer will cause you no difficulties.
You must understand the triangle of velocities before you can achieve speed and accu-
racy with the navigation computer.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

112 Navigation

The Normal Flight Planning Situation

When you are doing your flight planning on the ground prior to departure, the two
unknown quantities for your navigation computer to find are the following:
■ the heading to be steered to achieve the flight plan track; and
■ the groundspeed.

For each of the three sides of the triangle of velocities, the components usually known
are as follows:
■ HDG/TAS vector: you will know the TAS that you plan to use but not the heading.
■ TR/GS vector: you will know your flight plan track, but you will not know your
groundspeed.
■ W/V vector: you will know the W/V (both direction and speed) from the meteoro-
logical forecast and that W/V blows from heading to track.

Figure 4-32 Determining the heading and groundspeed for a planned track.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

4: Computations 113

Marking the Vectors on the Plotting Disc

If you can sketch a triangle of velocities with the three vectors placed properly, then the
wind side of the computer will cause you no difficulties at all.
While you are still learning how to use the computer, it is a good idea to draw each
of the vectors with their arrowheads on the plotting disc to ensure that the triangle of
velocities is portrayed correctly. Marks on the plotting disc can be removed quite easily
at the end of each problem.
When you become familiar with the use of the computer, however, drawing each
vector becomes unnecessary, and just one single mark (usually a cross) to illustrate the
length of the wind velocity vector is all that is needed.

13-33.EPS

Figure 4-33 Initially show the vectors; later you need only show the wind cross.

Work Totally in Degrees Magnetic

When solving vector-triangle problems on the wind side of the computer, it is abso-
lutely vital that you work totally in one constant directional reference, that is, work
solely in either degrees true or degrees magnetic. We recommend that you select mag-
netic. For all our flying, the magnetic compass is the reference for direction, and it is
therefore more convenient to work wholly in degrees magnetic. In addition, if you
decide to submit a full ATC flight plan, the tracks have to be entered in degrees mag-
netic.
To work in degrees magnetic, you must apply the magnetic variation, as shown by
the isogonic lines on the charts, to the true tracks that you measure off the chart thus
obtaining the track in degrees magnetic. You must also apply the variation to the winds
given in the forecast to convert them to magnetic direction. Once you have done this,
your answers will be the heading in degrees magnetic.
Although you can work throughout in degrees true, it will mean that you must then
convert all your answers into magnetic. Talk to your flying instructor, and seek his or her
advice on the method they want you to use. Whichever method you do select, make
sure that you are consistent throughout – either all true or all magnetic.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

114 Navigation

Typical Flight Planning Problems

Example 4-25
For a planned track of 150°M with a
1 Set wind direction true airspeed of 100 kt and a wind
360° under index velocity of 360°M/30, find the heading
and groundspeed.

Steps 1 and 2
2 Mark wind 30 kt
up from grommet Mark the W/V vector on the plotting disc.
(Wind direction and wind speed are
known, i.e. both aspects of the W/V
vector.) Rotate the compass rose until
the wind direction 360° (north) is under
the index. Now, mark the start of the
W/V vector of 30 kt above the centre
dot. Marking the starting point of the
wind vector above the centre dot is most
easily achieved by first setting any one of
13-34.EPS
the numbered speed arcs under the cen-
Figure 4-34
Slide navigation computer set up
tre dot, and then marking the wind vec-
for example 4-25: W/V vector of 360°M/30 kt set. tor with a cross on the speed arc 30 kt
above the centre dot.
At this early stage in your training, it
is a good idea to draw in the full W/V
vector, showing the three arrowheads of
the W/V vector pointing down toward
3 Set TR 150°
under index the centre dot. This will give you a very
clear picture as the whole triangle of
velocities is developed on the plotting
disc.

Step 3

Place the TR/GS vector on the plotting disc.

The planned track is known (having
been measured on the chart and then
converted to degrees magnetic);
groundspeed is not known. In this case,
only one aspect of the TR/GS vector is
known – its direction, but not its magni-
tude. Rotate the compass rose until the
13-35.EPS
planned track of 150°M is under the
Figure 4-35 index. (We cannot position the appro-
Slide navigation computer
set up for example 4-25: track 150°M set. priate groundspeed arc under the centre
dot because we do not yet know its
value.)

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

4: Computations 115

Step 4

Mark the HDG/TAS vector

on the plotting disc.
True airspeed is known, but the heading 4 Set TAS 100 kt
under wind cross
is not. In this case, only one aspect of the
HDG/TAS vector is known – its magni-
tude.
Move the slide and place the 100-
knot speed arc under the wind cross,
which is the starting point of the W/V
vector. (This is where a clear under-
standing of the triangle of velocities is 13-36.EPS

most important: the end of the Figure 4-36

HDG/TAS vector is where the W/V Slide navigation computer set up
for example 4-25: marking the HDG/TAS vector.
vector begins.)

Steps 5 and 6

Read off the answers for

heading and groundspeed.
The groundspeed of 125 kt appears
under the centre dot. From the drift 5 GS is 125 kt
lines, the wind correction angle is 9° to 6 WCA is 9° left
the left of the planned track. This means
that, to achieve a track of 150°M, the
aeroplane must be headed 9° into the
wind and flown on a heading of 141°M
to allow for the 9° right drift.
Note. The arithmetic (for deter- 13-37.EPS

mining the heading of 141° from a Figure 4-37

track of 150° and a wind correction Slide navigation computer set up
for example 4-25: HDG 141°M and GS 125 kt.
angle of 9° into the wind) can be
checked on the scale near the index.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

116 Navigation

Example 4-26
Your aeroplane cruises at true airspeed of
174 kt. You measure your flight-planned
track as 300°T. The forecast W/V vector
1 Set wind
is 250°T/40. Find the heading you must
direction 240° steer and the groundspeed you will
achieve. Remember that we want to
work in magnetic so we need to apply
2 Mark wind 40 kt the variation, which in this area is 10°E.
up from grommet
This makes the track 290°M and the
W/V vector 240°M/40.

Steps 1 and 2

Mark the W/V vector on the plotting disc.

Both wind speed and wind direction are
known. Since the required track is
known, we show the W/V vector blow-
ing down from the index toward the
centre dot. Set wind direction 240°
13-38.EPS
under the index. Mark in the wind
Figure 4-38 strength 40 kt above the centre dot.
Slide navigation computer set up
for example 4-26: W/V 240°M/40 vector set.
Note. Remember, wind velocities
shown in area and aerodrome forecasts
are in degrees true. Winds provided by
ATS, including the ATIS broadcasts,
are given in degrees magnetic.
3 Set TR 290°
under index Step 3

Mark the TR/GS vector on the plotting disc.

Track is known; groundspeed is not
known. Rotate the compass rose until
the track 290°M is under the index. (We
cannot position the appropriate speed
arc under the centre dot because we do
not yet know the groundspeed.)

13-39.EPS

Figure 4-39
Slide navigation computer
set up for example 4-26: track 290°M set.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

4: Computations 117

4 Set TAS 174 kt

under wind cross

Step 4

Mark the HDG/TAS vector

on the plotting disc.
True airspeed is known; heading is not
known. Move the slide to place the true
airspeed of 174 kt under the wind cross,
which is the starting point of the W/V 13-40.EPS

vector (since the W/V vector com-

mences where the TAS/HDG vector Figure 4-40
Slide navigation computer set up
ends). for example 4-26: marking the HDG/TAS vector.

Steps 5 and 6

Read off the answers for heading and

groundspeed.
The wind correction angle of 10° left
can now be read off the drift lines; that
is, the aeroplane must be steered 10° into
the wind (left of the planned track to
allow for the 10° right drift). In this case, 5 WCA is 10° left

to achieve the planned track of 290°M,

the aeroplane must be steered on a head-
ing of 280°M. The groundspeed of 6 GS is 145 kt
145 kt lies under the centre dot.

13-41.EPS

Figure 4-41
Slide navigation computer set up
for example 4-26: HDG 280°M, GS 145 kt.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

118 Navigation

In-Flight Calculations
Finding the Wind Velocity
Finding the wind velocity is a typical in-
flight situation where:
1 Set TR 146° ■ from your instruments, you know the
under index
heading and the indicated airspeed
from which the true airspeed can be
calculated; and
■ from position fixing (map reading or
using radio navigation aids), you find
your track made good and calculate
2 Set GS 144 kt
your groundspeed.
From this information, you can deter-
mine the average wind velocity over the
time under consideration. You can then
apply this current wind velocity to your
onward calculations rather than using a
forecast wind velocity, or earlier wind
13-42.EPS
velocity, which may not be all that accu-
rate. This calculation should be made at
Figure 4-42 regular intervals.
Slide navigation computer set up for
example 4-27: the TR/GS vector.

Example 4-27
Finding the wind velocity in flight given
a heading of 138°M, a true airspeed of
120 kt, a track of 146°M and a ground-
speed of 144 kt.

Steps 1 and 2

Mark the TR/GS vector on the plotting disc.

3 Mark WCA 8° left Rotate the compass rose and set track
146°M under the index. Set the ground-
speed of 144 kt under the centre dot
with the slide.
4 Mark TAS
120 kt
Steps 3 and 4

Mark the HDG/TAS vector and W/V

vector on the plotting disc.
With a heading of 138°M and track of
13-43.EPS
146°M, the drift is 8° right, that is, the
Figure 4-43 heading is 8° left of the track (or the
Slide navigation computer set up for
example 4-27: the HDG/TAS vector and W/V vector.
wind correction angle is 8° left). Mark in
the heading direction as the 8° drift line
to the left of track. Mark the true air-
speed where the 120-knot speed arc
intersects the drift line; this now indi-
cates the HDG/TAS vector.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

4: Computations 119

Remember that the W/V blows the

aircraft from heading to track. The W/V
vector is then from the end of the
HDG/TAS vector to the end of the
TR/GS vector. 6 Read off wind
direction 360°
7 Read off wind
Steps 5, 6 and 7 strength 30 kt

Determine the W/V vector.

Rotate the compass rose until the wind 5 Set wind cross on
index centreline
dot is on the index line with the arrows
pointing down toward the centre dot.
The direction from which it is blowing,
360°M, is now indicated under the
index. Read off the wind strength of
30 kt by setting a definite speed arc
under the centre dot (100 kt is conven-
ient in this case) to make the wind
strength easier to read.
13-44.EPS
Finding Track and Groundspeed
A situation could arise on an over-water Figure 4-44
Slide navigation computer
flight, a flight over barren terrain, such as set up for example 4-27: W/V is 360°M/30.
desert, or in poor visibility where
obtaining a fix is impossible. You should
therefore calculate a dead-reckoning
(DR) position from track and ground-
speed, which you can find from your
1 Set wind
computer using: direction 115°
■ heading and true airspeed; and
■ a forecast, estimated or previously cal-
culated W/V vector (as explained in
the previous example).

Example 4-28
Given a heading of 050°M, true airspeed
of 120 kt and a wind velocity of
115°M/40, find the track and ground-
speed.
2 Mark wind 40 kt
below centre dot
Steps 1 and 2

Mark the wind velocity vector on the

computer. 13-45.EPS

Set the wind direction 115°M (where Figure 4-45

Slide navigation computer set up for example 4-28:
the wind is blowing from) under the set wind direction and mark wind strength.
index. Mark in the wind strength of
40 kt. As HDG/TAS vector is known
and because the wind always blows from
heading to track, we place the W/V vec-
tor down from the centre dot.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

120 Navigation

Steps 3 and 4
Place the HDG/TAS vector on the computer.
Rotate the disc, setting a heading 050°M
under the index. Now, move the slide so
3 Set HDG 050° that a true airspeed of 120 kt is under the
centre dot.
Steps 5, 6 and 7
Read off the answers.
The groundspeed is read off the slide and
is 108 kt. To find the track, the drift also
4 Set centre dot
on TAS 120 kt needs to be read off the slide from the
drift line passing through the end of the
W/V vector. It is 19° left. The drift is
then applied to the heading to give the
track of 031°M. This can be done by
using the drift index.
Wind Components
13-46.EPS
Often a wind needs to be broken down
Figure 4-46 into its two components: headwind/tail-
Slide navigation computer
set up for example 4-28: HDG/TAS vector.
wind and crosswind. This is especially
the case when taking off and landing for
the following reasons:
■ For performance reasons, you often
need to know the headwind or tail-
wind component to determine the
take-off or landing distance required.
■ For reasons of safe handling of the
aeroplane, you always need to know
7 Read off (at least approximately) the crosswind
TMG 031°
component on a particular runway
that you intend using. (The crosswind
component is very important and
each aeroplane has a maximum cross-
5 GS is 108 kt
wind limit specified in its flight man-
6 Drift is ual, and this crosswind limit should
19° left never be exceeded.)
■ For take-off and landing calculations,
you need to know the headwind or tail-
wind component to use when entering
the appropriate performance graphs.
13-47.EPS ■ For landing at destinations, the cross-
Figure 4-47 wind component needs to be known
Slide navigation computer as, if it exceeds the aircraft limit, an
set up for example 4-28: drift 19° left,
track 031°M, groundspeed 108 kt. alternate will be required.
Remember that the surface wind
velocity given by ATS or recorded on the
ATIS is in degrees magnetic, as is the
direction of the runway. However, if you

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

4: Computations 121

are using forecast data such as a TAF,

the wind direction is true and will
have to be converted to magnetic.
Solution Using the Square Grid
on the Slide 2 Set wind direction
120°M under index
At the foot of the slide of many naviga-
tion computers will be found a square
grid, each unit of which is usually
counted as one knot. This grid is de-
signed for use in quickly calculating the
components (headwind/tailwind and
crosswind) of a wind velocity. 1 Set centre dot on
grid zero point

3 Mark wind speed

30 kt down on grid

Grid zero point

13-49.EPS

Figure 4-49
Computer set up for
example 4-29: W/V is 120°M/30.

13-48.EPS

Figure 4-48 The square grid on the computer slide.

Example 4-29 4 Set RWY direction

180°M under index
What crosswind and headwind compo-
nents exist on Runway 18 if the wind
velocity is 120°M/30?
Steps 1, 2 and 3
Set up the wind velocity vector on the
square-gridded part of the slide.
Place the square-gridded portion of the
slide under the plotting disc, with the zero
point under the centre dot. Mark the
wind velocity vector onto the disc by
rotating the compass rose to put the wind
direction under the index. Then mark
down from the centre dot the number of
knots. (Note that some brands of naviga- 13-50.EPS

tion computer differ, and you may need Figure 4-50

to choose your own scale for this.) Computer set up for
example 4-29: runway direction is 180°M.
Step 4
Set up the runway direction on the computer.
Rotate the compass rose until the runway
direction of 180°M is under the index.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

122 Navigation

Steps 5 and 6
Read off the crosswind and
headwind components.
Draw a line from the wind mark straight
up to the horizontal axis across the top
of the square grid. The length of this line
is the headwind component: 15 kt in
5 Read crosswind
this instance. The distance from the cen-
component 26 kt tre dot across to this point is the cross-
wind component: 26 kt.
Note. If, when runway direction is
set against the index, the wind
mark lies above the square-grid, a
tailwind component must exist on
6 Read headwind that runway, and it is probably
component 15 kt
advisable to select another. The
strength of this downwind compo-
13-51.EPS
nent may be found by moving the
slide so that the wind mark lies
along the top of the square-grid.
Figure 4-51
Computer set up for example 4-29: The value of the tailwind may then
crosswind of 26 kt and headwind of 15 kt. be read underneath the centre dot.
Solution Using Computers with No
Square Grid
Some slide-type navigation computers
1 Set wind direction are not equipped with the square grid
120°M under index
that can simplify the calculation of wind
component. The recommended method
for these types will be illustrated using
2 Mark wind 30 kt the same conditions as shown in the pre-
up from grommet vious example, namely, a wind velocity
of 120°M/30 kt and using Runway 18.

Example 4-30
Using a computer without a square grid,
find the crosswind and headwind com-
ponents that exist on Runway 18 if the
wind velocity is 120°M/30.

Steps 1 and 2
Set the wind on the computer.
13-52.EPS

Mark the wind velocity vector on the

Figure 4-52 plotting disc as in the flight planning sit-
Computer set up for example 4-30:
wind velocity of 120°M/30 kt. uation; that is, the wind direction is set
under the index with the wind blowing
down the required number of knots to
the centre dot. (The centre dot can be
set on any convenient value.)

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

4: Computations 123

Steps 3, 4 and 5

Set the runway heading under the index to

measure the headwind component.
3 Set RWY direction
Rotate the compass rose, setting the 180°M under index
runway heading of 180°M under the
index. To resolve the wind velocity vec-
tor line into crosswind and headwind 4 Run horizontal
components, run a line across from the line across

wind mark perpendicular to the centre

line (which represents the runway). 5 Read off
Mark with a circle on the centre line. headwind
component
The headwind component is easily
measured using the centre line.

Steps 6 and 7

Rotate the compass rose to align the

crosswind line with a radial drift line
to measure the crosswind component.
13-53.EPS

The crosswind component is a little

more difficult to come up with. Rotat- Figure 4-53
Computer set up for
ing the compass rose and adjusting the example 4-30: headwind of 15 kt.
slide will enable measuring the magni-
tude of the crosswind component along
a drift line. Read off the strength of the
crosswind component by measuring the
speed difference between the circle and
the wind cross. (To make it easier, the
slide can be adjusted so that one of the
marks coincides with an even speed 6 Read off crosswind
value, one of the arcs.) component 26 kt

7 Read off crosswind

component 26 kt

13-54.EPS

Figure 4-54
Computer set up for
example 4-30: crosswind of 26 kt.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

124 Navigation

Note. You should remember from your student pilot studies that there is a wind
component table in ERSA GEN, such as in table 4-2. You should check that you
get the same answers as shown in the above examples.

For crosswind component

angle between wind direction and runway heading

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
5 1 2 2 3 4 4 4 5 5
10 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 9 10
15 3 5 7 9 11 13 14 14 15
20 3 7 10 13 15 17 18 19 20
25 4 8 12 16 19 22 23 24 25
30 5 10 15 19 23 26 28 29 30
35 6 12 17 22 26 30 32 34 35
40 7 14 20 25 30 35 37 39 40
45 8 15 22 29 34 39 42 44 45
50 9 17 25 32 38 43 47 49 50
55 10 19 27 35 42 48 52 54 55
Wind speed (knots)

60 10 20 30 38 46 52 56 59 60
65 11 22 32 42 50 56 61 64 65
70 12 24 35 54 54 60 66 69 70
75 13 26 37 48 57 64 70 73 75
80 14 27 40 51 60 69 75 78 80
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

For headwind component

angle between wind direction and runway heading

Table 4-2 Wind component table.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

4: Computations 125

Review 4
1. Using a navigation computer, solve the following:
18  56
a. ------------------ =
6
75  3
b. --------------- =
220
127  60
c. --------------------- =
145
2. The wind blows an aeroplane from . . . . . to . . . . .
3. Using the forecast wind velocity, and knowing the true airspeed that we can expect,
we can calculate . . . . . and . . . . .
4. You are cruising at an IAS of 129 kt at a pressure height of 5,000 ft with a temper-
ature of –10°C. What is the TAS?
5. You have an IAS of 126 kt at pressure height 9,000 ft, temperature +20°C. What is
the TAS?
6. You see from your performance charts that the TAS for a particular power setting
will be 156 kt. You plan to cruise at a pressure height of 7,500 ft with a forecast tem-
perature of –15°C. What IAS would you expect when stabilised on the cruise?
7. Complete the following table, and give your answers to the nearest knot.
Press height (ft) Temperature (°C) IAS (kt) TAS (kt)
4,000 +10 135
6,500 –01 160
1,500 +25 125
10,000 –10 140
8,000 zero 170
7,000 +05 150

8. At a groundspeed of 125 kt, how far will you go in 8 min?

9. At a groundspeed of 140 kt, how long will it take you to go 117 nm?
10. If you have travelled 28 nm in 9 min, what has been the groundspeed?
11. Complete the following table (give your answers to the nearest 1 nm, 1 kt, and 0.1 min).

Distance Groundspeed Time Distance Groundspeed Time

(nm) (kt) (min) (nm) (kt) (min)
46 124 27 153
52 136 11 122
24 160 207 29
57 19 17 111
30 11 187 90
45 21 249 86
18 154 54 31
31 10 176 27
26 157 192 48
28 9 237 3
117 18 200 57
135 16 159 14
197 7 27 12
63 151 28 9
12 87 189 41
240 8 41 28

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

126 Navigation

12. Calculate the magnetic heading and groundspeed for TAS 98 kt, W/V 280°M/35
and track 340°M.
13. Calculate the magnetic heading and groundspeed for TAS 98 kt, W/V 280°M/35
and track 251°M.
14. Calculate the magnetic heading and groundspeed for TAS 98 kt, W/V 280°M/35
and track 100°M.
15. Calculate the magnetic heading and groundspeed for TAS 98 kt, W/V 280°M/35
and track 072°M.
16. Complete the following table, and give your answers to the nearest whole degree for
heading, whole knot for groundspeed, nearest minute for time.
Track TAS W/V Heading Groundspeed Distance Time
(°M) (kt) (°M/kt) (°M) (kt) (nm) (min)
135 160 240/20 87
089 135 310/15 56
345 150 030/45 63
235 125 150/20 45
170 175 050/30 90
215 145 280/25 48
305 175 150/20 60
355 135 120/15 78
020 180 080/40 73
157 145 335/30 27

17. You are steering 050°M with a TAS of 120 kt. The current wind velocity is
115°M/40. What is your track and groundspeed?
18. You are steering 120°M, wind velocity is 190°M/40, and TAS 138 kt. What is the
track and groundspeed?
19. Complete the following table, and give your answers to the nearest degree and knot.
Heading TAS W/V Track made good Groundspeed
(°M) (kt) (°M/kt) (nm) (nm)
145 160 080/30
060 145 145/25
316 135 270/35
230 130 320/20
175 150 230/15
080 140 220/30
280 170 140/20
030 155 360/45
330 125 300/20
190 200 040/30

20. At a groundspeed of 147 kt, how far will you travel in 11 min?
21. At a groundspeed of 183 kt, how far will you travel in 17 min?
22. At a groundspeed of 120 kt, how far will you travel in 10 min?
23. If you cover 23 nm over the ground in 9 min, what is your groundspeed?
24. If you cover 17 nm over the ground in 11 min, what is your groundspeed?
25. If you cover 18 nm over the ground in 6 min, what is your groundspeed?

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

4: Computations 127

26. If you cover 9 nm over the ground in 3 min, what is your groundspeed?
27. If we travel 20 nm in 8 min, what is our groundspeed? What is the time to fly a fur-
ther 30 nm on the same track assuming no change in groundspeed?
28. If we cover 22 nm in 10 min, what is our groundspeed? What is the time to the next
checkpoint which is 73 nm further on track?
29. If we cover 25 nm in 12 min, how long will it take us to cover 31 nm in the same
direction?
30. At a groundspeed of 137 kt, how long will it take you to travel 27 nm?
31. At a groundspeed of 153 kt, how long will it take you to travel 33 nm?
32. The distance from Alfa to Bravo is 107 nm. 10 min after leaving Alfa the aeroplane
has travelled 16 nm. What is the estimated time interval (ETI) to Bravo?
33. The distance from Alfa to Charlie is 69 nm. You depart Alfa at 1230 UTC. At 1242
you fix your position at Bravo a distance of 23 nm from Alfa. What is your estimate
for Charlie?
34. If you burn fuel at the rate of 8 USG/hr, how much will you burn in 25 min?
35. If you burn fuel at the rate of 7 USG/hr, what fuel will you burn in 11 min?
36. If you burn 4 USG of fuel in 34 min, your fuel consumption is . . . . . USG/hr.
37. If you burn 6 USG of fuel in 45 min, your fuel consumption is . . . . . USG/hr.
38. If you burn 5 USG of fuel in 25 min, your fuel consumption is . . . . . USG/hr.
How long would it take to burn 8 USG?
39. If you are off track by 3 nm after travelling 20 nm, assuming that you maintain head-
ing and TAS, how far off track will you be after travelling a further 40 nm?
40. If you are off track by 6 nm after travelling 30 nm, how far off track will you be after
a further 45 nm?
41. If you are 2 nm off track after 15 nm, what distance will you be off track after trav-
elling a total of 60 nm and what is your track error?
42. If you are 4 nm off track after 20 nm, what distance off track will you be after a total
of 60 nm, and what is the track error?
43. If you wish to maintain a groundspeed of 120 kt on track, calculate the heading (°M)
and TAS required if wind velocity is 280°M/35 and track 072 (°M).
44. If you wish to maintain a groundspeed of 80 kt on track, calculate the heading (°M)
and TAS required if wind velocity is 090°M/20 and track 180 (°M). What indicated
airspeed (IAS) would this require at pressure height of 5,000 ft and temperature
+12°C?
45. The surface wind is 050°M/30. What are the headwind and crosswind components
on Runway 34?
46. You plan to descend 3,500 ft at 500 fpm rate of descent. How long will that take?
47. To descend 4,500 ft in 11 min, what rate of descent is required?
48. Complete the following table, and give your answers to the nearest knot.

Pressure height (ft) Temperature deviation (°C) IAS (kt) TAS (kt)
8,000 ISA+05 150
5,000 ISA 130
4,000 ISA–03 185
12,500 ISA–10 160
2,500 ISA+15 140
6,000 ISA+02 175

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

128 Navigation

49. Complete each line in the following table.

IAS Altitude Tempera- TAS Track W/V Heading Ground- Distance ETI
(kt) (ft) ture (kt) (°M) (°M/kt) (°M/kt) speed (nm) (min)
(°C) (kt)

123 8,000 +16 345 040/20 55

150 10,000 zero 155 270/30 90

7,500 +10 165 270/40 034 19

2,000 –05 140 135/30 345 28

170 –15 194 235 045/20 37

160 6,000 +08 058 310/35 55

145 10,000 –10 345 250/50 88

150 7,000 171 195 080/35 66

10,000 +05 154 010/25 280 10

9,500 zero 326 270/30 56 15

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

 Chapter 5

Visual Navigation Procedures

In this chapter, we describe in detail the basic concepts, techniques and procedures in
common use for visual air navigation. The practical application of this knowledge to aer-
oplane operations, however, is obviously a matter that goes beyond the boundaries of a
textbook and will be inevitably the responsibility of your flight instructor. With this in
mind, we have tried to make the information as comprehensive as possible, while at the
same time, we hope to avoid a tendency to get ‘too much into the cockpit’. It is only
by experiencing the real thing – actually navigating an aeroplane in flight – that you will
come to learn, under the wise guidance of your flight instructor, the technique or pro-
cedure that best fits the circumstances with which you are confronted.
Our task is to lay the foundation on which to build. If you study this chapter carefully
and listen to what your instructor has to say, then learning to navigate will be simple.

Basic Procedures
As the pilot of a light aeroplane operating in visual conditions, you must be able to fly
the aeroplane accurately and safely, and at the same time carry out navigation activities to
ensure that you arrive at your destination. Successful navigation starts with proper pre-
flight planning. You must measure tracks and distances accurately, and apply the forecast
winds and planned TAS to derive headings and groundspeeds. Once airborne, you must
be able to determine the actual track made good and, if this turns out to be different from
your planned track, make proper adjustments to heading to regain the required track.
Your aim is to navigate effectively and with minimum interruption to the main task
of flying the aeroplane safely. To achieve this, you must be competent at:
■ flight planning;
■ map reading, which means determining your position over the ground by comparing
the ground features with those marked on the chart;
■ using radio navigation aids to assist and confirm your map reading;
■ making corrections to your track so as to regain your planned track and reach your
destination; and
■ using dead reckoning (DR) to back up your other visual navigation methods.

We need to work out a flight plan for all cross-country flights. From this plan we will
establish the headings, groundspeeds and time intervals between points on the route. We
will also select suitable ground features (or checkpoints) with which we can check the
progress of our flight. To assist in the identification of these features, we note the esti-
mated elapsed time between them. By flying the planned heading for the estimated
time, you should arrive at or near the next checkpoint at the planned time. By compar-
ing the chart to the ground, you will be able to fix your position.
A fix is the geographical position of an aircraft at a specific time, determined by visual
reference to the surface of the earth (a visual fix or pinpoint) or by radio navigation aids
(a radio fix).
Fixing the aircraft’s position is not a continuous process second by second throughout
the flight, but rather an orderly process repeated every 10 or 15 min. This may need to
be reduced to a shorter interval in areas requiring very precise tracking, like a lane of

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE 129

130 Navigation

entry. If you try to identify ground features to obtain fixes at shorter time intervals than
this, then you will find yourself flying from feature to feature (called track crawling) with-
out having time for other important navigation and flight management tasks, such as
planning ahead, radio calls and monitoring the fuel situation.
For normal en route navigation:
■ fly accurate headings (by reference to the heading indicator and to the ground); and
■ periodically identify landmarks and fix your position.

At each fix, you should determine your

track made good (TMG) and groundspeed. 1000 1120 1340
You can then use this information to plan
ahead to the next feature. In this way, you A visual fix A fix using A DR position
can anticipate it appearing in your view. (or pinpoint) position lines 14-01.EPS

You can also use dead reckoning to estimate Figure 5-1 Symbols used for plotting.
where you can expect to be after a certain
time; this is commonly known as DRing
ahead.
So that we can plot our position on the Planned B
track (TR)
chart, the conventional symbols shown in
figure 5-1 are used. The time at which the Track error
fix or DR position is obtained is written (TE)
next to the symbol on the chart in use.
Fix
The actual track made good (TMG) over
the ground may often differ from the planned Track made
A good (TMG) 14-02.EPS
track. The angular difference between the
planned track (TR) and the TMG is called Figure 5-2
Track error is the angular difference between the
the track error (TE) and is specified in degrees planned track (TR) and the track made good (TMG).
left or right of the planned track.
Note. Track error is not drift error.

Effect of Wind on
B
Navigation Accuracy
Our navigation calculations are planned to HDG TR
compensate for wind effect. If the wind dif- Planned Track error
drift (TE)
fers in either speed or direction from that
forecast, then a track error will normally Fix
TMG
result. At the flight planning stage, we use
the forecast wind to calculate a heading to A
Actual drift 14-03.EPS

make good the planned track. This wind

Figure 5-3
will almost certainly not be the same as the Effect of change in wind velocity
actual wind experienced in flight. from that used for planning showing difference
between drift and track error.
Whether your track made good is left or
right of the planned track will depend upon
the actual wind and thus whether there is
more or less drift than you have allowed for. Remember that drift is the angle between
heading and track made good and is not the same as track error.
In figure 5-3, we can see that too little correction for drift (the wind correction angle)
has been applied to compensate for the actual wind velocity. For this assumption to be
valid, we must ensure that we have been flying an accurate and constant heading
throughout. We can correct a track error by altering the heading so that we regain the
planned track.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

5: Visual Navigation Procedures 131

It is also usual to find that the actual in-flight groundspeed differs from that calculated
using the forecast winds. This means that the original estimated time intervals (ETIs)
may need to be modified once an accurate in-flight check of groundspeed is obtained.
The estimated time of arrival at any point can then be revised.
Revised ETA

TMG
TMG

G
TM 14-04.EPS

ired track
Requ

Figure 5-4 In-flight modification of headings and ETIs is not unusual.

First and foremost though, the most important way to keep in-flight navigation
workload to a minimum is to be thorough in your preflight preparation (flight plan-
ning). For in-flight navigation, concentrate on the following:
■ simple mental calculations; and
■ simple flight computer operations.

This will allow you to modify the headings and estimated time intervals without too
much ‘head-down’ work. The methods we discuss here will be adequate for most situations.

Airmanship for the Visual Pilot

Airmanship is simple common sense. You must never allow yourself to become so en-
grossed in navigation-related activities that other essential in-flight tasks suffer as a result (for
example, monitoring heading and altitude, traffic lookout and radiotelephony procedures).
The Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP) specifies that the maximum time
interval between positive visual fixes should be 30 min. However, we suggest that you
should aim to obtain a fix every 10 to 15 min, if possible, and then update the heading
and ETA for the next turning point or major feature. More frequent fixes are advisable
when flying through areas where very precise track-keeping is essential.
Setting the correct power and maintaining attitude will result in the required per-
formance in general terms, but, to fly precisely, you will need to scan the flight and
engine instruments often and make suitable minor adjustments to attitude and power.
Scanning means looking at the relevant instruments in a systematic manner throughout
the flight. Scanning is an important skill to develop and becomes automatic for the good
pilot. It is essential for accurate flying.
Ensure that the aeroplane is in trim and can fly itself accurately ‘hands-off ’; not that
you will actually fly it hands-off, but correct trimming will considerably lighten your
task of maintaining altitude, heading and airspeed. Your aim should be to maintain the
planned heading and altitude within ±5° and ±100 ft respectively. Check that the indi-
cated airspeed is within 5 kt of that used during planning.
Be organised and keep your paperwork in the cockpit neat and accessible: do not work
‘head-down’ for more than a few seconds at a time. You must maintain a good lookout
outside the cockpit. Remember, all VFR traffic operates on the see-and-be-seen principle.
Continually observe weather conditions not only ahead of you but also on either side
and behind (just in case you have to divert or turn back). You must assess any deteriora-
tion in weather and modify your flight accordingly. Ask flightwatch for an update on the
weather en route and at your destination if you are unsure about conditions for arrival.
Never be ashamed to divert in the event of the weather deteriorating or becoming mar-
ginal for VMC. Do not let your passengers affect your good judgement. Remember,
you are the pilot in command; it is your decision that counts.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

132 Navigation

Take appropriate action to avoid hazardous conditions. For instance, it is good air-
manship to keep your distance from thunderstorms instead of flying near or under them,
and to avoid areas of reduced visibility, such as those caused by smoke from fires. Obtain
a position fix every 10 to 15 min if possible and update your headings and ETAs (do this
more frequently in poor visibility or congested airspace).
Carry out en route checks of the following every 10 to 15 min:
■ magnetic compass and heading indicator alignment;
■ engine instruments;
■ electrical and other systems; and
■ aeroplane performance, including fuel management.

Do not forget that you must be back in the circuit at least 10 min before last light.
Whenever the hours of daylight remaining may be limiting, you should constantly mon-
itor your ETA at your final destination in relation to the end of daylight.

Safety Checks
It is sound practice to stick to a definite cycle of cockpit activity when navigating an
aeroplane. A safety check like the one set out below (figure 5-5) will, if applied dili-
gently, assist you in this process. It can be recalled easily by the use of a simple mnemonic
and should be carried out immediately after departure and at all checkpoints and turning
points. For your own safety, this constant checking procedure must become second
nature. Beware, though, that is does not become such a routine that you don’t actually
carry it out fully or fail to notice when something is amiss.
Note. Although the above check is in common usage in general aviation, it is but
one example of the kind of safety check we are talking about. There are other
examples in use, and it is possible that your flying school may favour the use of a
different mnemonic but with the same objective in mind, which is to assist you in
adopting an orderly cycle of activity.

C Compass Check DG correctly aligned with a stable compass reading.

Check deviation applied to heading (°M).
Check heading.
L Log Make appropriate navigation log entries (use flight plan and/or WAC).
E Engine Check: • power setting;
• mixture;
• temperatures and pressures;
• cowl flap position; and
• carburettor heat.
A Altitude Correct subscale setting (aerodrome QNH or area QNH).
Cruising at nominated/cleared altitude.
Clear of cloud and other traffic (see Civil Aviation Regulations for VMC
minimum criteria).
R Radio Communications radio: • correct frequency selected;
• satisfactory volume and squelch; and
• all required radio reports made.
Radio navaids (if appropriate) selected, identified and correct operation
confirmed.
O Orientation To ensure you are heading the right direction, use features, such as
mountains, sea, towns.
F Fuel Check tank selection, and fuel contents against flight plan.

Figure 5-5 CLEAROF check.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

5: Visual Navigation Procedures 133

Routine In-Flight Navigation

Departure Procedures
The method of departure from an aerodrome will depend upon the circuit direction and
the type of aerodrome. The AIP provides the following guidance on departure proce-
dures:
■ for aerodromes outside controlled airspace (OCTA), turns shall be made in the nor-
mal circuit direction, unless the aeroplane is proceeding straight ahead to at least
1,500 ft AAL (above aerodrome level) or 3 nm from the aerodrome;
■ for an aerodrome in a general-aviation control zone, general-aviation airport proce-
dures (GAAP) apply and are best explained by your own flight instructor or a briefing
officer; and
■ for aerodromes in all other control zones, the aeroplane should be established on the
departure track as soon as possible after take-off (and above 500 ft AAL) and by no
further than 5 nm from the aerodrome, unless ATC instructs otherwise (such as when
radar vectoring).
To illustrate typical departure procedures, we will consider two methods of departing
from an aerodrome outside controlled airspace (OCTA) on an initial track of 150°M.
The into-wind runway is RWY 06, and the normal circuit direction is left-hand. Aero-
drome elevation is 1,200 ft AMSL.
The magnetic compass will experience acceleration and turning errors while you are
climbing away after take-off and turning onto your departure heading. You must ensure
that the directional gyro is aligned with the magnetic compass prior to commencing the
take-off run, and that both the compass and the directional gyro agree at least approxi-
mately with the runway direction.

Method 1: Turning in the Direction of

the Circuit
After take-off, climb straight ahead to 500 ft
AAL (i.e. 1,700 ft QNH), then turn left (in
the direction of the circuit). Continue the
climbing left turn to set heading overhead the
aerodrome not below 1,000 ft AAL (i.e. 1700 ft
2,200 ft AMSL in this particular case). (500 ft AAL)

The actual time of departure (ATD) will ATD 1232 UTC

be the time of setting heading directly over-
head the aerodrome.
150
°M

Method 2: Climbing Straight Ahead to

3 nm/1,500 ft AAL 14-05.EPS

After take-off, climb straight ahead to Figure 5-6 Setting heading from overhead an
1,500 ft AAL (2,700 ft QNH), or 3 nm from aerodrome.
the field, and then turn right to intercept the
outbound track. In this case, you do not set
heading directly over the departure aerodrome, but will intercept the planned track at
some distance from the field (the intercept should be made within 5 nm). Once estab-
lished on track, you will need to estimate the actual time of departure, as if the departure
had actually occurred from directly overhead.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

134 Navigation

For example, a groundspeed of 120 kt is 1500 ft AAL

or 3 nm
equivalent to 2 nm per minute. If you set the
heading when 4 nm from the departure aero- Clear of
traffic
drome, at time 0234 UTC and for an estimated
groundspeed on the first leg of approximately
120 kt, the actual time of departure would
effectively be 2 min earlier, at 0232 UTC.
Estimated ATD
Logging Departure 1232 UTC

Immediately after setting the initial heading

and satisfying any obstacle-clearance consid-
erations, you should do the following:
■ log the actual time of departure (ATD) in
the flight log or on the WAC/VNC, and
4 nm 1234 UTC
insert the estimates (ETAs) for all turning
points (i.e. ATD, plus the estimated time 14-06.EPS 150°M
intervals from your flight plan);
Figure 5-7
■ check that the ETA at the final destination En route departure with estimation of ATD.
is at least 10 min prior to last light; and then
■ make a departure report by radio, if required, in accordance with the procedures laid
down in the AIP and explained in detail in our companion book, Flight Radio for Pilots.
Note. The actual procedures to be used will be explained by your flying instructor.
Whether you record information on a flight log form, flight plan, or chart is of no
particular significance. What is vital is that it is done!
Checking Departure Track
During flight planning and certainly prior to
every departure, endeavour to select some
suitable en route ground feature, if possible,
within 10 to 15 nm of the departure aero-
drome, that may be used to confirm that the
aeroplane is established on track and heading
in the right direction. For example, after
take-off from the departure aerodrome, and
taking up an initial heading of 150°M, you
have determined (from a WAC) that if the 14-07.EPS

aeroplane is tracking correctly, you should Figure 5-8 Check approximate track
direction shortly after departure.
pass along the edge of a large lake located
about 8 nm from the aerodrome. The chart
also shows that a large hill with a radio mast is located on the north-west shore. This can
be used to confirm the correct identification of the lake.
If there is any doubt about the aeroplane tracking correctly after departure, the pilot
should check the alignment of the directional gyro with the magnetic compass (this is one
of the most common causes of an initial tracking error).
A similar technique can be used to assist in the interception of the planned track, if
you do not intend to set heading directly overhead the aerodrome on departure. Imme-
diately prior to take-off, note a suitable landmark(s) located directly on track and up to
approximately 5 nm away, either from the chart or by simply looking in the appropriate
direction. You can then track directly over that feature, at which point the departure
heading may be set. If this is done during flight planning, the distance to this point
should be measured and noted allowing an accurate estimation of your ATD.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

5: Visual Navigation Procedures 135

Note.If the aeroplane is equipped with an automatic direction finder (ADF) or a

VHF omni-range (VOR), and an NDB or VOR station is located at the departure
aerodrome, these aids may be used to assist in setting and maintaining the initial track
(the proper techniques will be discussed later in this volume). However, be careful
not to develop an over-reliance on radio navaids. Visual navigation must always be
based on DR calculations and map reading and radio navaids used only as a back-up.
To ensure that nothing has been overlooked on departure, and to start your cycle of
activity, a CLEAROF check should be carried out as soon as practical. Maintain a good
lookout outside the cockpit.

Cruise Procedures
On reaching the selected or cleared cruise level, do the following:
■ check that area QNH is set on the altimeter subscale;
■ set cruise power, and trim the aeroplane; and
■ once again, carry out a CLEAROF check as soon as possible (in particular, the align-
ment of the directional gyro with the magnetic compass should be checked).
After the aeroplane has stabilised in the cruise configuration, a check of the cruise
TAS should be made (use of the navigation computer to calculate the TAS was described
in chapter 4). If the actual cruise TAS differs significantly from the expected or planned
TAS, check the following:
■ the correct power setting is being used (which, of course, includes the proper setting
of the mixture control); and
■ the correct aeroplane configuration has been established (that is, flaps fully up, landing
gear up, cowl flap position, etc.).
You should obtain a positive fix as soon as possible after reaching top of climb (TOC)
so that you can do the following:
■ confirm early in the flight whether the planned track has been achieved; and
■ check the estimate for the first planned checkpoint or turning point, using the flight-
planned groundspeed.
A subsequent fix 10–20 nm further on will allow the actual groundspeed to be estab-
lished. This may then be used to calculate a new estimate for the first checkpoint. If the
actual groundspeed differs significantly from the flight-planned groundspeed, the ETAs
for all subsequent checkpoints must be revised. If the track made good differs signifi-
cantly from the planned track, then a heading alteration will be necessary (methods for
calculating en route heading changes will be discussed shortly). During flight planning,
you would normally choose suitable points along your planned track from which to
conduct regular groundspeed checks – all distances premeasured. Carry out CLEAROF
checks at checkpoints and turning points.

distance
Check Groundspeed =
fix time

14-08.EPS

Figure 5-9 Obtain a check on groundspeed and tracking early in the cruise.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

136 Navigation

Descent Procedures
For operations conducted below about 5,000 ft AGL, accurate descent calculations are
usually unnecessary. For higher level flights, however, descent planning assumes a greater
significance.
An aircraft operating in controlled airspace may be asked by ATC to nominate a
descent point. Any pilot should be able to calculate a descent point to bring an aircraft
over the top of a destination aerodrome at the planned altitude. We will therefore spend
a little time considering how to calculate a descent point.

Example 5-1
If the rate of descent is 500 fpm, how much time will be required to descend from
8,000 ft AMSL to 2,500 ft AMSL?
Descent distance = 8,000 ft – 2,500 ft
Decent time = 5,500 ft  500 fpm = 11 min

You can also do the calculation using a 500 5,5

00
flight computer by setting the value 1 on the
1
inner scale against 500 on the outer scale. 11
The computer is now set up for calculating 14-09.EPS

descent times based on a rate of descent of Figure 5-10

Computer setting used to determine
500 fpm. The time required for descent is descent time for example 5-1.
read off on the inner scale against the dis-
tance to descend through on the outer scale.

Example 5-2
For the same aircraft considered above, the
estimated groundspeed on descent is 162 kt. At
30
what distance from the destination aerodrome 2
16
(elevation 1,000 ft) should you commence the 60
11
descent (called the top of descent or TOD) so as
to arrive overhead at 1,500 ft AAL?
With 1,000 ft as the aerodrome elevation,
the height of the 1,500 ft AAL is 2,500 ft 8,000 ft
QNH
AMSL, giving 5,500 ft to descend through
from 8,000 ft AMSL. From example 5-1, you 11 mins at GS 162
know that this will take 11 min. At 162 kt, 1,500 ft Ans: 30 nm
you will cover 162 nm in 1 hr, or ? ⁄ž = AAL

2.7 nm in 1 min. Thus in 11 min, you will

cover 11  2.7 = 29.7 nm. You can use a elevation
1,000 ft
flight computer to calculate this distance by 14-10.EPS

setting 60 min (or 1 hr) on the inner scale Figure 5-11

against 162 kt on the outer scale. Read off the Calculation of descent distance and
computer set up for example 5-2.
distance of (approximately) 30 nm on the
outer scale against 11 min on the inner scale.

Example 5-3
The ETI to a nearby diversion aerodrome (elevation 1,526 ft AMSL) is 8 min. You wish
to begin descent immediately from a cruising level of 7,500 ft AMSL and overfly the
field at 1,500 ft above aerodrome level (AAL). Calculate the average rate of descent that
will be required to achieve this.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

 5: Visual Navigation Procedures 137

The altitude above the aerodrome to 560

0
which you will descend is: 450

8 1
1,526 ft ELEV + 1,500 ft AAL  3,000 ft AMSL

The loss of height on descent is:

7,500 ft AMSL – 3,000 ft AMSL = 4,500 ft 7,500 ft
AMSL
The average rate of descent required to
achieve this height loss in 8 min is:
1,500 ft
AAL
4,500 ft  8 min  560 fpm
elevation
To calculate this on the flight computer, 1,526 ft
MSL
set 8 min on the inner scale against 4,500 ft 14-11.EPS

on the outer scale. The computer is now set Figure 5-12

for this rate of descent. Read off the rate of Calculation of the required descent rate.

descent of 560 fpm on the outer scale

against the value of 1 min on the inner scale.

Example 5-4
18
An aircraft is maintaining 6,500 ft AMSL, 2
15
18 nm from the destination aerodrome (ele- 7
vation 491 ft AMSL). You commence de- 60
scent with the intention of arriving overhead 0 640
450
at 1,500 ft AAL. If the average descent TAS is
127 kt, and there is a tailwind component of 7 1

25 kt, determine the required rate of descent.

First, calculate the groundspeed for the
descent. 4,500 ft

GS for descent = TAS 127 kt + 25 kt tailwind

18 nm
= 152 kt 1,500 ft
AAL
6,500 ft
Now calculate the time taken for the de- QNH
scent based on this groundspeed. elevation
491 ft
ETI on descent = 18 nm  152 kt 14-12.EPS

= 0.118 hr  60 min/hr Figure 5-13 Calculating the required descent rate.

= 7 min
This calculation can be done on the flight computer by setting 152 nm on the outer
scale against 60 min (or 1 hr) on the inner scale. Read off 7 min on the inner scale
against the value of 18 nm on the outer scale.
The aerodrome elevation is approximately 500 ft AMSL, and the height 1,500 ft
above this aerodrome is 2,000 ft AMSL. Descending from 6,500 ft AMSL to 2,000 ft
AMSL gives 4,500 ft of height to lose in 7 min. The rate of descent required to achieve
this is 4,500 ft  7 min = 640 fpm. You can do this calculation on a flight computer by
setting the value 7 min on the inner scale against 4,500 ft on the outer scale. Read off
the value of 640 on the outer scale against the value 1 min on the inner scale to obtain
the rate of descent in feet per minutes.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

138 Navigation

Example 5-5
An aircraft is cruising at 8,500 ft AMSL, 5,7
70
proceeding towards a destination aerodrome 00
5
with an elevation of 1,230 ft AMSL. If the 12 mins GS 157
12
descent is to be conducted at 500 fpm with 1

an average groundspeed of 157 kt, calculate

31
the distance out at which you should com- 15
7
mence your descent to arrive at the aero- 12
60 Ans: 31 nm
drome at 1,500 ft AAL.
First, calculate the distance through which
8,500 ft
to descend: 8,500 ft AMSL – (1,230 ft ELEV
+ 1,500 ft AAL) = 5,770 ft. 5,770 ft
Now calculate the time taken to lose this at 500 fpm

height at 500 fpm. 2,370 ft AMSL

1,500 ft
ETI on descent = 5,770 ft  500 fpm AAL
= 11.5 min
elevation
This can be done on the flight computer 1,230 ft
14-13.EPS
by setting the value of 1 min on the inner
scale against 500 ft on the outer scale. Figure 5-14 Calculating the descent point.

Lastly, calculate the distance covered in

this time with a groundspeed of 157 kt.
Ground distance required = 11.5 min  60 min/hr  157 kt
= 30 nm
This can be calculated using the flight computer by setting 60 min (or 1 hr) on the
inner scale against 157 kt on the outer scale. Read off the distance required in nautical
miles on the outer scale (30) against 11.5 min on the inner scale.

Map Reading
The term map reading is probably familiar to all of us; we read our town maps in the car
and plan our holidays on a road map. In aviation, the terms map and chart were once used
to differentiate between topographical maps and plotting charts. Today we refer to them
all as charts. However, because the term map reading is so common, we have retained it
in use. Don’t be confused: charts, maps – they are all the same.

Factors Affecting Successful Map Reading

The success of map reading depends upon four basic factors:
■ a knowledge of direction;
■ a knowledge of distance;
■ a knowledge of groundspeed; and
■ the selection and identification of landmarks and checkpoints.

Selection of Checkpoint Features

To make the map-reading task easier, select landmarks and checkpoints that can be easily
identified, and which will be within your range of visibility when you pass by them. Just
how conspicuous a particular feature may be from the air depends upon the following:
■ the in-flight visibility;
■ the dimensions of the feature;
■ the relationship of the selected feature to other features;

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

5: Visual Navigation Procedures 139

■ the angle the feature is being observed from;

■ the plan view of the feature if you are flying high; and
■ the elevation and side view of the feature if you are flying low.
Preferably, the feature should be unique to the area so that it cannot be confused with
another nearby similar feature. A feature that is long and narrow is often useful for the
following reasons:
■ if a long feature (such as a railway line, canal or road) runs parallel to your planned
track, it can assist you in maintaining track; and
■ if a long feature crosses the track, it can be used as a position line to check ETA or
groundspeed.

Keep Road
Wind to the
right

Railway Good
Track Required track for
GS check
Good
for
tracking

14-14.EPS

Figure 5-15 Linear features can greatly assist visual navigation.

Intervals Between Checkpoints

Do not choose a multitude of landmarks and checkpoints. Just one good checkpoint
every 10 or 15 min is sufficient. At a groundspeed of 120 kt, this puts them 20 to 30 nm
apart. (Using fixes any closer together than this increases cockpit workload and can
introduce significant errors in your calculations.)
Knowing direction, distance and groundspeed, you can use mental DR procedures to
estimate the arrival time at the next landmark. This way you can think ahead and antic-
ipate the appearance of a landmark. This anticipation allows time for the following:
■ flying the aeroplane (heading, altitude, airspeed, engine, systems, checking the head-
ing indicator against the compass);
■ carrying out navigation functions such as performing simple calculations (estimating
new headings, revising ETAs, checking fuel); and then
■ looking ahead at the appropriate time for the checkpoint which should be coming
into view.
Look for a definite feature at a definite time. Choose a unique feature to avoid ambiguity.

Example 5-6
From the WAC, you select a small hill with a radio mast, which is about 4 nm right of
the planned track and about 32 nm ahead of the aircraft’s previous fix, as the next en
route checkpoint.
The actual groundspeed (calculated at the previous fix at 0526 UTC) is 120 kt, and
so by using either your navigation computer or mental DR, you know that the 32 nm
should be covered in about 16 min. The estimate for arrival abeam the checkpoint is
therefore 0542 UTC. You should, of course, start looking for the hill and radio mast a
few minutes prior to this ETA. If the aircraft actually passes directly over the hill, instead
of 4 nm abeam, you will know that you are slightly off track.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

140 Navigation

You must always try to confirm the correct identification of each selected checkpoint.
This may be achieved by checking for additional ground features within the immediate
vicinity of the selected point, which, in this example, is a nearby small town with a rail
junction.
ETA abeam
0542 UTC

TR
DR position

Fix 0526 32 nm

14-15.EPS

Figure 5-16 Anticipate the appearance of a selected check feature at a definite time.

Once the position of the aircraft has been positively fixed at a particular time, you can
calculate, if necessary, a new heading to regain the planned track. Such calculations are
simplified by the use of track guides marked on the chart at the preflight stage, or by
using the 1-in-60 rule, which will be discussed shortly.
Map reading must be used in conjunction with DR navigation.

Chart Orientation in the Cockpit

In flight, you need to be able to relate the land features
and their relative bearings from the aircraft to their
representations on the chart. To do this, it is best to
place the chart so that the required track runs from
‘bottom to top’. If, according to the chart, a landmark
is 30° off-track to the right of the aircraft, then you
should be able to spot it by looking approximately 30°
to the right of track.
Note. It may not be 30° to the right of the heading
because the heading may differ from the track,
depending upon the drift. The relative position of
the feature may also change if the aircraft is off track Track
at the time.
14-16.EPS

With the chart oriented correctly in the cockpit, Figure 5-17

the features shown to the right of the track drawn Orientate the chart in the cockpit.

on the chart should appear on the right of the air-

craft’s track. In normal medium-level en route naviga-
tion, the general rule is:
Read from chart to ground.
In other words, select suitable ground features from the chart, located at regular inter-
vals along the planned route, and calculate estimates for arrival at or abeam each one. At
an appropriate time, usually 2 to 3 min prior to each calculated ETA, you should start
looking for the selected feature.
Remember, the chosen feature may not be in view at the time it is selected; however,
you must anticipate its appearance at the appropriate time.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

5: Visual Navigation Procedures 141

The Flight Log

The purpose of the flight log is to record pertinent in-flight navigation data. From this,
rational decisions can be made for changes to heading and ETAs, a DR position can be
determined at any time, and should the need arise for a radio position report, the rele-
vant information is immediately to hand in a convenient form.
Several points of view prevail on which is the best system to use to maintain a flight
log. For example, some pilots and flying schools advocate recording data directly onto
the flight plan, while others feel more comfortable writing everything down on the
chart they are using – that is, recording fixes, ETAs and heading changes alongside the
tracks and checkpoints drawn on the chart.
Many pilots, however, prefer to use a combination of these options or confine all their
navigation data to a single form, aptly called a flight record or flight log.
It is therefore a matter of working out which recording system best suits you, having
regard to the duration and circumstances of the flight; for example, as you will see later,
there is a different approach to log keeping when conducting low-level navigation. Your
flying school will advise you on the best system to use during your training.
The important thing, however, is to ensure that navigation data is not only recorded,
but recorded in an orderly and accessible fashion, not on the back of your hand or on
various bits of paper scattered around the cockpit.
An up-to-date flight log is of invaluable assistance whenever you are uncertain of the
aircraft’s position.
Conscientious logging of in-flight data is an essential part of the process of maintain-
ing a logical cycle of navigational activity. It comprises the following:
■ calculating the heading required to achieve a planned track;
■ calculating groundspeed and ETI, and so determining the ETA at the next en route
checkpoint;
■ anticipating and identifying checkpoints; and
■ periodically recalculating heading, groundspeed and ETIs, as required.

Figure 5-18 Typical flight log maintained on a chart.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

142 Navigation

The contents of the flight log need only be very basic. For a normal VFR cross-coun-
try flight, the following items should be recorded:
■ the actual time of departure (ATD);
■ position fixes (the position and time may be recorded on the map itself, as well as in
the flight log);
■ the track made good (this can be drawn on the chart);
■ all changes of heading and TAS, and the time of any change;
■ the calculated groundspeed (recorded on the flight log); and
■ the revised estimates at all en route checkpoints (recorded in the appropriate places
on the flight log).
Recording fixes and the TMG on the chart itself (i.e. keeping a running track plot) assists
in monitoring the aircraft’s progress towards the destination. Many of the items listed
above have specific places allocated for them on flight logs, and it is a relatively simple
task to keep an up-to-date record during the flight.

Position Lines
Use of Position Lines
A fix is obtained when you can positively identify the position of the aircraft. A position
line (PL) is not as specific as a fix because it will only tell you that the aircraft is some-
where along the line. It will not tell you where the aircraft actually is on the line.
A position line is defined as a line along which
an aircraft is known to be at a particular time.
Position lines can be obtained in the following manner:
■ from long narrow features, such as railway lines, roads, highways and coastlines;
■ from two features that line up as the aircraft passes them (known as transit bearings); and
■ from relative bearings to (or from) a feature (this need not only be visual but can also
be a radio position line, such as a magnetic bearing from an NDB or VOR).

14-18.EPS

Figure 5-19 All these aircraft are located on the same position line.

It is usual to show a position line on your chart as a straight line with an arrowhead
at either end and with the time written in UTC at one end.
1314 UTC

Ground features

14-19.EPS

Figure 5-20 Plotting a position line established by a transit bearing.

Of course, if you can obtain two position lines that cut at a reasonable angle, then you
can use them as a fix. For the aircraft to be on both position lines at the one time, it
must be at the point of intersection. Similarly, two radio position lines can be used as
explained in chapter 6.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

5: Visual Navigation Procedures 143

In figure 5-21, as we cross a railway line, Relative bearing

over the wingtip
we simultaneously obtain a visual relative of aerial on hill
bearing of an aerial mast. These two posi- top (270˚ Rel)
tion lines give us a fix.
Fix
Groundspeed Checks
Even if you are unable to obtain a fix, you
can use position lines approximately at right
angles to your track to assist in updating
Heading
groundspeed. Noting the time it takes to (M)
cover the distance between the two position
lines allows you to calculate groundspeed 14-20.EPS

and revise your ETA. Figure 5-21 Use of two position lines to give a fix.

Example 5-7
Two position lines are obtained as follows: 2359
■ at 2351 UTC, overhead a railway line
running almost perpendicular to the
flight-planned track; and
■ at 2359 UTC, a transit bearing perpen- 18 nm
dicular to track using a radio mast and a
wheat silo.
The distance between these two position 2351
lines is 18 nm, as measured on a chart. Cal-
culate the groundspeed. 14-21.EPS

Figure 5-22 Groundspeed check using

Distance between position lines = 18 nm position lines perpendicular to track.
Actual groundspeed = 18 nm in 8 min
= 135 kt
Besides visual position lines, you can use
radio position lines from NDB or VOR sta- VOR
tions located abeam the planned track.
Range position lines from DME (distance
measuring equipment) stations located on NDB
track, either ahead or behind the aircraft, can
also be used for groundspeed checks. (DME 14-22.EPS

position lines are, in fact, arcs of circles.) Figure 5-23 Groundspeed check using radio
position lines from NDBs/VORs abeam planned TR.
Example 5-8
Two DME positions lines are obtained:
■ at 0325 UTC, crossing the 67 nm MI 0331
0325
DME arc tracking directly toward MI; and MI
60
■ at 0331 UTC, crossing the 60 nm MI 67
DME arc tracking directly toward MI.
14-23.EPS

Calculate the groundspeed.

Figure 5-24 Groundspeed check
The time between these fixes is 6 min, using a DME station.
and in this time 7 nm have been covered so
the groundspeed is 7 nm  6 min ÷ 60 min/hr = 70 kt.
The use of radio navigation aids to assist visual navigation will be discussed in more
detail in part 3 of this volume.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

144 Navigation

For Estimating Drift VOR

A position line that is oriented approxi-
mately parallel to the planned track and Lake
established either visually or by use of a
radio navaid can be used to determine drift.
For instance, if the aircraft is tracking paral- Town
lel to a long straight section of railway line, Railway
it is quite easy to assess the drift. Similarly,
tracking along a radio position line to or
from an NDB or VOR station allows the
drift to be easily determined.

In-Flight Track and

Heading Corrections 14-24.EPS
As we have already seen, it is quite normal
Figure 5-25 Determination of drift from position
to find that the track made good (TMG) of lines parallel to track.
the aircraft differs from the original flight
plan track (FPT) plotted on the chart, and a
heading correction will therefore be required to regain the track at some point further
along it. To minimise our workload, we need a simple method to mentally calculate
heading corrections.
You will recall that the angle between the
TMG and the planned track is called track Alter
by TE
error (TE). If the TMG is altered by an
amount equal to TE, then the aircraft will New track is
(TMG) parallel to FPT
parallel the planned track. However, be-
cause we want to regain the original track,
Track error
the aircraft’s track must be altered by an ad- TE
ditional amount. Flight plan track (FPT) 14-25.EPS

The angle at which the aircraft will inter- Figure 5-26 Altering track by an
cept the track is called the closing angle (CA). amount equal to TE will parallel FPT.
The size of the CA will depend upon how
much further down track we want the
intercept to occur. The sooner the aircraft is to rejoin track, the greater the CA will be.
A basic rule of geometry states that each external angle of a triangle is equal to the
sum of the two opposite interior angles. This means that, to rejoin the planned track at
a chosen position, it is necessary to make a track change equal to the TE plus the CA,
either to the left or right as the case may be.

Alter by
TE + CA
(TMG) TE
CA
Trac
k to r
ejoin
FPT
TE CA
14-26.EPS FPT

Figure 5-27 Track change = track error (TE) + closing angle (CA).

If we now assume that the heading change left or right to rejoin the planned track is
equal to the required track change (TE + CA), this will simplify in-flight calculations.
This useful rule of thumb – that heading change is equal to track change – is only
approximately true, because it assumes that the drift will remain the same on the new

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

5: Visual Navigation Procedures 145

track. Normally, this will not be the case, especially after a significant change in track.
However, for small track changes, the degree of accuracy achieved by making this
assumption is acceptable.
If TE and CA are both 15° or less, we may assume that any
track change required will be achieved by an equal heading change.
The great advantage of this approximation is that we can make sufficiently accurate
track corrections without having to calculate a new heading on a navigation computer,
using the actual or forecast wind.
Note. If either the TE or CA is greater than 15°, significant errors will occur by
assuming that heading change equals track change. Under these circumstances, you
will have to use the known values of TMG, heading and groundspeed to determine
the actual W/V vector with a navigation computer (see chapter 6), and then use
this to calculate the heading required to reintercept the planned track (this should
always be done if you are faced with this situation in an exam question). If insuffi-
cient information is available to allow determination of the actual W/V vector, the
forecast W/V should be used instead.

Estimating TE and CA Using Track Guides

If 5° and 10° track guides originating from selected checkpoints along the route are
drawn on the chart during preflight planning, then in-flight estimations of TE and CA
are greatly simplified. (10° track guides are quite adequate for short route segments.)
10° track guides

TE + CA = 11°
CA = 4°
track
Desired
TE = 7°

14-27.EPS

Figure 5-28 Estimation of track correction using track guides.

TE and CA can then be quickly estimated at any convenient fix without having to
resort to tedious plotting and measuring. The heading change required to regain track
at the next planned checkpoint is, by our convenient rule of thumb, equal to the track
change, i.e. TE + CA (provided that both the TE and the CA are each no greater than
about 15°).
The great advantage of track guides is that it is not necessary to measure the distance
off track (although this is easy to do).
A disadvantage is that the aircraft must pass directly over the point from which the
track guides diverge to rejoin track at the point in front where the next set of track
guides converge. This inflexibility is sometimes unacceptable, and so an alternative
method for estimating the required track correction angle is needed.

The 1-in-60 Rule

The 1-in-60 rule is a quick and convenient method for estimating angles to determine
track and heading changes. A clear understanding of this simple method is necessary.
The 1-in-60 rule is based on the following assumption:
1 nm subtends an angle of 1° at a distance of 60 nm.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

146 Navigation

It follows that:
■ 5 nm subtends an angle of 5° at 60 nm;
■ 10 nm subtends an angle of 10° at 60 nm; and
■ 15 nm subtends an angle of 15° at 60 nm.

10 nm

5 nm
10°
5° 1 nm
1°
60 nm 14-28.EPS

Figure 5-29 The 1-in-60 rule.

This relationship permits the angle corresponding to any combination of off-track

and along-track distances to be calculated.
To use the 1-in-60 rule, it is not necessary to cover 60 nm before determining the
distance off track. Any distance along-track may be considered by the use of ratios. For
example, the angle subtended by 4 nm off track in 30 nm along track is the same as 8 nm
off track in 60 nm along track; that is, track error = 8°.
4 nm off-track in 30 nm
= 8 nm off-track in 60 nm = 8° track error

8 nm
4 nm
8°
14-29.EPS
30 nm
60 nm

Figure 5-30 TE may be calculated at any point along track using the 1-on-60 rule.

Simple ratio calculations such as this may be solved by quick mental arithmetic or, as
you may recall from chapter 4, by using the circular slide-rule scales on a navigation
computer.
Simple Ratio
2 TE nce
20
=
60 D i s t aT R Trac
k Err
o f f or
2 6
20 e 60
nc
2 Dista n
TE ru
20
60 14-30.EPS

Figure 5-31 1-in-60 rule calculations may be carried out on a navigation computer.

The 1-in-60 rule can also be used to determine the CA, once the point to rejoin the
planned track has been selected.

TE = 6° CA = 6° CA = 3°
20 20
14-31.EPS 40

Figure 5-32 Calculation of the closing angle by the 1-in-60 rule.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

5: Visual Navigation Procedures 147

We have now established a simple but sufficiently accurate method of finding both
TE and CA. The value of TE is based on a known starting point and a subsequent fix.
We measure both the distance along the planned track between the two points, and the
distance ‘off-track’ of the fix, and thus determine the TE. The value of CA is dependent
upon the off-track distance and the distance along the planned track to the position at
which we wish to regain this track. In general, it is wise to select an easily recognisable
feature for this position, so that we can confirm when track has actually been regained.
Once TE and CA are known, the track change required (TE + CA) can be deter-
mined. A heading correction, equal to the calculated track change, should return the
aircraft to the flight-planned track at the chosen point. Remember, this assumption is
valid only if TE and CA are each no greater than 15°.
Alter HDG Planned position
by TE + CA to rejoin
Fix 1020
Road
TMG Road
Distance off
TE track 5 nm Railway
CA

Fix 1000
Railway
Distance flown Distance to run
43 nm 75 nm
5
= x°
5 = y°
TE = CA = ∴ Alter HDG by: TE + CA
43 60 75 60
= 7° + 4°
= 7° (approx.) = 4° = 11° right
60 45
50 50
70 40
50 65 70
43 75
60 60
40 8
14-32.EPS
0

Figure 5-33 Alter heading by (TE + CA) to regain planned track using the 1-in-60 rule.

If the distance from the present position to the point where the planned track will be
rejoined is equal to the distance travelled from the last on-track fix, then the alteration
of heading is exactly double the TE (because, in this case, the CA is equal to the TE).
This is another very convenient rule of thumb for en route track corrections. If the TE
can be determined close to the halfway point of a route segment, then simply altering the
heading by double this amount should bring the aircraft back on track very close to the next
checkpoint. It also serves as a quick mental check that the slide-rule calculations are correct.
‘Doubling the TE’ also provides the basis for a convenient procedure that may be used
when making a diversion around a significant en route obstacle, such as a thunderstorm.
Consider an aeroplane that has been steered off track deliberately to avoid an active
thunderstorm, with the diversion heading maintained for a number of minutes (noted
in the flight log). If, after adequate clearance from the storm has been achieved, the aer-
oplane is turned back towards the original track by exactly double the angle of the initial
heading change, then the planned track should be regained after approximately the same
time interval (subject to wind effect).
Proper use of the 1-in-60 rule is an indispensable aid to visual navigation. It is there-
fore worthwhile to consider a few examples to illustrate its correct application.
Example 5-9
After maintaining a constant heading of 085°M, you obtain a visual fix 25 nm from the
last on-track position and 4 nm left of the flight plan track. Calculate the new heading
required to regain track 25 nm further on.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

148 Navigation

TE + CA = 20°

CA = 10°

TE = 10° 25
25 14-33.EPS

Figure 5-34 The 1-in-60 rule where TE = CA.

First determine the TE and CA using the 1-in-60 rule.

60
4 nm left of track after 25 nm = -----  4  TE 10° left (nearest whole degree)
25
To rejoin track in a further 25 nm = CA 10° (TE = CA)

Since TE and CA are both less than 15°, you can assume that the heading change is
TE + CA:
heading change = TE + CA (i.e. in this case 2  TE)
= 20° right
new heading = 085°M + 20°
= 105°M

Example 5-10
A heading of 320°M is maintained for a distance of 40 nm. A visual fix is obtained 4 nm
right of track. Calculate the heading required to regain track 20 nm further on.
First, determine the TE and CA using the 1-in-60 rule.
4 nm right of track after 40 nm = 6 nm off in 60 nm
TE = 6° right
4 nm closed in 20 nm = 12 nm closed in 60 nm
CA = 12°
Once again, TE and CA are less than 15°, and so: heading change = TE + CA
= 18° left
new heading = 320°M – 18°
= 302°M

TE + CA = 18°

4
CA = 12°

20

40 TE = 6°
14-34.EPS

Figure 5-35 The 1-in-60 rule regaining track in half-distance run.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

5: Visual Navigation Procedures 149

Example 5-11
A visual fix is obtained 6 nm right of track. A 4 nm in 30 nm = 8 nm in 60 nm
constant heading of 065°M is then maintained
TE = 8° right
(i.e. no corrections at this stage), and after fly-
ing a further 30 nm, a second fix is established 10 nm in 40 nm = 15 nm in 60 nm
10 nm right of track. Calculate the heading CA = 15°
required to rejoin track 40 nm further on.
In this particular case, there is only suffi-
cient information available to determine the TMG between the two fixes. To calculate
the TE, this TMG must be related to an imaginary track line parallel to the original
track, as figure 5-36 shows.

CA
40
d track
Desire
30
6
6 10

°
TE = 8 4
14-35.EPS

Figure 5-36 The 1-in-60 rule when both fixes are off the planned track.

Both TE and CA are not greater than 15°, so: heading change = 8° + 15°
= 23° left
new heading = 065°M – 23°
Example 5-12
= 042°M
You fix your position 3 nm left of the flight-planned track (FPT), at point A in figure
5-37, and take up a new heading of 080°M with the aim of rejoining FPT in 50 nm (at
point C). However, after only 20 nm, a second fix is obtained 2 nm right of FPT (point
B), and you immediately alter heading to regain FPT at point C (which is now only
30 nm ahead). Calculate the new intercept heading.

50 nm

A Intended track C

3 nm
TM 30 nm
FPT G 2 nm

20 nm New track to
B regain FPT at C 14-36.EPS

Figure 5-37 The 1-in-60 rule – a further complication.

As in the previous example, there is no information available regarding the tracking

of the aircraft prior to the first fix, and we can only be sure of the TMG between the
two fixes (A and B). The track, and therefore the heading, will have to be altered at the
second fix (point B) by an amount equal to TE + CA. Normally, the TE and CA would
be determined by comparing the TMG (A to B) and the required track between the first
fix (A) and the point where FPT is to be rejoined (C). However, in this case, there is
insufficient information available to readily determine these values of TE and CA (see
figure 5-34), since the known off-track distances only relate to the original FPT and not
the intended intercept track (A to C).

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

150 Navigation

Problems of this type must be solved by reference to the original FPT and to imagi-
nary lines that are parallel to it. This approach makes use of another basic rule of geom-
etry which states that when a straight line cuts across 2 or more parallel lines, then the
corresponding interior and exterior angles are equal.

Parallel
All shaded angles
lines
are equal

14-37.EPS

Figure 5-38 All the shaded angles are equal.

The TE that must be determined is the angle between the original FPT and the TMG
between the two fixes. In figure 5-39, all the shaded angles are equal to the TE, but only
one angle (marked with an asterisk) can be determined with the 1-in-60 rule from the
information available. The CA can be found as normal, by comparison between the
original FPT and the new required track from the second fix. The heading alteration is
then determined in the usual way.

Lines parallel
to FPT
A CA C
TE

3 nm
TE
TE 2 nm 30 nm
FPT ∴ TE = 5 = 15°, and
2 n m
20 nm
TE * 20
B CA = 2 = 4°
30
14-38.EPS ∴ alter HDG at B 19° LEFT

Figure 5-39 Heading change = TE + CA.

Example 5-13
There is one further example we need to consider, and that is when the initial alteration
of heading to regain track proves to be in error. This could mean either regaining track
earlier than planned (which is perhaps not important) or regaining track later than
planned. This could have serious consequences if the rejoining point happens to be a
turning point on a cross-country exercise.
Fix 1000
A TMG TE New required track
B
TE
8 nm CA
6 nm Alter
HDG
CA
FPT Turning
30 nm 26 nm point

Planned rejoining track 14-39.EPS

Figure 5-40 The 1-in-60 rule when the alteration of heading proves to be in error.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

5: Visual Navigation Procedures 151

At 1000 hr, a fix is obtained putting the aircraft 8 nm left of the flight-planned track.
Heading is altered to regain track at the next turning point X which is 56 nm from A.
Sometime later, another fix is obtained that shows the aircraft to be 6 nm left of track
with only 26 nm left to run to X.
Notice that in this case, the heading alteration is found by subtracting TE from CA.

TE =  8 – 6  nm off in 30 nm
60
TE = 2  ----- = 4°
30
CA = 6 nm in 26 nm
60
CA = 6  -----  14°
26
heading change = CA – TE
= 10° right

Using Ratios to Estimate Closing Angles

The following rules of thumb, based on the 1-in-60 rule, can assist in rapidly estimating
closing angles:
■ to regain track in the same distance (and approximately the same time) covered since
the last on-track position, the CA is equal to the TE;
■ to regain track in twice the distance covered since the last on-track position, the CA
is equal to half the TE; and
■ to regain track in half the distance covered since the last on-track position, the CA is
equal to twice the TE.
Refer to figure 5-42 for an illustration of these rules.

Procedure After Regaining the Planned Track

So far, we have limited our discussion to the methods used to determine a heading that
will regain track at a selected point. Once the track has been regained, it will be neces-
sary to make a further alteration of heading in order to maintain the original track (oth-
erwise the aircraft will continue to fly right through it). This is done by altering heading
by an amount equal to CA.
Once again we assume that the required track change can be achieved by an equal
heading change, provided that the CA does not exceed 15°.

TE + CA

TE CA
CA
14-40.EPS

Figure 5-41 After the planned track has been regained, alter heading by the closing angle.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

152 Navigation

Summary of Track Corrections Using the 1-in-60 Rule

To regain the planned track at a point further along the intended route, it is necessary to:
■ alter heading by an amount equal to the TE (to approximately parallel the original track);
■ make a further heading alteration by an amount equal to the CA, so that the aircraft
follows a new track to rejoin the FPT at the chosen position; and
■ when the planned track has been intercepted, make a final alteration to the heading
by an amount equal to the chosen CA.
Note. Remember that the 1-in-60 procedures will only provide acceptable accu-
racy if both TE and CA are each no greater than 15°.

To regain track after running an equal distance:

1. Alter HDG by TE + CA, i.e. 2 × 8° = 16° 1130 1 TE 8°
2. Fly for the same time. UTC
3. Alter HDG by the 8°. CA 8°

1120 2
UTC
TE 8° CA 8° 3 1140 UTC
8°
To regain track at a point further along the intended route:
1. Alter HDG by the TE to approximately parallel the flight-planned TR..
2. Alter HDG further by the CA (closing angle) to close on the TR at the chosen point.
3. When TR is regained, alter HDG back by the CA.

Alter TR by altering
HDG 9° to the right
TE 6°
Track regained after
CA 3° a further 40 nm –
2 turn 3° left

TE 6° CA 3°
20 40 3°
2 in 20 = TE 6° 2 in 40 = CA 3°

Alter TR by altering
HDG 8° to the right
TE 6°
Track regained after
CA 2° a further 60 nm –
2 turn 2° left

TE 6° CA 2°
20 60 2°
2 in 20 = TE 6° 2 in 60 = CA 2°

Alter TR by altering
HDG 18° to the right
TE 6°
Track regained after
CA 12° a further 10 nm –
2 turn 12° left

TE 6° CA 12°
20 10 12°
2 in 20 = TE 6° 2 in 10
14-41.EPS
= CA 12°

Figure 5-42 Track corrections using the 1-in-60 rule.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

5: Visual Navigation Procedures 153

The following example will illustrate the degree of error which

can occur if the limitation of 15° on TE and CA is exceeded.

Example 5-14
An aircraft is to fly a route segment between two points, A and B, track 090°M and distance
100 nm. The actual TAS being achieved is 200 kt. At 0100 UTC, when the aircraft is
directly overhead A, you take up the flight-planned heading 095°M. At 0112 UTC,
a positive visual fix is obtained 6 nm left of planned track, 30 nm from A. You decide to alter
heading and intercept the FPT at a point 50 nm from A (i.e. after travelling another 20 nm).
Calculate the new heading required using the following two methods:
■ the 1-in-60 rule approximations discussed so far; and
■ the actual W/V and a navigation computer.

0112 UTC
TAS 200
HDG 095˚M

6 nm
0100 UTC
TE CA 090˚M
A B
30 nm 20 nm 14-42.EPS

Figure 5-43 Heading correction, where CA is greater than 15°.

The 1-in-60 rule:

TE = 6 nm off after 30 nm
60
TE = 6  ----- = 12° left
30
CA = 6 nm closed in 20 nm
60
CA = 6  ----- = 18° (i.e. in excess of the 15° limit)
20
Heading change = TE + CA
= 30° right
new heading = 095°M + 30°
= 125°M

With the navigation computer, the data available is sufficient to calculate the actual
W/V:
TMG = 090°M – TE 12°
= 078°M
Heading 095°M  drift = 17° left
Groundspeed = 30 nm in 12 min
= 150 kt; TAS 200 kt
 by computer, actual W/V = 133°M/72 kt
New intercept track = 090°M + CA 18°
= 108°M
 new heading = 117°M

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

154 Navigation

As you can see, the heading obtained using the rule of thumb is almost 10° different,
even though the CA is only slightly in excess of the 15° upper limit considered accept-
able for the 1-in-60 method. The error will increase significantly at higher angles.
Always remember that if either the TE or CA are greater than 15° in an examination
question, then you are normally expected to calculate the new heading with a compu-
ter, using either the forecast W/V or the actual W/V if there is sufficient information to
allow its determination.

Pilot-Navigation Accuracy Tolerances

For VFR operations within controlled airspace (CTA or CTR), you are required to stay
as close as possible to the track authorised by ATC, within the tolerances specified below.
Separation standards for aircraft operating in controlled airspace are based on the
assumption that all pilots can navigate to these tolerances. For operations outside con-
trolled airspace (OCTA), you should apply the tolerances to the planned route to ensure
that any nearby controlled airspace or restricted areas are not infringed.
If, after tolerances have been applied, it is possible that the aircraft could infringe con-
trolled airspace, an airways clearance to enter the CTA or CTR should be obtained, or
the track should be changed to increase the margin. The following navigational toler-
ances should be applied to the intended track of flights conducted under visual naviga-
tion procedures (AIP ENR 1.1):
■ for altitudes of 0–2,000 ft, ±1 nm (±2 nm by night);
■ for altitudes of 2,001–5,000 ft, ±2 nm (±3 nm by night); and
■ for altitudes of 5,001–10,000 ft, ±4 nm (±5 nm by night).

When using DR navigation procedures, ±12° is considered realistic for track-keeping

accuracy. This may be reduced to approximately ±6° if radio-navigation aids (such as
NDBs or VORs) are used for track guidance.

Applied Navigation Techniques

Diversion Procedures
Around Thunderstorms and Other En Route Obstacles
As discussed previously, there may be an occasional need to divert around an obstacle
such as a thunderstorm, town or restricted area. If suitable landmarks are available, the
diversion around the obstacle and the subsequent return to the original track may be
flown by reference to them. However, if there are no landmarks to assist, then the fol-
lowing simple DR diversion procedure is recommended:
■ Divert 60° off track; that is, alter the heading by 60° in the intended direction. Note
the new heading on the flight log and maintain it for a suitable time (this time should
also be logged).
■ If necessary, parallel the original track by altering the heading by 60° in the opposite
direction to the first turn, and maintain the new heading for a suitable time interval
(once again, the heading and time should be logged).
■ After the obstacle has been cleared by a suitable margin, alter heading by a further 60°
(or 120° if no parallel segment has been flown), and maintain the new heading for the
same time interval as the original diversion heading. In nil wind conditions, this will
return the aircraft to the original track.
■ When track has been rejoined, alter the heading by 60° to maintain it.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

5: Visual Navigation Procedures 155

This is a very convenient procedure. If an aircraft diverts off track by 60° and then
regains track at a suitable point at an angle of 60°, the actual distance flown on the diver-
sion is exactly double the corresponding on-track distance. In nil wind conditions, this
will take twice the on-track time interval.
For instance, if the initial 60° diversion heading is maintained for 2 min, and the
return leg is also flown for 2 min, a total time interval of 4 min will have been flown.
This will exceed the corresponding on-track time interval by 2 min, so the ETA at the
next on-track checkpoint will be 2 min later than the previous estimate. If 5-minute
diversion legs are flown, this will add 5 min to the ETA.
Note that the time interval flown on any leg parallel to the original track will not
affect ETA. We have, of course, assumed nil-wind conditions throughout this discussion.
If there is a significant wind, then make appropriate allowances for it during any diver-
sion procedure.

60°
120°
60°
60°

60° 60° 60° 60°

60°
14-43.EPS

Figure 5-44 A diversion procedure based on the geometry of an equilateral triangle.

To Alternate Aerodromes
Occasionally, a diversion from the flight-planned route may be necessary, such as when
proceeding to an off-track alternate aerodrome due to deteriorating visibility or weather
at the destination. Other common reasons for diversions include:
■ the possibility of running out of daylight if the flight continues to the destination;
■ a mechanical problem that makes an early landing advisable, like an alternator failure;
■ sudden illness of a passenger; or
■ a revised weather forecast showing that the crosswind component will be exceeded.

If the diversion only requires a relatively small heading change, then using the 1-in-
60 rule to calculate the heading is adequate.

Example 5-15
You are tracking 320°M towards the destination, which is 135 nm further on, when you
receive advice indicating a line of thunderstorms is approaching the destination. The
current heading is 315°M and groundspeed 133 kt. You wisely decide to divert and land
at a small aerodrome, located 10 nm abeam and to the right of the planned track, 42 nm
ahead of your present position (measured along track). Calculate the approximate head-
ing and ETI to arrive overhead the alternate aerodrome.
First, determine the TE by using the 1-in-60 rule.
10 nm off track in 42 nm = 14 nm off in 60 nm
TE = 14° right track change to alternate

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

156 Navigation

Since the change in track direction is only 14°, this new track may be followed with
reasonable accuracy by making a heading alteration of 14° (wind effect will not differ
greatly when track is changed by such a small amount). For this reason, you can assume
that the same groundspeed exists on the new track. Therefore:

heading required = 315°M + 14°

= 329°M; and
ETI = 42 nm at GS 133 kt
= 19 min

If a diversion requires a significant track (and heading) change, and this is often the
case, then the wind effect on the new track can differ significantly to that on the original
track, i.e. the drift experienced on the diversion track may be quite different, and the
assumption that a particular track change can be achieved by an equal heading change
is therefore not valid. In this case, it will be necessary to use a navigation computer to
calculate the heading and groundspeed for the diversion track, using the most up-to-
date and accurate W/V available.

Destination
Answer
10 14

42 60

Wind

10 nm Diversion aerodrome

42 nm

14°

Thus: to divert alter

HDG 14° to the right 14-44.EPS

Figure 5-45 Diversion calculations using the 1-in-60 rule.

Example 5-16
En route from Sydney to Wagga, and approaching Gundagai, you receive advice that the
weather at Wagga is deteriorating and therefore decide to divert to Cootamundra.
The best technique to use in a diversion such as this is to initially maintain the original
heading and track to a suitable checkpoint a short distance ahead of the aircraft from
which the diversion can be made, which in this case would be the town of Gundagai.
During the flight towards this position, you can complete the calculations required for
the diversion in an unhurried fashion. A checkpoint or diversion point within 5 min
should allow more than enough time to plan and organise an accurate diversion.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

5: Visual Navigation Procedures 157

Measure the track and distance from the diversion point to the alternate aerodrome,
and use the actual TAS and the most accurate W/V available to calculate on a navigation
computer the heading and groundspeed for the diversion. Determine the ETI and the
ETA overhead the alternate aerodrome.

Cootamundra Calculations from

Gundagui to Cootamundra
TAS 105 kt
W/V 240T/30
Diversion 229M/30
352°T
341°M ∴ HDG 326°
GS 112 kt
Wind
27 nm
∴ ETI 15 min

Wagga
Wagga Gundagai
14-45.EPS

Figure 5-46 A diversion involving a significant change in track and heading.

If, as is more likely, a suitable checkpoint is not available, then we can determine a
DR position 6 min ahead, and then make the necessary calculations from that DR posi-
tion. We use 6 min so as to make the determination of the DR position a very simple
exercise; the latest groundspeed available for 6 min is equal to that speed divided by 10.
Thus a groundspeed of 150 kt would have the DR position 15 nm ahead from the latest
estimated or known position. This procedure is what we call DRing ahead.
Note. It is good airmanship to check the results of all computer calculations using
estimates obtained by mental arithmetic.

Decision
to divert DR position
1014 1020

Track to
alternate –
calculate Alternate
1000 HDG and GS
latest fix as before
14-46.EPS
G/S 150

Figure 5-47 Using a DR position to alter heading for the alternate aerodrome.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

158 Navigation

Navigation at Low Level

The term low-level navigation is generally used to refer to visual air navigation carried out
at 500 ft AGL.
Low-level navigation involves basically the same procedures employed at higher alti-
tudes but with the addition of a few special considerations.
At low altitude, the field of vision is more limited, and you must be especially careful
to maintain a constant lookout, given the proximity of terrain and obstacles. You will
also need to keep a sharp lookout for bird life, which is more prevalent at low altitudes.
A thorough study of the appropriate charts prior to departure is particularly important
for any flight where low-level operations may be expected, and you should preselect
suitable ground features as checkpoints, which should be close to the intended track.
In general, a greater number of checkpoints will be required than would be the case
for the same flight conducted at a higher altitude, because the limited field of vision
available at low altitude and the relative speed at which things happen mean that you
must anticipate the appearance of check features and identify them quickly.
In low-level en route navigation, read from chart to ground.
If a selected feature fails to appear at the Seen Seen from
from above the side
calculated ETA, there will usually be insuf-
ficient time available to search for it.
Instead, you must assume that it has already
been passed and concentrate on looking for
the next checkpoint. Ideally, the point
should not be too far ahead, hence a need 14-47.EPS

for selecting a greater number of check fea- Figure 5-48

tures along a low-level route. The profile of selected check features
is an important consideration for low-level navigation.
You should only consider declaring
‘uncertain of position’ if several consecutive
checkpoints are not identified. The tech-
niques to use under these circumstances will
be discussed shortly.
The height of check features, in comparison to the general level of the surrounding
terrain, is a significant consideration for low-level flight. Tall or high-profile features,
such as radio masts, factory chimneys and wheat silos, can be useful checkpoints at low
level and will be seen more easily than at normal cruising heights. You should also make
full use of contour information marked on the chart to help identify areas of high
ground, which can be used to assist your map reading.
Any unusually high or concealed obstructions, or built-up areas, must be anticipated
and avoided. This applies to active military low jet routes (LJRs) also. They are to be
avoided at all costs (activation of LJRs is notified by NOTAM).
The amount of in-flight log keeping that is possible on a low-level exercise is neces-
sarily limited, largely because of the need to give greater attention to aircraft handling
and lookout. Generally, only brief log entries should be attempted. A thorough study of
the route and good chart preparation is the key to success at low-level navigation.
If an unplanned low-level leg is necessary, allow for the increased fuel consumption.

Navigation in Reduced Visibility

Cross-country flights for which visual contact (map reading) is the primary means of
navigation should be attempted only in weather conditions which permit regular, if not
continuous, visual reference to the ground. Such conditions allow adequate time for en
route features to be identified before actually reaching or passing abeam them.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

5: Visual Navigation Procedures 159

Note. It is generally accepted that navigating by visual reference to the ground is

not practical above more than ⁄ of cloud, i.e., forecast cloud BKN.
Reduced visibility, due to the presence of, say, smoke, haze, mist, rain or smog, pose
additional problems. For example:
■ basic aircraft handling can be more demanding due to the probable absence of a well-
defined natural horizon; and
■ on-track check features may not come into view until the aircraft is almost upon
them, thereby increasing the likelihood that some of them will be missed, while off-
track check features may lie beyond the available visual range.
Poor visibility increases pilot workload.
It is almost inevitable, however, that sooner or later every VFR pilot will be faced with
reduced visibility. When this happens, you should consider turning back or diverting if
VMC cannot be maintained, or if the visibility (even if it is in excess of the minimum
VMC requirements) is not adequate for your level of experience. Making an early deci-
sion when to turn back or divert is one of the hallmarks of a competent pilot.
It may be advisable to reduce speed, even to the extent of lowering flaps or landing
gear, and adopting a low-speed precautionary configuration for the aircraft. A slower
speed allows more time to identify checkpoints and reduces the radius of turn should
any manoeuvring or avoiding action be necessary.
If reduced visibility is forecast to occur anywhere along the route, it is always advisable
to select additional checkpoints close to track. This reduces the time intervals between
fixes, and reduces the anxiety level when one or two features are missed (the next usually
appears on schedule).

Procedures When Uncertain of Position

Only if some time has passed (10–15 min, for instance) without a positive visual fix (that
is, several consecutive check features have failed to appear) should there be reason to
consider yourself ‘uncertain of position’. If an adequate flight log has been maintained,
then it is possible to calculate a DR position using the latest found track and ground-
speed, or in extreme circumstances, the flight plan values. The fact that the DR position
cannot be verified immediately with a visual fix is no cause for anxiety; such a situation
is not uncommon. Being uncertain of your position is not the same as being lost.
Rules cannot cover all situations, but the following procedures should be adopted if
a checkpoint does not come into view at the expected time:
■ Log heading (simultaneously check the compass and directional gyro headings), the
time and general direction/orientation.
■ Check DG alignment:
– If the DG setting is incorrect, then it should be possible to estimate with a reason-
able degree of accuracy the actual position of the aircraft by correcting for the
known angular error. The DG can then be realigned and a new heading calculated
to reintercept planned track.
– If the DG alignment is correct, then the non-appearance of the selected check fea-
ture, while perhaps of concern, may not necessarily mean that the aircraft is off track.
A checkpoint may be missed for some perfectly legitimate reason; for example, vision
may be impeded by glare or poor visibility, or a patch of cloud may prevent visual
observation of the ground at the critical moment. Under these circumstances, con-
tinue the flight according to the flight plan, and look for the next checkpoint.
■ If the next feature appears on schedule, or a fix is obtained, then the flight may continue
normally. However, if subsequent checkpoint(s) are not identified, and you are unable to
obtain a fix, the procedures when lost, outlined in the next section, should be adopted.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

160 Navigation

Procedures When Lost

If you do become really lost, it will almost invariably be the result of human error. Being
lost is a totally different situation to being temporarily uncertain of position, when it is
generally possible to establish a reasonably accurate DR position.
Once again, it is impossible to lay down a set of hard and fast rules to follow if you
do become lost. However, careful preflight planning, combined with thorough attention
to normal in-flight navigation tasks (especially log keeping), will minimise the possibility
of ever being caught in this uncomfortable situation.
Nevertheless, if there is one thing you must not do on becoming lost, it is to panic
and fly around aimlessly in the vain hope of finding where you are.
It is absolutely vital to formulate a definite plan of action.
Whenever you conclude that you are no longer simply uncertain of position but are
definitely lost, the following procedures are recommended:
■ Maintain the present heading (if the terrain, visibility and other known hazards permit).
■ If the next expected checkpoint is not in view at ETA, continue to maintain heading
for a further time interval equal to 10% of the total elapsed time flown since the last
positive fix.
■ Check the headings flown since the last positive fix, ensuring the following:
– the magnetic compass is not being affected by such articles as metal clipboards,
cameras, portable radios or headphones;
– the DG is aligned correctly with the magnetic compass;
– variation and drift have been applied correctly in the calculation of headings flown; and
– a comparison of the track on the chart, and that shown on the flight plan, does not
reveal any significant error.
■ Determine the DR position of the aircraft by using latest track and groundspeed
information to establish the distance flown since the last fix, as we did for the ‘uncer-
tain of position’ procedures. This DR position is then our most probable position
(MPP), around which we can construct an area of uncertainty. This is the most prob-
able area in which the aircraft should be.
The two following methods are suitable ways for determining the MPP, but we suggest
you refer to your instructor for his or her preferred method.

Method 1
Using the MPP as a starting point, apply plus and minus 10% of the estimated distance
flown since the last fix to an arc 30° either side of the probable TMG.

Most
probable
Last
position
positive
fix

30°

30° 10% 10%

Probable
TMG
14-48.EPS

Figure 5-49 Determination of the most probable area.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

5: Visual Navigation Procedures 161

Method 2
Draw a circle around the MPP with a radius equal to 10% of the estimated distance
flown since the last positive fix.

Last Probable TMG 10%

positive fix
MPP

14-49.EPS

Figure 5-50 An alternative method for establishing the most probable area.

Once the most probable area has been plotted, you should do the following:
■ determine the minimum safe altitude within the area to ensure adequate terrain clear-
ance (extra care is required when operating in reduced visibility, or in the presence of
low cloud); and
■ look well out to the front and side of the aeroplane, and attempt to correlate signifi-
cant features observed on the ground with those on the chart within the most prob-
able area.
Read from the ground to the chart.
Confirm the identification of any feature you think you have recognised by carefully
noting the secondary details around it. Always double-check any visual fix.
When a fix has been established, recheck the DG alignment, and then continue nor-
mal navigation activity; that is, calculate the heading, groundspeed and ETI for the next
en route checkpoint, relax, and set heading towards it.
If you are still unable to obtain a fix, one or more of the following procedures should
be considered:
■ expand the most probable area by another 10%–20% of the distance flown since the
last fix;
■ if conditions permit, climb to a higher altitude to increase the range of vision;
■ turn towards any prominent linear feature, such as a coastline, large river, railway line
or road, and then follow it to the next town, where a fix is more likely to be obtained
(be aware, however, that this may also lead you into a control zone, such as Alice
Springs);
■ steer a reciprocal heading and attempt to return to the last positive fix; and
■ seek navigational assistance from the air traffic service unit (FS or ATC) that you are
in radio contact with – the time and position of the last fix, and the headings, times
and speeds flown since then will normally be requested in order to determine the
aircraft’s probable position.
Tell someone if you are hopelessly lost – share the problem!
The following important points of airmanship, should also be considered:
■ to cover the maximum distance possible with the fuel that is available, the aircraft
should be flown in the best-range configuration;
■ maintaining a continuous navigation log is still essential;
■ keep alert by monitoring the fuel state as well as the time remaining until last light (if
last light is approaching, remember that it will be darker at ground level earlier than
at altitude, and that the duration of twilight is quite short in the tropical latitudes); and
■ if a precautionary search and landing is likely, allow sufficient time and fuel on the
assumption that two or three inspections might be necessary before a suitable landing
area is found (ERSA EMERG contains advice regarding your actions after a landing).

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

162 Navigation

Some Common Reasons for Becoming Lost

Human error is invariably the reason for becoming lost. For instance, the following are
some common errors that cause position uncertainties:
■ incorrectly calculated headings, groundspeeds and ETIs (the likelihood of error is
minimised if a mental estimate of the approximate answer is made to verify vital
navigation calculations);
■ incorrect alignment of the DG, i.e. the gyroscopic heading indicator is not correctly
aligned with the magnetic compass (the DG should be checked every 10 to 15 min
against the compass reading, ensuring the aircraft is in steady unaccelerated flight);
■ a faulty compass reading due to extraneous magnetic influences, including portable
radios, clipboards, cameras and other magnetic articles, being placed in close proxim-
ity to it;
■ incorrect application of magnetic variation to track directions measured from a chart;
■ incorrect application of drift (as a rough check, the heading flown should always be
into wind) with respect to the corresponding track;
■ a significant variation from the forecast wind velocity, which is not recognised early
enough;
■ failure to assign sufficient priority to essential navigation tasks due to an unexpected
increase in cockpit workload, such as a rapid deterioration in the weather, deteriorat-
ing visibility or a sick passenger;
■ an incorrect fix, or misidentification of a check feature (remember, it is always vital
to verify every visual fix by noting nearby features);
■ poor planning of a diversion, or leaving the decision to divert too late; and
■ inadequate attention to routine navigational tasks during the flight, such as poor log
keeping.
Regular checks of DG and magnetic compass alignment, accurate heading steering
and position fixes every 10–15 min will minimise the effect of any of the errors listed
above and keep the aircraft close to the planned track. Remember the CLEAROF check
that was discussed earlier in the chapter. It is usually just carelessness and allowing things
to deteriorate too far that will result in your becoming lost.

Maximum Range and Endurance Flying

The aerodynamic characteristics of most light aircraft types normally allow a variety of
performance configurations to be flown. In the early stages of your flying career, you
may be told by the flying school what speeds and power settings to use. Notwithstanding
this, you must learn about your aeroplane and always aim to operate in the most efficient
manner. Guidance on performance configurations, such as speeds and power settings, is
usually provided in the pilot’s operating handbook or flight manual for the type.
For instance, if there is a requirement to fly a given distance using the minimum
amount of fuel, or the maximum distance on a given amount of fuel, then a best-range
configuration for the prevailing conditions should be adopted.
Range flying is concerned with maximum distance from available fuel.
If the requirement is to stay in the air for the maximum time possible (that is, the dis-
tance covered is not the primary consideration), then a best-endurance configuration
should be used. This may be necessary when holding at some distance from the destina-
tion, waiting, say, for the weather to clear or an airways clearance.
Endurance flying is concerned with maximum time from available fuel.
Range and endurance flying is covered in full detail in volume 3 of this series, Aircraft
Operation, Performance and Planning.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

5: Visual Navigation Procedures 163

Navigation in Remote Areas

Sooner or later you will decide to make a journey into one of Australia’s remote areas.
Indeed, this is one of the great pleasures and privileges of being a pilot. The transition
from cross-country flying in the more heavily populated areas of Australia to flying in
the outback, however, should not be taken lightly.
Navigation in remote areas is not necessarily more difficult, but the lack of landmarks
will require a more disciplined approach to flight planning and flying. A number of acci-
dents or incidents have occurred in the past when pilots have experienced navigational
difficulties transiting remote areas. A common theme has been a lack of experience cou-
pled with inadequate flight preparation and poor in-flight navigational technique.
Experience
Where does one gain experience? We are faced with lack of experience many times in
our flying careers. We gain experience by reading and studying and then finally doing.
With our first solo, first cross-country flight and so on, we extend ourselves to new limits
and in the process build up confidence and experience. Often we learn lessons from the
experiences of others. Listen and observe what others say and do. In the end, though,
you have to have confidence in your own judgement. Read reports of trips where things
did not go as planned (for other pilots) in magazines such as the Flight Safety Magazine.
We emphasise that the term lack of experience is used in reference to navigational experi-
ence. We have assumed that, as a responsible pilot, you will only venture forth into a
remote area in an aeroplane in which you have recent flying experience and the systems
of which (fuel system, etc.) you are fully conversant with.
Flight Preparation
There is no excuse for a lack of preparation, even for the most inexperienced pilot. You
must do your homework properly for a particular route, so that you can make sensible
in-flight decisions if the unexpected occurs. Of course, with proper preflight prepara-
tion, the unexpected is not likely to occur.
In-Flight Procedures
Flying in remote and featureless areas requires good DR navigation skills. Following dirt
tracks that meander through the desert (and then peter out) is definitely not a good tech-
nique for the outback. This is not to say that following the only railway line up to Alice
Springs or the one-and-only sealed road across to Perth shouldn’t be considered – this
is an area for your own operational judgement – but we are referring here particularly
to areas where such features are not available. What can you do to avoid the pitfalls of
remote-area flying?
Carefully Plan the Flight

The ‘Day-Before’ Type of Preflight Planning

■ Allow plenty of time to flight plan carefully.
■ Ensure that your charts are current and adequate for the route, and that you have
coverage for any planned or unplanned diversions.
■ Examine the charts carefully for suitable landmarks and distinguishing features along
or close to the proposed route.
■ Ensure that you are up to speed on your computer, especially in calculating headings,
groundspeeds and times.
■ Read and follow the advice contained in ERSA EMERG regarding the emergency
locator transmitter (ELT), and CAO 20.11 Appendix 3 on designated remote areas.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

164 Navigation

■ Ensure that you carry the required signalling and survival equipment and that it is in
good condition. These requirements are specified in CAO 20.11. If you do not carry
an ELT, you are required to have HF radio, so ensure that you know how to operate
it. HF radio is quite different to VHF radio in its operation. (Seek advice from your
flying instructor and refer to our manual Flight Radio for Pilots.)
■ Make use of the local knowledge of other pilots and flying organisations who know the
area over which you intend flying. Determine suitable fix points and obtain as much
information as possible on suitable landing areas along the route. Ensure that this infor-
mation is reliable and up-to-date. It is not unknown for landing grounds on station
properties to be abandoned in favour of a new, more suitable site because of flooding.
■ If practicable, plan your route over suitable landing areas.
■ If the destination is isolated, plan via any prominent feature for a final timed run-in.
■ Carry a survival kit in remote areas. ERSA EMERG also provides authoritative
advice on basic survival rules and techniques in various survival situations, including
desert survival.

Obtain a Thorough Meteorological Briefing

■ Ensure that you are briefed thoroughly on the route and for your destination and
alternate aerodromes.
■ Do not be embarrassed if you do not understand aspects of the ARFOR or TAFs, or
the abbreviations used. Ask for clarification!
■ Be wary of areas where visibility may be reduced in dust or haze.
■ Do not plan on flying above cloud for long periods because your ability to conduct
visual navigation will be impeded.
■ Try to determine an approximate altitude above which you will be out of the con-
vective turbulence layer and its associated bumpy ride for the time at which your flight
will occur. Flying in turbulence can be very fatiguing.

Obtain a Thorough Operational Briefing

Air traffic services personnel are aviation professionals. They are trained to a very high
standard, and it is their job (and usually their pleasure) to assist you in any way possible.
It is up to you as a pilot to request their assistance by telephone or fax briefing services.
■ Pay particular attention to the serviceability of landing areas and aerodromes along the
route, especially following rain.
■ Determine the availability of the correct fuel at landing points.
■ Determine if any military activity is planned in the area. Military jet low-level exer-
cises occur at high speed in remote areas; some of the aircraft are camouflaged fighters
that are hard to see, and some are large bombers. It is nice to know if they are around.
■ Always determine the time of last light for your destination and remember to plan
your arrival time accordingly if you intend flying late in the day.
■ Do not listen to those who tell you not to bother with a flight plan. Always complete
a full navigation and fuel plan, and notify details of your flight to ATS, along with a
SARTIME (see volume 3 of this series, Aircraft Operation, Performance and Planning).

Thoroughly Prepare Your Flight Plan

■ Following computer calculations, check tracks and distances mentally to ensure there
are no gross errors, such as tracks out by 90° or 180°. Apply variation correctly (vari-
ation east, magnetic least).
■ Check that drift is applied in the correct sense and that ETIs are approximately correct.
■ Subject to wind speed and direction, plan on flying as high as is practicable for the
following reasons:

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

5: Visual Navigation Procedures 165

– a better perspective of the country can be obtained;

– on hot days, the flight should be smoother; and
– VHF radio coverage is better.
■ Allow adequate fuel plus reserves not only for the planned flight but also for any
possible alternative action, including any low-level flying, and a provision for the
procedures you will follow in case checkpoints are not located as expected.
■ Allow sufficient time for the flight plus any possible alternative action, especially if flying
in the latter part of the day when last light is a very real consideration. It is only a
foolishly over-confident VFR pilot that would allow the bare legal minimum of 10 min
prior to last light for an ETA. Try to plan with a time buffer of at least 20 to 30 min.
■ Early departure times in the outback usually produce better flights. Cooler air gives better
take-off performance and a smoother ride. Visibility is usually better and the pressure of
an impending last light time removed. However, the benefit of the early start can be lost
if you dawdle along, wasting time with inefficient flight planning, refuelling, etc.
■ Allow sufficient time for proper food and rest periods. It is not only the aeroplane that
needs fuel.

In-Flight Navigation Techniques

■ Fly headings accurately (keep the wings level). Do not allow the aircraft to wander off
track simply through inattention. Always have an awareness of the approximate direction
you should be going, and check that drift is applied correctly in relation to the track and
wind. Check for drift soon after departure and adjust your heading as necessary.
■ Map read carefully as the flight progresses, but do not let this distract you from flying
an accurate heading. Be aware that, following heavy rains in outback areas, large
uncharted rivers and lakes may appear and disappear within a few days. Even if you
cannot find a pinpoint due to the lack of landmarks, at least know your DR position
based on estimated track and groundspeed since your last fix.
■ Maintain an in-flight log, recording all headings flown and the time of any significant
changes. It takes only a few seconds to do but will prove invaluable.
■ Maintain your sense of direction at all times and ensure that the DG is realigned with
the magnetic compass at regular intervals (every 10 or 15 min). Remember, this must
be done during steady, unaccelerated flight.
■ Do not deviate from your flight plan without justification. The flight plan should be
adhered to until a positive fix indicates that you are off track. With a positive fix, you
have data that enables you to make a heading correction with confidence.
■ Anticipate checkpoints some minutes ahead of the estimate for them and commence
a good lookout, not only ahead of the aircraft but also to each side of track. Do not
just wait for checkpoints to show up – anticipate them. Continually study the sur-
rounding countryside, but ensure you maintain an accurate heading.
■ Subject to flight conditions, positively establish your position in relation to the check-
point before continuing.
■ If you are unable to locate the checkpoint and are uncertain of your position, consider
adopting your alternative plan, being aware of fuel usage and time in particular. The
alternative action could be to return to the last fix or a diversion to some prominent
landmark, even if some distance away. In these circumstances, you may have to aban-
don your original plan to proceed to the original destination in favour of an alterna-
tive destination that is easier to locate and is in a more accessible area. Maintain an
accurate log for this procedure.
■ If you deviate from your original flight plan, notify your new intentions to the appro-
priate air traffic service unit. Do this after you have decided on your new course of
action and flying the aeroplane is well in hand.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

166 Navigation

What To Do if Things Do Not Work Out as Planned

■ Do not become flustered. With intelligent planning, you will have allowed fuel and time
to sort out this kind of problem. Establish the fuel state and the time remaining to last light.
■ Do not assume that you are in a particular place because that is where you should be.
Keep an open mind and study the surrounding countryside carefully. Log all signifi-
cant changes of heading and the times they are made.
■ Follow the procedures recommended in this chapter if you are uncertain of your
position or if you are lost.
■ Advise air traffic services of the situation. From the headings and times flown since
your last positive fix, the SAR (search and rescue) organisation can plot your flight
using the latest wind data and assist in establishing your position. Tell someone if you
are hopelessly lost – share the problem.
■ If, despite your precautions, things go wrong and you are caught out with insufficient
fuel or daylight left to reach your destination or an alternate, be intelligent in the use
of your resources.
■ Carry out a precautionary search and landing while you still have adequate fuel and
daylight available. ERSA EMERG offers guidance on what to do if you are forced
down, such as staying with the aircraft and activating your ELT.

Emergency Locator Transmitter

In remote areas, visual searches can be very difficult. The emergency locator transmitter
(ELT) can allow the search area to be reduced quickly so that the visual search can be
concentrated in a small area. ELT is a generic term covering devices known by such
names as crash locator beacons and emergency locator beacons. They all operate on both 121.5
and 243.0 MHz. A few common-sense points on the use of the ELT (apart from what
you will read in the ERSA EMERG) are the following:
■ Know how to use the ELT. Review the operating instructions for your particular
beacon prior to flight.
■ Ensure that the battery is fully charged.
■ Ensure that the ELT is operational by momentarily switching it on and off. Notify air
traffic services or the Rescue Coordination Centre in Canberra of any inadvertent
long periods of operation, even if it occurs in your garage at home. It may result in the
commencement of unnecessary SAR action, such as scrambling a search aircraft, etc.
■ If you are forced down, do not be reluctant to activate the ELT, giving regard to the
advice given in the emergency procedures section of ERSA EMERG.

Navigating Through Lanes of Entry

What Is a Lane of Entry?

Lanes of entry, as shown on some Visual Terminal Charts (VTCs), are sometimes established
for aircraft to operate under VFR to and from a general-aviation control zone (GAAP
CTR) clear of any adjacent control zones (CTR). In some cases, a lane of entry is provided
for recognised routes to the primary control zone to avoid adjacent military airspace. The
vertical limits specified for a particular lane of entry also ensure separation from an overly-
ing control area (CTA) or restricted area (R). Lanes of entry are designed to simplify nav-
igational and operational procedures for VFR pilots flying near busy control zones.

Basic Rules for Flying Through a Lane of Entry

The Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP) states that pilots must adhere to the fol-
lowing when flying through a lane of entry:

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

5: Visual Navigation Procedures 167

■ they must operate under the VFR;

■ they must conform with the general flight rules regarding terrain clearance and flight
over populous areas and within low-level restricted areas;
■ they must operate not higher than the altitude specified as the upper limit in the
section being flown; and
■ they must keep to the right.
Important Considerations for Lane of Entry Operations
Navigating through a lane of entry requires the application of normal visual navigation
procedures. You should pay particular attention to flying accurate headings, obtaining
frequent visual fixes and making the necessary heading changes to maintain track. Accu-
rate tracking is a requirement for lane of entry operations.
When operating in a lane of entry, you should bear in mind the following:
■ Lanes of entry are normally very confined areas due to the proximity of adjacent con-
trolled airspace and restricted areas. This can result in a high concentration of traffic in
relatively small areas. It is therefore very important to maintain a sharp lookout.
■ As previously mentioned, maintaining track is a high priority, so check your position
frequently to see how you are going. Keep to the right side of the lane.
■ Follow the rules of good flight planning. In particular, study the weather and the
VTC. Select good landmarks to make sure you are on track before entering the lane,
and maintain track during transit. Read all precautionary notes on the VTC and any
relevant NOTAMs. Seek advice from your flight instructor or an ATS briefing officer
if you are unsure on any point.
■ Keep in mind your options in case the weather in the lane is forecast to be marginal
for visual operations; for example, there may be alternative lanes or other OCTA
routes that take you clear of the weather. You may even consider negotiating an air-
ways clearance to transit the control zone in the direction you wish to go.
■ If you encounter marginal weather in the lane, make an early decision to return or to
adopt an alternative course of action.
■ Aim to keep cockpit workload and paperwork to a minimum; for example, ensure
the departure and position reports and all checks are completed, and that the DG is
properly aligned prior to entry. Get the ATIS early if that is required. Concentrate on
accurate tracking, height maintenance and lookout.
■ Be alert for others in the lane. Listen out for radio reports; for instance, a call may be
required before entering a lane of entry.
■ Exercise caution when near VFR approach points. There may be aircraft holding in
your area awaiting a clearance. Consider switching your landing lights on to make
your aircraft more visible to others.
■ Do not forget you still have to ‘mind the shop’. As you would normally do in all your
flying, carry out regular checks of engine operation and fuel state.
■ If you are unsure of your position, request assistance immediately. You often will be
in a radar environment. Radar information services (RIS) are available at many ter-
minal areas and can assist you when conducting lane of entry operations.
Finally, although all of these considerations are very important and must be taken into
account, do not get the impression that lane of entry operations are difficult. They are
not. In fact, they are dead easy and can save you a great deal of time and fuel – and that
means money! However, there is no room for complacency.
In good weather, an experienced pilot may feel quite happy tracking visually through
a familiar lane with very little planning, but if visibility decreases unexpectedly or some
other unforeseen situation arises, these procedures provide something to fall back on.
Local experience can count for a lot, but it is unwise to rely on it completely. Lane of
entry operations require extra vigilance and good planning.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

168 Navigation

Review 5
1. Track error is the angular difference between . . . . . and . . . . . whereas drift is the
angular difference between . . . . . and . . . . .
2. It is sound practice for a pilot to adhere to a definite cycle of navigational activity.
Part of this process is to carry out a CLEAROF check at all check and turning
points. What does the mnemonic CLEAROF stand for?
3. List the three things that should be checked on reaching your cruising level.
4. List the situations a pilot should read from chart to ground and from ground to chart.
5. Logging your departure time is an important and fundamental step to take in navi-
gation. List two other important actions you should take once your departure time
has been logged.
6. What are two essential requirements for successful navigation?
7. In small corrections (15° or less), it can be said that to regain planned track, track
change = . . . . . plus or minus . . . . .
8. You have held a steady heading but observe that you are 4 nm left of track 30 nm
from departure. The next turning point (TP) is 60 nm ahead. What heading correc-
tion would you make to arrive on track at the next TP?
9. From the above, what would be the heading correction to arrive on track 30 nm
from the next TP?
10. To lose time, you divert 60° off track for 3 min, and then turn 120° to regain track.
Assuming nil wind and a negligible time for the turns, how much time will you lose?
11. A fix can be defined as (the intersection of two position lines/a position determined
using latest track and groundspeed).
12. The angular difference between heading and track is called (drift/track error).
13. The angular difference between planned track and TMG is called (track error/wind
correction angle).
14. Wind correction angle is equal and opposite to (drift/track error).
15. Every 10–15 min during flight you should align (the directional gyro with the mag-
netic compass/the magnetic compass with the directional gyro).
16. On reaching your cruising level of 8,500 ft for the first leg of a cross-country flight,
you should set the altimeter subscale to (area QNH/QNH/1,013 hPa).
17. A fix is symbolised by a small . . . . .
18. A dead-reckoning position is symbolised by a small . . . . .
19. Normal en route visual navigation should consist of flying accurate . . . . . and iden-
tifying . . . . .
20. You cross a small town at 0325 UTC followed by a railway junction some 27 nm
further on at 0340 UTC. What is your groundspeed?
21. If you are 3 nm off track to the right in 20 nm, what is your track error?
22. If you are 5 nm off track to the right in 30 nm, your TE is . . . . . ?
23. If you are 2 nm off track to the left in 40 nm, TE is . . . . . ?
24. You are 2 nm left of track after travelling 15 nm.
a. What is the track error?
b. To regain track in another 15 nm, what is the closing angle (CA)?
c. To regain track in another 30 nm, what is the CA?
25. You are on a flight from Alice Springs to Tennant Creek, which is a distance of
249 nm. After flying a steady heading for 96 nm you find yourself 13 nm right of
track. By what should you alter your heading by to regain track:
a. at Tennant Creek?
b. 50 nm before Tennant Creek?
c. 20 nm before Tennant Creek

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

5: Visual Navigation Procedures 169

26. You are 4 nm right of track after travelling 20 nm. By how many degrees should you
change your heading by to regain track in another 40 nm?
27. At 0315 UTC you are on track, heading 080°M. At 0325 UTC you are 3 nm left
of track after travelling 20 nm. By what amount should you alter heading to in order
to be back on track at 0335 UTC?
28. We obtain a fix 5 nm left of track and make a heading correction in an attempt to
return to track. 20 nm further on we find that we are now 8 nm left of track.
a. What is the TE?
b. What is the CA if we want to return to track in another 60 nm?
c. What should we alter heading by to do this?
29. You are 3 nm left of track and make a heading change to regain track. 30 nm later
you pinpoint your position as 3 nm right of track.
a. What is your TE?
b. What is the CA to regain track in another 15 nm?
c. If your heading was 110°M, what should you alter it to?
30. After steering 320°M you are 2 nm left of track in 15 nm and wish to regain track
in another 30 nm.
a. What is your TE?
b. What is your CA?
c. What should you alter your heading to initially?
d. What should you alter your heading to upon regaining track?
31. You are steering 293°M and 4 nm right of track after 34 nm.
a. What is the TE?
b. What is the CA to regain track in another 48 nm?
c. What heading should you take up to regain track?
d. Once on track, what would you expect your heading to be?
32. You want to descend 3,500 ft at 500 fpm rate of descent. How long will that take?
33. At 300 fpm, how long will it take to descend 2,700 ft?
34. You are 18 nm from an aerodrome, cruising at 6,000 ft on QNH and about to com-
mence descent. You wish to overfly the field (elev 500 ft) at 1,500 ft AGL. If your
groundspeed on descent is 98 kt, what rate of descent do you require to arrive over-
head the field as stated?
35. You obtain a fix 4 nm right of track, and make a heading correction in an attempt
to return to flight-planned track (FPT). 30 nm further on, a second fix is established
2 nm left of track.
a. What is the TE?
b. What is the CA to return to track in a further 60 nm.
c. What heading alteration should you make to achieve this?
d. What would you alter your heading by to maintain FPT after regaining track?
36. You obtain a fix 3 nm left of track, and make a heading correction in an attempt to
return to flight-planned track (FPT). 20 nm further on, a second fix is established
1 nm right of track.
a. What is the TE?
b. What is the CA to return to track in a further 60 nm?
c. What heading alteration should you make to achieve this?
d. What would you alter your heading by to maintain FPT after regaining track?

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

170
 Part Two

Radio Navigation Aids

Chapter 6. NDB and ADF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

Chapter 7. VOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

Chapter 8. DME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

Chapter 9. GPS Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

 Chapter 6

NDB and ADF

NDB–ADF Combination
The NDB (non-directional beacon) is a ground radio transmitter that radiates energy in
all directions. The ADF (automatic direction finder) is a receiver in the aircraft, which
when tuned to receive the signal from the ground transmitter (the NDB) will indicate
the direction of the NDB from the aircraft by means of a pointer or needle. The pilot is
thus able to determine with reference to the aircraft magnetic heading a position line
between the aircraft and NDB.

   !

% &
TRANS SPEAKER
1 NAV/COM ADF
1 2 1
OFF
2
SELECT PHONE


COMM 1 NAV 1
AIRSPEED OFF ON TEST
 KNOTS



 
118.10 115.
  

 
 


   VOL VOL

X
TST P
ALT R

  
ON

 5
32
SBY
OFF
REPLY



DIM
IDENT
CLIMB
UP 0

 


DOWN
   


  ADF 352
090
270

 
" #$

180

Figure 6-1 A correctly tuned ADF indicates the direction of a selected NDB from the aircraft.

The NDB–ADF system is used for the following purposes:

■ orientation (where am I?);
■ en route navigation (tracking from point to point);
■ holding over specified points; and
■ instrument approaches.
In this chapter, we are concerned solely with the ways in which the NDB–ADF sys-
tem may be used to assist the visual pilot for orientation and tracking.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE 173

174 Navigation

Non-Directional Beacon (NDB)

Non-directional beacons are simple ground-based transmitters that radiate an omni-
directional (all directions) signal. This basic signal is called the carrier and is radiated at the
frequency specified for the particular aid. Nearly all NDBs in Australia operate on fre-
quencies between 200 kHz and 400 kHz, which is in the upper part of the low-fre-
quency (LF) band and the lower part of the medium-frequency (MF) band. Most NDBs
are primarily short-distance navigation aids, useful for distances less than 200 nm,
although some NDBs operate on higher power to extend their range. A few NDBs
operate at higher frequencies (e.g. 1,655 kHz) to reduce reflection of the radio waves by
mountains and thereby provide a more useful signal in that area.

Figure 6-2 Two types of NDB transmission antennas.

Each NDB station transmits on a specific frequency, which is listed in the En Route
Supplement Australia (ERSA) and printed on various aeronautical charts. The carrier
wave has superimposed upon it an aural identification signal (ident), consisting of two
or three letters in Morse code. This allows the pilot to confirm that the correct NDB
has been tuned on the ADF. Some NDBs also have an additional voice modulation capa-
bility to enable the broadcast of recorded aerodrome information (which is the auto-
matic terminal information service, or ATIS) and, in some cases, a limited voice
communications facility for use in emergencies.

Power and Range of NDBs

The transmitter power of most NDBs is between 100 W and 3,000 W (i.e. 3 kW), with
the majority in the range of 100–500 W. Transistorised NDBs are a special case, how-
ever, with a transmission power usually in the region of only 15 W. The maximum range
at which aircraft can receive usable signals from an NDB varies between 25 nm and over
400 nm, depending primarily upon the transmitter power provided. It is generally the
case that the greater the transmitter power, the greater the range.
However, several other factors may tend to reduce the range (more correctly called
the rated coverage) of an NDB from that which is theoretically possible when only trans-
mission power is considered. These factors will be discussed later in this chapter.
The most powerful NDBs, and hence those with the greatest range, are sited to pro-
vide navigational assistance for long-range over-water flights, such as at Perth (to aid air-
craft inbound and outbound over the Indian Ocean) and at Darwin (for flights tracking
to and from South-East Asia). Some low-powered NDBs, with transmitter powers of less
than 100 W, are referred to as locator beacons or locators. These have a very short range
(about 25–30 nm) and are normally associated with instrument approaches. There is no
fundamental difference between an NDB and a locator apart from the rated coverage.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

6: NDB and ADF 175

NDB Reliability
Most NDBs are installed in pairs, with a main and standby in case of failure, and are
extremely reliable aids. Some of the transmitting parameters are automatically moni-
tored, and if they are outside tolerance, the NDB will turn itself off and the standby will
be activated. If the same fault or another exists in the standby, it also will close down,
and the complete installation is then deactivated and unusable. The pilot has no control
over this. Faults that are automatically monitored include the following:
■ excessive hum level;
■ reduction of carrier power; and
■ failure or reduction in ident level.

Civil Aviation Safety Authority personnel at nearby aerodromes monitor the NDBs
within range, but NDBs in remote areas should be monitored by pilots and any faults
reported by radio to allow early rectification.
Where to Find Details of an NDB
NDB frequencies, ident codes and geographical positions are found in the following
publications:
■ ERSA;
■ en route charts (ERC);
■ Visual Navigation Charts (VNC); and
■ Visual Terminal Charts (VTC).

ERSA Information
The information contained in ERSA is very detailed and includes the following:
■ the frequency and the ident code;
■ the rated coverage (usable range) for both day (HJ) and night (HN), and in some cases
the rated coverage over-water is also specified;
■ the hours of operation;
■ the latitude and longitude of the NDB and, in most cases, the magnetic bearing and
distance of the NDB to the aerodrome reference point (ARP) or an appropriate
runway threshold (RWY THR), such as 164/1.4; and
■ any other relevant remarks concerning the NDB (such as ‘pilot monitored’).

Figure 6-3 Detailed information for each NDB is presented in the ERSA.

For example, from the ERSA, we can extract the following information about the
Portland NDB:
■ its ident is POD;
■ its frequency is 212 kHz;
■ its position is S38°19.1 E141°28.3;
■ it is pilot monitored; and
■ its range is 45 nm, reduced to 35 nm in the sector from 300 clockwise to 330.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

176 Navigation

En Route Charts and Visual Navigation Charts

The positions of NDBs are plotted on ERCs and VNCs, along with callsigns, Morse
code idents and frequencies as shown in the example below for Portland. You will see
that this is the same information that was given in the ERSA entry – see figure 6-3.

Name and callsign Radio aid (NDB)

POD located at aerodrome

Navaid limitations – Frequency 212 kHz

see ERSA
Morse code ident
P
O
D
Lat and long coordinates
CTAF frequency 126.7 MHz

Figure 6-4 NDB details on an ERC-L.

Visual Terminal Charts

On a VTC, the locations of NDBs are indicated by reference to the aerodrome at which
they are sited. The callsigns and frequencies are also shown. Morse code is provided
along one side of the chart.

Aerodrome
Location of NDB

Frequency 203 kHz

Name and callsign
WGT

CTAF frequency 119.1 MHz

Figure 6-5 NDB details on a VTC.

Broadcasting Stations
Broadcasting stations operating in the range of 500–1,600 kHz may also be received on
an ADF. However, these need to be used with caution for the following reasons:
■ they can be difficult to identify since many stations are networked and take pro-
grammes from other (relay) stations;
■ if you are tempted to listen to them, you can be easily distracted from carrying out
important operational tasks, such as navigation and lookout;
■ they may be unreliable due to restricted transmission times and, in some cases, no
standby power supply; and
■ no information on range is published.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

6: NDB and ADF 177

The frequencies and locations of all AM broadcasting stations in Australia are listed in
ERSA.

Figure 6-6 Extract from ERSA showing broadcasting stations.

Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)

Components and Principle of Operation

The airborne associate of the ground-based NDB is the automatic direction finder, the
ADF. The basic purpose of the ADF is to indicate to the pilot the direction of the NDB
to which the ADF is tuned. The three main components of the ADF and their use are
described below.

Receiver
The receiver and associated control panel is used to tune the ADF to the frequency of
the NDB that you have selected to use. Tuning is done digitally in modern equipment.
Each NDB has its own identifying callsign which you must positively identify before
using the equipment.

Antenna
The modern ADF antenna system actually consists of two aerials: a loop aerial and a sense
aerial. The ADF receiver combines the signals from the these two aerials into a resultant sig-
nal. This signal drives the motor-driven needle on the ADF cockpit indicator so that it points
in the direction from which the signal from the selected NDB arrives at the aeroplane.
The ADF needle points directly towards the selected NDB ground station.
This is analogous to a magnetic compass needle, which points to the magnetic pole,
and explains why we sometimes refer to the ADF as the radio compass.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

178 Navigation

Cockpit Display
The ADF cockpit display consists of a compass, or azimuth, card placed vertically on the
instrument panel, with a pointer or needle that rotates through the full 360°, providing
the following indications:
■ if the needle points up, the NDB is ahead;
■ if the needle points down, the NDB is behind; and
■ if the needle points to one side, then the NDB is located somewhere to that side of
the fore-and-aft (longitudinal) axis of the aeroplane.

Combined loop N 3
and sense aerial
OFF ADF ANT BFO ADF 33

6
480

30

E
W

12
VOL

IR-1115.EPS
24
15
21 S HD
G

ADF antenna mounted ADF control panel

under fuselage ADF card and pointer

Figure 6-7 ADF components.

ADF Control Panel

There are various types of ADF, and thus different types of control panels will be found.
If you intend to use an ADF, you must be thoroughly familiar with the set you will use,
and you should therefore refer to the pilot’s operating handbook or flight manual.
Although there are different types of ADF control panels, the following features will
be found on most.

Mode Selector or Function Switch

The mode selector has various positions.

OFF
This position is used to switch the ADF off.

ADF
This is the normal position when the pilot wants bearing information displayed auto-
matically by the needle.

ANT (or REC or VOICE)

In this position, only a signal from the sense antenna is used, and no bearing information
is displayed by the ADF needle. The abbreviations are for antenna and receiver. This
function is provided to give better audio reception, allowing easier identification of the
station and better understanding of any voice messages.
Never leave the mode selector in this position if you wish to use the ADF for naviga-
tion: the ADF needle will simply remain stationary, with no obvious indication to alert
you that it is not responding!
Note. It is possible to identify most NDBs with the mode selector in the ADF posi-
tion (which is a safer position) and for the ANT position to be avoided.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

6: NDB and ADF 179

BFO (or CW)

This position, rarely required in Australia, must be selected to identify those few NDBs
that use unmodulated carrier waves, the transmission of which is interrupted to provide
the NDB’s Morse code identification. The abbreviations are for beat frequency oscillator
and continuous wave. Since no audio message is carried on an unmodulated carrier
wave, the BFO (which is part of the ADF receiver circuitry) imposes a tone onto the
carrier wave signal to make the ident audible to the pilot.
Note. Do not leave the mode selector switch in this position when the ADF is
being used for navigation.

TEST
Placing the mode selector into the TEST position will deflect the ADF needle to the left
or right of its current position. When the mode selector is switched back to ADF, the nee-
dle should positively swing back and point to the selected NDB again. The test function
should be used every time as part of the ‘selected identified ADFing’ tuning procedure.
Some ADF sets have a separate TEST button that only needs to be pressed to deflect the
needle and then released to check the return of the needle. You only have to deflect the
needle approximately 30° and watch the return for the test to be considered satisfactory.
Note. On some ADF equipment, the test function is achieved by momentarily
selecting the ANT/REC position, which drives the needle to the RB 090 position.
Returning the mode selector to ADF should see the needle start ADFing again.

Volume Control
A separate volume control knob is usually provided in addition to the mode selector.

Frequency Selection
Most modern ADFs have separate knobs for precise digital frequency selection, in steps
of 100, 10 and 1 kHz. Some older ADFs use a separate band selector (200–400, 400–
800, 800–1,600 kHz) in conjunction with a rotary tuning knob, often with a small sig-
nal strength meter, allowing the desired NDB to be accurately tuned.

ADF Operation
As we have stated, for the correct procedure to use the ADF, you should refer to the
pilot’s operating handbook, but as a general rule, the following procedure applies:
■ Switch on (that is, ensure electrical power available).
■ Select ADF and tune the frequency of the NDB.
■ Identify the signal from the NDB. The best approach is to have in your mind the
Morse code symbols you expect to hear, and then listen carefully to the ident to verify
that you have the correct NDB.
■ Check the ADF operation by changing the direction of the needle with the test
button and then seeing if the needle returns, under its own power, to point to about
where you expect the NDB to be; that is, check that it is ADFing.
Say for example that you have selected Gayndah NDB. It is then a good idea to
recheck your selection by saying to yourself, ‘Gayndah NDB – selected, identified,
ADFing’.
Note. Never trust a signal that has not been accurately identified. Never trust a sig-
nal with a beat note or warble since this may indicate interference from a distant
station on the same or a neighbouring frequency.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

180 Navigation

Different Types of ADF Indicator

To convey information to the pilot, ADF NDB
indicators use three different presentations:
■ the fixed-card ADF, or relative bearing
indicator (RBI);
■ the manually rotatable card; and
■ the radio magnetic indicator (RMI).
Relative

g
Aircraft
bearing

L
headin

RE
Although rotatable-card ADF displays

0°
and RMIs are becoming increasingly com-

03
090

000
mon in light aeroplanes, you will still find

180
headin c
g
ti
270

280°M
that the single fixed-card indicator is the

Magne

MH
280
most usual installation.
15-09.EPS

Fixed-Card ADF or Relative Figure 6-8

Bearing Indicator A fixed-card ADF is a relative bearing indicator (RBI).
A fixed-card display consists of an ADF nee-
dle that can rotate against a fixed azimuth
card. As with the directional-gyro display, the azimuth card is graduated into 360° around its
circumference, with 000 (360) at the top and 180 at the bottom of the scale. On the fixed-
card display, the ADF needle indicates the relative bearing of the NDB ground station from
the aeroplane, and for this reason, it is often called the relative bearing indicator (RBI). On the
fixed-card ADF, the needle indicates the relative bearing (RB) of the NDB from the aeroplane.
HDG HDG

RB 210°
or
000 000 +30° off the tail
270

270
090

090

RB 150° 180
L

180
RE

21

or
150°
0°
0°

–30° off the tail

15

L
RE
0°
+3 21
–30° 0°

NDB

HDG
HDG
0°
–5 he
055° f f t
REL o se RB 310°
no or
RB 055° –50° off the nose
0°

or
31

+55° off the nose 05 000

5°
270

090

000 180
090
270

EL

180
R
0°
31

IR-1124.EPS

Figure 6-9 The RBI shows relative bearings.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

6: NDB and ADF 181

The relative bearing of the NDB from the aircraft is the angle between the aircraft’s
heading and the direction of the NDB. Relative bearings are usually described clock-
wise from 000 to 360; however, it is sometimes convenient to describe the bearing of
the NDB relative to the nose or tail of the aeroplane.
Each time the aeroplane changes its magnetic heading, it will carry the fixed card with
it. Therefore: With each change of magnetic heading, the ADF needle will indicate a different
relative bearing (RB).

NDB
RB
240
0
27 00
09 0
0
18
0

RB
270

180
180

000
090

RB
27

160
0

0
18

00
0
09

0
IR-1125.EPS

Figure 6-10 Each time the heading changes, the relative bearing also changes.

It is not the needle that moves, but rather the fixed-card; the needle continues to
point at the station. The principle is easily understood if you stand, point at an object,
and then turn and face another direction while continuing to point at the object. Your
arm indicates the same direction to the object, but it makes a different angle with your
body because you have changed your heading. The relative bearing of the object has
changed because your heading has changed.

Orientation Using the RBI (Fixed-Card ADF)

Up to this stage of your studies, you will MH
have noticed that we have used the expres- 325
sion HDG 120°M, for example, to mean a
magnetic heading of 120°. To streamline
our presentation, and make it easier for you 160 9 0 1
AIRSPEED
40
KNOTS

to follow, we will use the following abbre- 140

8 2
60
1015
1020
1025

7 3
viations when describing how to use the 120
6 5 4
100
80

NDB–ADF system: 30 33 N 1 2
■ MH for magnetic heading; 4
21 24 W

·5 CLIMB
3 6 E

UP
0 6
■ RB for relative bearing; L R ·5
DOWN
4
12 15 S 1 2
■ RB(XXX) for relative bearing from a
particular NDB; 15-12.EPS

■ MB TO for magnetic bearing to the NDB Figure 6-11 Periodically realign the DG
from the aeroplane, obtained by either with the magnetic compass.
MH + RB or read directly from a manu-
ally rotatable card ADF or RMI; and
■ MB FROM for magnetic bearing from the NDB to the aeroplane.

The position of the aeroplane relative to an NDB, its orientation, can be found pro-
vided we know:
■ the heading (usually magnetic); and
■ the relative bearing of the NDB read off the RBI.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

182 Navigation

You should remember that we normally Magnetic

North
fly magnetic headings using the directional
gyro (DG) as the reference instrument. The MB 130 FROM
DG must be realigned with the magnetic
compass throughout the flight at regular NDB

intervals. All our illustrations will show a

schematic RBI (or fixed-card or RMI as
appropriate) and, in most cases, the com-

REL°
030

03 B
panion DG.

0
R
090

000

RBI
180
In figure 6-12, we are steering a magnetic

MH
280
270

heading of 280° (MH 280), and obtain a N

MH
280
relative bearing from an NDB of 030° (RB

DI
W
S
MB 310 TO
030). This is all the information we need to
be able to orient ourselves in relation to the
NDB. 15-13.EPS

We can see that if we add the relative Figure 6-12 Orientation (Where am I?) using the RBI.
bearing (RB 030) to our heading (MH
280), we derive the magnetic bearing to the
NDB from our present position. By taking
the reciprocal of this bearing, we can find the bearing from the NDB. We now have our
orientation to the NDB and can say that we are somewhere along this bearing. How-
ever, we do not know how far we are from the NDB.
Aeroplane + Relative bearing = Magnetic bearing ± 180 = Magnetic bearing
magnetic of NDB from to NDB from of aeroplane
heading aeroplane aeroplane from NDB
MH 280 + RB 030 = MB 310 TO – 180 = MB 130 FROM

Magnetic
north

If the MB exceeds 360° (for example,

MH 280 + RB 270 = MB 550), then you
must first deduct 360 to give you the cor-
rect MB (that is, 550 – 360 = MB 190 TO). 090
000

180

Note. If you find it difficult to find the RB 270

270

reciprocal of a bearing by adding or sub- N

MH
280

E
W

S
tracting 180, an alternative method you MB 190 TO
can use is either of the following:
■ add 200 then subtract 20; or
■ subtract 200 then add 20.
NDB 15-14.EPS

Figure 6-13 MH 280 + RB 270 = MB 550 (190) TO.

Example 6-1
MB 310 TO MB 250 TO MB 085 TO
– 200 – 200 + 200
110 050 285
+ 20 + 20 – 20
MB 130 FROM MB 070 FROM MB 265 FROM

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

6: NDB and ADF 183

Magnetic Bearing (MB) and

How to Visualise It
A quick method of determining a mag-
netic bearing (MB TO) using an RBI and MB 130 FROM
a DG is to picture the ADF needle’s posi-
NDB
tion on the face of the DG. You can do
this by mentally transposing (paralleling)

RB 030°
the ADF needle across to the face of the
DG. To begin with, you may find it help-
ful to use a pencil, where the point of the

0
090

03
pencil indicates the MB TO the NDB.

000

180
0
31
The MB FROM the NDB is, of 270

280 310
course, the reciprocal of the MB TO, and N

MH

E
W
it can easily be seen as the tail of the pencil S

or needle. 15-15.EPS

Figure 6-14 A pictorial method of visualising MB.

Manual Rotatable-Card ADF

The rotatable card is an advance on the
fixed card and is quite common in general N 3
aviation aircraft. It allows the pilot to 33

6
rotate the card so that the ADF needle
indicates not relative bearing but mag-
30

E
netic bearing to the NDB. This is done by
aligning the ADF card with the DG.
W

12
To manually align a rotatable ADF card,
do the following:
24

15
■ note magnetic heading on the DG S
21

IR-1302.EPS
(348°); then HD
G
■ rotate the ADF card, setting magnetic
heading (348°) under the index at the
top of the indicator. Figure 6-15 A rotatable-card ADF.

When the ADF card is aligned with the

DG, the ADF needle will indicate the
magnetic bearing to (MB TO) the NDB NDB

(352°). This eliminates any need for men-

tal arithmetic.
M
Note. The tail of the needle indicates B
31
0 Manual knob
the magnetic bearing of the aircraft to
ND
from (MB FROM) the NDB (172°). B
0

Any time you alter heading, MN

31

000
280

090

you must realign the ADF card 180

Set 280
0

with the DG.

13
MH
280

N
W
E

The rotatable-card can still be used as a 15-17.EPS

fixed-card simply by leaving 000 set under Figure 6-16 Using a rotatable-card ADF.
the index.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

184 Navigation

Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI)

The RMI display has the ADF needle superimposed on a card that is continuously and
automatically being aligned with magnetic north. It is, if you like, an automatic version
of the rotatable-card ADF – an automatic combination of the DG and RBI. As such, the
RMI is the best ADF presentation and the easiest to use. It is also the most expensive
and usually only encountered in more advanced general-aviation aircraft.

12
0°M 0°
24 NDB M

MN
30
°M 0°
60
06

N 0 M
0
W
E

0
0

270°M
S

HDG

30
24

W
E
M
0°

12
S
21 DG

0
H
IR-1129.EPS

Figure 6-17 The RMI compass card remains aligned with magnetic north.

The RMI needle will always indicate the magnetic bearing to the NDB, and the tail
of the RMI needle will indicate the magnetic bearing from the NDB.
As an aircraft turns and its magnetic heading alters, the RMI card will appear to turn
along with the ADF needle. In reality, of course, it is the compass card and the RMI
needle that remain stationary while the aircraft turns about them. The RMI’s needle will
continue to point directly at the NDB and to indicate the current MB TO the station.

Gyro-Stabilised Compass Equipment

In most aircraft fitted with an RMI, the magnetic north reference for the RMI card is
provided by a fluxgate or flux valve, a detector that is sensitive to magnetic north and
situated in a non-magnetic part of the aircraft, such as a wingtip. A directional gyroscope
is electrically slaved to this magnetic reference so that the gyroscope is continually being
aligned with magnetic north. It is this directional gyroscope that drives the RMI com-
pass card in a process known as slaving.

Torque motor
Compass slaving
amplifier
+ –
+ –
3 6
N
30 33

Flux Synchro
12 15

400 Hz valve receiver

W

V V
O S O
R 21 24 R
Null-seeking
rotor ADF ADF

Detector unit remote Horizontal gyro 15-19.EPS

Figure 6-18 The RMI compass card is driven by a flux valve and directional gyro.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

6: NDB and ADF 185

Most gyro-stabilised compasses have a slaving annunciator near the compass card. This
contains a small needle, often triangular in shape, that oscillates when automatic slaving
is in process (which should be all the time). When the annunciator needle is hard over
to one side, it indicates that the compass card is out of alignment; this can usually be
remedied quickly by using a manual slaving knob to realign the compass card with the
current magnetic heading of the aircraft. After this, the slower, automatic slaving is suf-
ficient to maintain alignment.
If slaving is not occurring because of a fault in the system (indicated by the annunci-
ator being stationary and not oscillating), then you can revert to using the RMI as a
manual rotatable-card ADF (‘poor man’s RMI’) or as a fixed-card ADF (relative bearing
indicator).

ADF Indicators with Two Needles

Some aircraft are fitted with two ADF
receivers, and may have two needles super- N 3
imposed on the one indicator (which may 33

6
be a fixed- or rotatable-card twin-ADF
indicator, or a dual-pointer RMI).

30

E
Most RMIs have function switches that
allow a pilot to select the RMI needle to
W

12
point at either an NDB or a VOR ground
station. This gives the pilot more flexibility
in using radio navigation aids. 24 15
21 S
Note. This switching facility is also a
potential trap for the careless pilot. Prior IR-1131.EPS
to using the RMI, a positive check
Figure 6-19 An RMI with two needles.
should be made that the applicable needle
is selected to ADF and not VOR.

NDB

MH
010
MH
020
020 N
ADF 1 AD
W1
W
E

0001 F
E

S
270

1 S2
090

VOR

2 0 VOR
18
Dual-needle
F

Fixed-card 2
AD

ADF 2 radio magnetic

twin-ADF
indicator (RMI)

NDB VOR IR-1132.EPS

Figure 6-20 An indicator with two needles.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

186 Navigation

Using the ADF to Obtain Position Lines from an NDB

The ADF can be used to assist you in your visual navigation, as well as being the sole means
of navigating, such as when flying over water or if you happen to be flying over a layer of
cloud and are unable to see enough of the ground to ensure accurate map reading.
In this section, we will consider how we can use the ADF to do the following:
■ obtain a position line, and how to use that information;
■ track to an NDB;
■ determine that you have passed directly over an NDB;
■ track away from an NDB;
■ intercept a planned track; and
■ assess your position abeam an NDB.

Using the ADF to Obtain Bearings from an NDB

A bearing obtained from a radio navigation aid, like one determined in any other man-
ner, provides a means of establishing a position line. There are two perspectives from
which we can determine the relative positions of an aircraft and a radio beacon:
■ from the aircraft, as a pilot in flight would, which is the bearing of the NDB (the
ground-based non-directional beacon) from the aircraft; and
■ from the ground station, which is the bearing of the aircraft from the NDB and may
be necessary if you want to plot the position of the aircraft on a chart.

Using the RBI (Fixed-Card ADF)

We will now consider a few examples that show how the RBI (i.e. fixed-card ADF) may
be used to establish bearings and position lines.
Example 6-2
An aeroplane is maintaining a heading of 015°M (MH 015), with the ADF tuned to an
NDB and giving a relative bearing of 075° (RB 075). Determine the magnetic bearings
(MB) to and from the NDB. While it is quite easy to solve this sort of problem mentally,
we recommend that, at this early stage, it is advisable to proceed step by step with the
aid of a small sketch. This is particularly important in an exam situation.
■ Sketch the aeroplane on MH 015.
■ Draw in RB 075.
■ Draw in the position line joining the aeroplane to the NDB.
■ Determine MB TO and MB FROM.

MH 015 + RB 075 = MB 090 TO + 180 = MB 270 FROM

MN

M
MH B
09

015
0

R
B
07
5
MH
015
MH + RB = MB
000
075
270

RB

NDB
090

180 Position line

MB 270 from NDB MB 090 to NDB 15-22.EPS

Figure 6-21 Magnetic heading MH 015, relative bearing RB 075.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

6: NDB and ADF 187

Example 6-3
You are steering MH 120 and have an ADF MB
0 50
reading of RB 290. Determine the MB TO NDB
and MB FROM the ADF. As in example 6-
2, follow through the steps in sequence: to
0 50
■ Sketch the aeroplane on MH 120. MB

12
rom

MH
0
■ Draw in RB 290. 27 3 0f

2900
0
B2

0
18
■ Draw in the position line joining the M

00
0
09
aeroplane to the NDB.
■ Determine MB TO and MB FROM.
15-23.EPS

MH 120 + RB 290 = MB 410 Figure 6-22

–360 Magnetic heading MH 120, relative bearing RB 290.

= MB 050 TO
MB 050 TO + 180 = 230 FROM
After doing this example, see below for a quicker method of determining the mag-
netic bearings (MB).

An Easier Method of Determining Magnetic Bearing

Relative bearings are normally specified using the 360° method (clockwise from the nose
of the aircraft). They can also be thought of as either left or right of the nose (or the tail).
For instance, a relative bearing of 290 may be thought of as –70, since the corresponding
MB TO the NDB will be 70° less than the current magnetic heading. Similarly, RB 030
may be thought of as +30, since the corresponding MB TO the NDB will be 30° greater
than the magnetic heading. We can illustrate this using the previous two examples:
In example 6-2, we would have:
MH 015 + 75° off the nose = MB 090 TO

In example 6-3, we would have:

MH 120 – 70° off the nose = MB 050 TO

Relative bearings off the tail of the aircraft may be treated in a similar shorthand fash-
ion to simplify determination of the MB FROM an NDB. For instance, RB 160 may
be thought of as –20° off the tail, and RB 210 as +30° off the tail. This quadrantal
approach to relative bearing and MB problems can simplify your in-flight visualisation.

MH
+30
0
–7
000 03
0

– + – +
290

270 090
+ – + –
21
0 160
180
+30
–20 IR-1206.EPS

Figure 6-23 Quadrants for converting RBs to MBs.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

188 Navigation

Example 6-4
NDB
An aircraft is steering MH 340. The ADF needle shows RB
010. Determine the MB TO the NDB.

MH 0
34 +10 MH 340
+10 off the nose (RB 010)
010
MB 350 to NDB

IR-1207.EPS

Figure 6-24 MH 340 + 10

off the nose = MB 350 TO.

Example 6-5
NDB
An aircraft is steering MH 358. The ADF needle shows RB
352. Determine the MB TO the NDB.
MH
358
–8 MH 358
– 8 off the nose (RB 352)
350
MB 350 to NDB

Notice that, by coincidence, this aircraft has the same mag-

netic bearing to the NDB as the aircraft in the previous exam-
IR-1208.EPS
ple, MB 350 to the NDB. In fact, it may even be the same
Figure 6-25 MH 358 – 8 off aircraft, and it has simply altered heading by turning right from
the nose = MB 350 TO.
MH 340 to MH 358.

Example 6-6
An aircraft is steering MH 340. The ADF needle shows RB
MH 0 190. Determine the MB FROM the NDB to the aircraft.
34 +10

010
MH 340
+10 off the tail (RB 190)
MB 350 from NDB
+10

IR-1209.EPS
NDB

Figure 6-26 MH 340 + 10

off the tail = MB 350 FROM.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

6: NDB and ADF 189

Example 6-7
MH
An aircraft is steering MH 010. The ADF needle shows RB 010
–20
160. Determine the MB FROM the NDB.

MH 010
– 20 off the tail (RB 160)
MB 350 from NDB
–20

Once again, you will notice that, by coincidence, this air-

craft has the same magnetic bearing from the NDB as the one
above, i.e. MB 350 from the NDB. In fact, it may even be the NDB
IR-1210.EPS

same aircraft, and it has simply altered heading by turning right Figure 6-27 MH 010 – 20
from MH 340 to MH 010. off the tail = MB 350 FROM.

Using this method, you must remember that off the nose gives
magnetic bearings TO the NDB, off the tail gives bearings FROM the NDB.

Using the Rotatable-Card ADF or the RMI

If your aeroplane is fitted with either a manually rotatable ADF indicator or an RMI,
the task of determining magnetic bearings is simplicity itself. Apart from ensuring cor-
rect synchronisation with the magnetic compass and correct tuning and identification of
the NDB, all you have to do is read off the magnetic bearing directly. The magnetic
bearing to an NDB station is read from the head of the needle, and the magnetic bearing
from the NDB is read from the tail.
In figure 6-28, we see an aeroplane steering MH 320 with the needle pointing to MB
050 TO and the tail at MB 230 FROM.
MN
NDB

MH 0
32
05
0

N
W
E

S
0
23

15-29.EPS

Figure 6-28 Orientation with an RMI is straightforward.

Plotting the ADF–NDB Position Line

Although you may think that it will be difficult to physically draw (plot) a position line on
a chart while you are flying the aeroplane single-handed, it is nonetheless an examination
requirement to know how to do it. It is, in fact, not as difficult as it sounds, but does
require some care and attention.
The bearing of the aircraft from an NDB station, obtained from ADF/RMI indica-
tions, may be plotted on a suitable chart, such as a WAC or ERC-L, to give a radio posi-
tion line. The aircraft will then be located somewhere along this line.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

190 Navigation

Radio waves follow great-circle paths TN

MN
when they travel over the earth’s surface. As
you will recall from chapter 3, a great circle is
represented by a straight line on any chart
based on the Lambert conformal conic pro- Variation
6°W

TB
M
jection, such as WAC or ERC. Conse- (not to scale)

144
B1
quently, whenever a radio bearing (obtained

50
NDB
from any type of radio-navigation aid) is plot-
ted on these charts, it will also be a straight
line.
Remember, however, that bearings Position line
obtained from an ADF or an RMI are mag- Meridian
of longitude
netic bearings. Before they can be plotted on
a chart, therefore, they must be converted
RB 0
into true bearings by correcting for the mag- 05
090
netic variation that applies in the vicinity of

000

180
the aircraft. 270

Strictly speaking, when converting a Angles not

MH
280
N
to scale

W
E
magnetic bearing obtained from the ADF S

to the corresponding true bearing, it is the 15-30.EPS

magnetic variation at the aircraft’s position Figure 6-29 Plotting a position line from an NDB.
which is applied, and not the variation at
the NDB station itself. This is because, with
the NDB–ADF system, the bearing measurement actually occurs at the aircraft and not
at the ground station. As we shall see in the next chapter, the opposite case applies when
bearings obtained from VOR indications are to be plotted.
However, since it is unlikely that you will be taking bearings on an NDB that is more
than 100 nm away at a maximum, this precaution is relatively unimportant. It is appli-
cable only when plotting bearings at long range, and when this happens there are other
complications which come into play.
When plotting ADF bearings on a chart, the following steps should be followed:
■ Determine the magnetic bearing from the NDB (from ADF or RMI indications,
using the methods discussed previously).
■ From a suitable chart, determine the magnetic variation in the vicinity of the aircraft.
■ Using the magnetic variation, convert the magnetic bearing to the corresponding
true bearing from the NDB.
■ By aligning a plotter or protractor parallel with the north–south meridian at the station
concerned, plot the resulting position line radiating from the NDB.

Example 6-8
You are steering MH 280 and obtain an ADF reading of RB 050. The variation in your
area is 6°W. Determine the true bearing (TB) to plot from the NDB station.

MH 280 + RB 050 = MB 330 TO

– 180
= MB 150 FROM
– 6 W variation
Plot TB 144 FROM

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

6: NDB and ADF 191

Tracking Procedures Using the ADF

Tracking Towards an NDB Using the RBI

When flying towards an NDB, the ADF needle will point ahead of the aircraft (approxi-
mately RB 000), and when flying away from an NDB, the ADF needle will point behind
the aircraft (approximately RB 180). As an aircraft approaches an NDB ground station, the
ADF needle will become more and more sensitive. On passing overhead, the needle will
swing from pointing ahead to pointing behind (in fact, it may oscillate wildly during station
passage, completing several circuits of the indicator card in random directions). In discussing
ADF tracking procedures, we will consider that you are the pilot of an aircraft fitted with a
single fixed-card ADF. Your planned track is from Paraburdoo to Newman (NWN), West-
ern Australia. We will examine the use of the RBI under various wind conditions.
With No Crosswind Effect
The planned track is 096°M, and if there is no crosswind to blow the aircraft off track,
we can set the heading as track, and the aircraft should fly directly to NWN. The ADF
needle should point straight ahead and not deviate.
096
MH

096
MH
270
180

000
000

090 096
Magnetic be 270
aring (MB)
to N
180

000
DB
000

090 NWN

NDB
15-31.EPS

Figure 6-30 Tracking inbound with no crosswind effect.

As shown in figure 6-30, the aircraft maintains flight directly along the track towards
the NWN NDB. There is no crosswind to blow the aircraft off track. (This is not to say
that there is no wind at all. There may be a headwind or tailwind, which would affect
the groundspeed but not the tracking as there would be no drift.)
In a Crosswind
With No Correction for Drift
In figure 6-31, we are steering track as heading, and obviously the aircraft has been
blown south of track 096, and to return to track the aircraft must turn left.
Time 0715
MH 096 Time 0725
RB 000 MH 096
MB 096 RB 357 (i.e. –3)
MB 093
096
MH

270
180

000
000

MB 096
096
MH

090

270
NDB
357
180

000

090 MB 093

IR-1224.EPS

Figure 6-31 Crosswind has caused track error.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

192 Navigation

If you turn to put the NDB on the nose (RB 000), then after a while you would again
be blown to the right, and a further turn left would be required. In this way, your
approach to the NDB would be curved and a longer distance than the direct track. This
is known as homing (keeping the NDB on the nose) and is a procedure that should not
be used.
The correct procedure is to turn left to regain the 096°M track and, when on track
again, turn right to maintain it. Now alter heading to the left to allow for right drift,
the correct amount of drift being found by trial and error or by calculation.

Homing Tracking
W/V W/V

NDB NDB

15-33.EPS

Figure 6-32 The difference between homing and tracking.

It is more than likely that the wind effect will change as you track towards an NDB,
and regular adjustments to heading will therefore be required. With practice, you will
find it quite easy to assess the drift and the consequent wind correction angle (WCA)
to be applied so as to remain more or less on your intended track into the NDB.

With Correct Drift Correction Applied

Suppose that to maintain track 096 you calculate that 5° right drift will occur and there-
fore you will need to steer MH 091 (096 – 5) to allow for this. If this is indeed the case,
you would expect to see the relative bearing of the NDB from the aircraft (RB 005)
remain unchanged as you tracked in on track 096 steering MH 091. See figure 6-33.
MH
091

W/V
270
MH
091
000
005
180

090
5° W/V
096 MB 270
000
005
180

090
5°
276
NDB
Time 0715
MH 091 Time 0725
RB 005 MH 091
15-34.EPS MB 096 RB 005
MB 096

Figure 6-33 Tracking with correct drift applied.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

6: NDB and ADF 193

With Incorrect Drift Correction Applied

If an incorrect drift correction is made, then you will drift off the planned track; that is,
the RB indication and the MB TO the NDB will change. If a steady heading is being
flown, then any divergence from track will become obvious through a gradually chang-
ing relative bearing, with the ADF needle moving left or right down the dial.
Suppose, for instance, you fly a heading with a 5° WCA to the left to counteract the
effects of a wind from the left. If the wind effect turns out to be less than expected, then
you will gradually move to the left of the inbound track to the NDB, and the RB will
gradually increase (naturally, the MB TO the NDB will also increase). See figure 6-34.

Time 0715
MH 091 Time 0725
RB 005 MH 091
MB 096 RB 008
W/V MB 099 (MB = MH + RB)

Constant
heading
MH
091

MH
091
Drift allowance
RB 005

270
000
180

270 RB 008 &

RB 0
000
180
090
090 increasing

08
096 TO 099 T
O

IR-1227.EPS NDB

Figure 6-34 An incorrect WCA causes RB to change.

You can tell from this information that you have diverged to the left of your intended
track, that is, there is a track error. The head of the ADF needle falling away to the right
indicates that a turn right must be made to track to the NDB.
Note. Remember your terminology. Drift is the angle between heading and the
track. The perfect WCA will counteract any drift exactly, and the track made good
will follow the intended or planned track.
HD
G

Drift
TMG
de good
HD

Track ma
G

Drift (T G)
M

Desired trac
k NDB

15-36.EPS

Figure 6-35 Drift is the angle between heading and TMG.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

194 Navigation

How to Regain and Then Maintain Track

There are two options open to you:
■ You could turn to the right and track directly to the NDB from the present position
at 0725 UTC, which would be a track of 099°M. The heading may be different to
this to allow for any wind effect, and this you can calculate or find by trial and error.
The initial 5° WCA was too much, so you could decide to try say 3° and steer MH
096 and then see what happens. If there was only a short distance to run to the station,
this would be a sensible method.

Turn slightly

MH
091
right
MH

RB in
091

096
MH
TMG

008
ting dica
005
RB

099 T

003
RB
O
096 TO NDB
15-37.EPS

Figure 6-36 Flying a new track to the NDB.

■ If there was a long distance to run (say 20 nm), you might decide to turn right and
take up track as heading, letting the wind drift you back onto track. Having regained
the original planned track of 096°M and once back on it, steer MH 093, which
would allow for 3° of right drift.

Needle falling right. Needle falling left.

Turn right. Turn left.
Turn right to
096
MH

regain track
MH

Turn slightly left

091

to maintain track
096
MH

MH
MH

MH
093

093
09

NDB
1

RB 003 MB 096
096 TO MB
RB increasing 008 096
RB 001
RB 005 MB now 099 RB 003
RB steady
15-38.EPS MB now 097 on 003

Figure 6-37 Regain and maintain the planned track.

Head of needle falling right, turn right;

head of needle falling left, turn left.

Attempting to maintain the planned track (that is, to remain on a constant MB TO

the NDB) is the normal navigational technique when some distance from the NDB. If,
when steering a steady magnetic heading, the ADF needle indicates a constant relative
bearing near the top of the dial, then you are tracking directly to the NDB and no cor-
rection to heading is necessary.

If MH + RB = constant MB, tracking is good.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

6: NDB and ADF 195

Just how big a correction you need to make depends upon how far you have strayed
off your intended track. A simple method is to double the error. If the aircraft has devi-
ated 10° left indicated by the RBI moving 10° right, then alter heading by 20° to the
right. (If you alter heading by only 10° to the right, the result will probably be a further
deviation to the left and a further correction to the right, with this being repeated again
and again resulting in a curved homing to the NDB.)

MH
040
NDB
RB
–10(350)

WCA

MH
050
now 10°
RB
–20(340)

MH
050
RB Turn left 10°
–10(350)
to maintain track
M

Turn right 20°

H
03

to regain track
0

RB
010
M
H
03
0

RB
000(360)

Original WCA 0°
15-39.EPS

Figure 6-38 Regaining track by ‘doubling the error’, and maintaining track thereafter.

Having regained track, turn left by only half the correcting turn of 20°, that is, turn
left 10° to intercept and maintain track. This leaves you with a WCA different to the
original one (remembering that the original WCA resulted in straying off track in the
first place).
The new WCA should provide reasonable tracking. If not, make further minor cor-
rections to heading!

What To Do if Uncertain of Wind Effect

If the wind direction and strength is not obvious, then the best technique is to initially
steer track as heading, making no allowance for drift. The effect of the wind will become
obvious as the ADF needle moves to the left or right. Observe the results, and then make
appropriate heading adjustments to maintain track.
MH
090

MH
090

270
090°
000(360)
000
180

NDB
090
270
–005(355)
000
180

090

IR-1233.EPS

Figure 6-39 If uncertain of wind, initially steer track as heading.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

196 Navigation

Tracking Over an NDB Using the RBI

The ADF needle will become more and more sensitive as the NDB station is approached.
Minor displacements left or right will cause larger and larger changes in RB and MB. For
a very precise overhead to be achieved, you must be prepared to increase your scan rate
as the NDB is approached and to make smaller corrections more frequently.

NDB

Small angular changes

IR-1234.EPS
Large
in the ADF needle
changes
at this distance from NDB
at this range

Figure 6-40 Approaching the NDB, the ADF needle becomes more sensitive.

Close to the station and just prior to passing over the NDB, however, the ADF needle
can become very sensitive and agitated. You should, at this point, relax a little and steer
a steady heading until the aeroplane passes over the NDB indicated by the ADF needle
moving toward the bottom of the dial.
Having passed over the NDB, tracking from the NDB should be checked and suitable
adjustments made to heading. If the track outbound is different from that inbound, then
a suitable heading change to allow for drift on the new track could be made as soon as
the ADF needle falls past the 090 or 270 position on its way to the bottom of the dial.

Overhead
NDB

Tracking from
Tracking to the NDB
the NDB Steer a steady heading while
ADF needle is over-sensitive
IR-1235.EPS

Figure 6-41 Passing overhead the NDB.

When the ADF needle becomes extremely active and then falls rapidly to the bottom
of the dial, it indicates that you have passed directly over the NDB. The rotation of the
needle from pointing to the top of the dial to the bottom when passing over an NDB
is know as station passage.
If the ADF needle moves gradually to one side and slowly falls to the bottom of the
dial, then this indicates that you are passing to one side of the beacon. The rate at which
the needle falls indicates your proximity to the NDB. If it falls very slowly, then possibly
the tracking could have been better.
Time when over (or abeam) the NDB with no WCA can be taken as the needle falls
through the approximate 090 or 270 position. With a WCA of, say, 10° right, the time
when over (or abeam) can be taken as the needle falls through the approximate 080 (i.e.
090 – WCA 10) or 260 (i.e. 270 – WCA 10) position.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

6: NDB and ADF 197

NDB

Over the station: Well abeam station:

ADF needle ADF needle falls
often rotates very slowly
then falls rapidly aft

IR-1236.EPS

Figure 6-42 Good ADF tracking (left), reasonable tracking (centre) and poor tracking (right).

Tracking Away from an NDB Using the RBI

When tracking away from an NDB, the head of the ADF needle will lie toward the bot-
tom of the dial.

With No Crosswind Effect

If you track over the NDB and then steer track as heading, you will track directly away
from the NDB with the head of the ADF needle steady on 180, and the tail of the ADF
needle steady at the top of the dial on 000. The aeroplane illustrated in figure 6-43 has
MB 040 from the NDB, and MB 220 to the NDB.
M
H
04
0

00
0(
36
0)

0°
M
M

04
H
04
0

00
0(
36
0)
M
H
04
0

00

Nil
0(
36

wind
0)

15-44.EPS

NDB

Figure 6-43 Tracking away from an NDB with no crosswind effect.

In a Crosswind
With Correct Drift Correction Applied.
Suppose that the intended track outbound from an NDB is 040°M, and you estimate that
a WCA of 5° to the right is necessary to counteract a wind from the right. To achieve this,
you would steer MH 045, and hope to see the tail of the ADF needle stay on –5° off the
nose (i.e. RB 355). The magnetic track away from the station is found as follows:

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

198 Navigation

MB FROM NDB = MH ± deflection of the tail of the needle.

In this case, MH 045 – 005 tail = MB 040 from NDB, and the chosen WCA and
magnetic heading to steer are correct.
OM

MH
FR

04
40

5
0

RB05(35
–0
I 5)
OM
FR

MH
04
0 40

RB05(35
–0
I 5)
OM
FR
MH

0 W/V
04

04
5

RB05(35
–0
I 5)

NDB IR-1238.EPS

Figure 6-44 Tracking away from an NDB with a WCA of 5° into wind.

With Incorrect Drift Correction Applied

If the estimated WCA is incorrect, then the actual track made good will differ from that
intended. If, in the previous case, the wind is stronger than expected, the track made
good may be 033°M, which is to the left of the planned track of 040°M.
Whereas inaccurate tracking to an NDB is indicated by the ADF needle falling, incor-
rect tracking away from an NDB can occur with the ADF needle indicating a steady
reading. Having passed overhead the NDB, you can obviously track away from it in any
of 360 directions. You must always ensure that you are flying away from the NDB along
the planned track, and the easiest means to do this is to calculate MB FROM the NDB
using the DG and the RBI.
MH
04
5

RB12(34
–0
I 8)
MH
04
5

M
40
k0
RB12(34
–0

tr ac
I

ir ed
es
8)

D
MH
04
5

RB12(34
–0

Stronger
I

crosswind
8)

NDB IR-1239.EPS

Figure 6-45 Tracking away from an NDB with incorrect drift correction applied.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

6: NDB and ADF 199

Tracking Abeam an NDB

If you are to fly past an NDB ground station located some distance away from your track,
it may be useful to determine when you are exactly abeam that NDB, which is the point
where the angle between the track and the bearing to the NDB is equal to 90°. The
technique varies depending on whether there is drift.

Nil Drift
In this case, heading is equal to track, because no crosswind component is acting on the
aircraft. At the abeam position, the ADF will indicate either RB 090 or RB 270.
BWN BWN
NDB NDB

90°

TR
13
3

13
09

3
09 0 Nil drift

M
27
0

0
0

H
00

27

18
0 90°
18

00
0 0
H

27 09
0

0
M

3
31

TR
31
3

15-47.EPS

Figure 6-46 ADF indications at the abeam position in nil crosswind conditions.

With Drift
If a crosswind component is acting on the aircraft, then the heading will differ from the
track by the amount of drift being experienced.

Example 6-9
You are steering MH 325 to maintain track 313. You want to obtain an abeam position
line from BWN NDB which is to the right of track. What relative bearing on your RBI
will tell you when you are abeam the NDB?

RB when abeam NDB = 090 – 12° left drift = RB 078

12° left BWN

drift NDB
MH 325

90° Abeam
position line

07
0 8
00
09

MH
0
0

18
27

0
5
32 Wind
TR
31
3

RB abeam BWN left drift

= RB 090 – 12°
= RB 078 15-48.EPS

Figure 6-47 RBI indications at the abeam position with drift correction applied.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

200 Navigation

Intercepting a Track Using the RBI

As a VFR pilot, you should be able to use the radio navigation aids fitted in your aero-
plane to assist with your visual navigation and even use the aids to navigate if conditions
for map reading are unsuitable. (Refer to AIP ENR 1.1-17 for full details.)
Having orientated yourself with respect to an NDB, you now know the answer to the
question, ‘Where am I?’ Now you ask: ‘Where do I want to go?’ ‘Where have I been
told to go?’ Followed by, ‘How do I get there?’
■ Orientate the aeroplane relative to the NDB, and to the planned track.
■ Turn to take up a suitable intercept heading, after considering where you want to join
the planned track.
■ Maintain the intercept heading. The needle will move accordingly to register the
magnitude of the intercept angle. If inbound, the head of the needle will fall to this
amount; if outbound, the tail of the needle to rise to this amount.That is, for a 30°
intercept, the needle head or tail will move to 030; for a 60° intercept, the needle
head or tail will move to 060.
■ As you come up to the intercept point, turn to the planned track, and apply a suitable
WCA to maintain it.

090
MH
NDB
MH
070

Desired track outbound

Turn to On track
On track intercept
MH track
b ound Turn to
ack in 020
ed tr MH intercept
Desir track
020
Tail of needle ‘rises’ when
Needle ‘falls’ when intercepting outbound
intercepting inbound

MH
020
MH
020

Turn onto
intercept
MH
070

heading
Turn onto
intercept
MH
070

heading

I am here
I am here
IR-1212.EPS

Figure 6-48 Where am I? Where do I want to go? How do I get there?

Visualising Where You Are and NDB

MH0
07

Where You Want To Go

Desired 270°M
The DG can assist greatly in visualising the sit- Actual
33

uation. In the previous example, the situation

0°

MH 070 and RB 260 was visualised, with MB

M

330 to the NDB. What now if you wish to

intercept track 270 inbound to the NDB? All IR-1213.EPS

you need to do is visualise the intended track Figure 6-49 Visualising an intercept on the DG.
on the heading indicator. With a model aero-
plane on the tail of the needle tracking as

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

6: NDB and ADF 201

intended, it becomes quite clear what turns are necessary to intercept the track. First, turn
left to a suitable intercept heading, say MH 360 for a 90° intercept of track 270 to the NDB.
Note. If you become disoriented, a simple procedure is to take up the heading of
the intended track. Even though not on track, the aeroplane will at least be parallel
to it, and the ADF needle will indicate which way to turn to intercept it.

NDB
Desired track 270° TO

Actual
270
MH

position IR-1214.EPS

Figure 6-50 Paralleling track to help in visualisation.

Suppose the situation is MH 340, RB MH

RB 0
08
080, and you wish to intercept track 090 to 340 000

the NDB. The current magnetic bearing to

the NDB is easily found to be MB 060 (MH Desired
090
340 + RB 080). Actual
By continuing to steer MH 340, you will 060 IR-1215.EPS

eventually intercept track 090 to the NDB,

Figure 6-51 Visualising the intercept.
but it would be a rather untidy intercept,
tracking somewhat away from the NDB,
requiring an intercept turn of 110°. 110° 090-TO
NDB
A tidier and more efficient intercept may
be achieved by turning to an initial heading
of MH 360 for a 90° intercept, or MH 030
for a 60° intercept. 340°M
(Turning further right to MH 060 would
of course point the aeroplane at the NDB,
and track 090 to the NDB would not be IR-1216.EPS

intercepted.) Figure 6-52 An inefficient intercept of track.

90° NDB NDB

60°

NDB
270 radial

060°M
360°M
030°M
IR-1217.EPS

Figure 6-53 Different intercepts of track.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

202 Navigation

Intercepting an Inbound Track

Example 6-10
NDB You are steering MH 355, and the RBI
indicates RB 005 when tuned to a par-
ticular NDB. You are requested to track
inbound on TR 340, intercepting the
track at 60°.
■ Orientate the aeroplane. MH 355 +
RB 005 = MB 360 to NDB or MB
I
RB 3 180 from NDB. You are south of the
00
NDB and steering MH 355. The
M
H intended track is 340 to the NDB
7
33 (which is on the position line MB
160 from the NDB) to your right.
■ To intercept track 340 from the left at
60°, you should steer (340 + 60 = 400
I
RB 3
00
=) MH 040. As your heading alters,
the ADF needle will continue to point
H
M
7 at the NDB and so the relative bearing
33
will change (in this case, even though
it is not an important calculation, from
60° i nt e RB 005 to RB 320, or –40° off the
r ce
pt
nose, with the 45° right turn).
W/V
■ Maintain MH 040 and periodically
MH
04

observe the RBI as the head of the

0

needle falls. Since it is a 60° intercept,

RB60(3
-0
MH

wait until the head of the needle falls

I
04
0

00

to minus 60 (or RB 300). You are

)

steering track plus 60, waiting for

RB50(3
-0
MH

I
04

minus 60.
0

10

■ As the needle falls to RB –60 (i.e.

)
RB 0(3
-0

intercepting MB 340), turn left to

4
I

take up the intended track to the

20
)

Inbound NDB, allowing for the estimated

TR 340
crosswind effect on tracking. In this
case, a wind correction angle (WCA)
RBI
005 of 3° left is used. Maintain the
MH intended track of TR 340 to the sta-
355 MH RB tion by continually checking that
35536 005
40
0 MH + RB = MB 340, for example:
3 000 MH 337 + RB 003 = MB 340.
090
270

TR 180
360
Actual
Note. An aeroplane takes some dis-
Desired tance to turn, and so you should
15-55.EPS
anticipate the intended track by
commencing the turn onto track
Figure 6-54 just before MB 340 is reached. You
Intercepting track 340 inbound from south of the station.
can do this by observing the rate at
which the ADF needle falls toward
–060 and commence the turn
accordingly.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

6: NDB and ADF 203

Example 6-11
You are given a radar vector 010 to steer, and you are instructed to intercept a track of
055°M inbound to the NDB.
■ Orientate the aeroplane. With radar vector 010 to intercept TR 055 inbound, you
must be south of that track.
■ The intercept has been organised by ATC so that you will intercept track at 45° (055
– 010 = 45).
■ Maintain MH 010 and periodically observe the RBI as the head of the needle falls.
Since it is a –45 intercept, wait until the head of the needle falls to +045 (RB 045).
You are steering track minus 45, waiting for plus 45.
■ Shortly before MB 055 to the NDB is reached and as the needle falls to +45, turn
right to take up the track to the NDB, allowing for the estimated crosswind effect. In
this case, a WCA of 5° right is used, by steering MH 060 with the RBI on –5 off the
nose (RB 355). Maintain the TR 055 to the station by continually checking that MH
+ RB = MB 055; for example, MH 060 + RB –005 = MB 055.
Another means of achieving a smooth intercept is to reduce the closing angle as the
inbound track is approached, say from 45° to 30° to 15° and, finally, to zero as the track
is intercepted.

NDB
MH
06
0

RB05(3
–0
55
MH

)
06
0

RB05(3
–0

Intercept of 45°
55

MH
)

010
RB 045
RB ‘falls’ to 045
for a 45° intercept
TO
5 OM
05 FR
5
23 MH
RB 035
010

W/V
MH
RB 030
010

15-56.EPS

Figure 6-55 Intercepting track 055 inbound from radar vector 010.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

204 Navigation

Intercepting an Outbound Track

Example 6-12
ATC gives you a radar vector of 340 to intercept an outbound track of 280.
■ Orientate the aeroplane. It must be south of the outbound track.
■ Consider the intercept. A radar vector of 340 to intercept track 280 outbound means
a +60° intercept.
■ Monitor the intercept by steering a steady MH 340 and periodically checking the
RBI to see the tail of the needle rising to –60 (RB 300). You are steering track plus
60, waiting for minus 60.
■ As the required outbound track is approached, indicated by the tail of the needle
rising to –60, turn left to pick it up, in this case allowing a WCA of 10° for a wind
from the right, i.e. MH 290.
Periodically check that MH ± ADF tail = MB FROM NDB. In this case, the tail of
the ADF needle should be –10 off the nose (i.e. on RB 350), so that MH 290 – 10 =
TR 280 from NDB.
0)
0(35

A ‘plus 60’ intercept

–01

looking for –60

Intercept of +60° 0)
(30
–60
MH
MH
290

340 280 FR
OM
100 TO NDB

Tail of needle
rising to –60 0
Visualising track –10
280° fro MH
m
Desired NDB 340
track
MH W/V
340
Desired N
280

0
–14
S

Actual MH MH
340 340
280

15-57.EPS

Figure 6-56 Radar vector 340 to intercept track 280 outbound.

Limitations and Accuracy of the NDB–ADF Combination

Limitations
As a result of various limitations affecting the signals transmitted by an NDB, the bearings
taken by an ADF are liable to be in error.
Night Effect
The radio waves from the NDB ground transmitter take two paths to the ADF in the air-
craft. The main path is along the surface of the earth and this is known as the ground wave.
The radio waves transmitted skywards (sky waves) at some distance above the earth’s surface
strike the ionosphere, which is a layer of ions in the atmosphere. An ion is an electrically
charged (positively or negatively) atom or group of atoms. During the day, this layer is
some 30 miles above the surface of the earth and at night about 200 miles high, with great
instabilities occurring within an hour of sunrise or sunset.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

6: NDB and ADF 205

For radio waves transmitted skywards, those that strike the ionosphere at a suitable
angle are refracted (bent) and some may be reflected as skywaves back to earth, with the
nature of the wave often being changed. This effect is known as polarisation error.
The indirect sky wave mixes with the direct ground wave to give a combined signal
that the ADF reads as one signal. The error in the ADF reading will depend upon the
relative strengths of the two waves.
As the strength of the indirect skywaves is greater at night, errors are more common
and of greater magnitude at night. This error is known as night effect.
Night effect is often more pronounced when the ionisation state of the upper atmos-
phere is undergoing violent changes, at about sunrise and sunset. The effect, as observed
by the pilot, is that the ADF needle tends to wander because the ratio of direct to indi-
rect radio signals varying continuously.

E E
Sky waves
reflected
Sky waves absorbed D
in D layer in daytime

Ground waves Ground waves

Day Night
Mixing of sky and ground
IR-1143.EPS waves causes bearing errors

Figure 6-57
At night, sky waves with the ground wave signals transmitted by an NDB, causing ADF indications to fluctuate.

If you look at the NDB ranges listed in the En Route Supplement (ERSA) you will
find that the ranges by day are greater than by night; for example, Coober Pedy NDB has
a range of 70 nm from sunrise to sunset (HJ), and 50 nm from sunset to sunrise (HN).

60 nm Day

40 nm Night

Figure 6-58 Night effect reduces the rated coverage of many NDBs during the hours of darkness.

The reason for this variation is that at night the ratio of indirect sky waves to direct
ground waves at the aircraft is greater, hence the bearing indications are less reliable once
you get beyond the range where the ground wave transmission predominates (with few
sky waves received), and this is approximately 60 nm over land and 100 nm over sea. NDB
reception should be treated with caution beyond the ranges specified in the (ERSA).
Increasing the power of the NDB will not eliminate night effect, because the direct
ground wave and the indirect skywave will both increase in strength, but the ratio
between them will stay about the same. Night effect cannot be eliminated.
Locator beacons, being low powered, only really transmit a direct ground wave. Their
reflected skywaves within rated coverage are insignificant. Consequently night effect is
hardly evident with locator beacons.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

206 Navigation

Coastal Refraction
When passing from land to sea at an oblique angle or when moving parallel to a coast-
line, NDB radio waves may be refracted (bent) due to the different conducting and
reflecting properties of land and water. This causes false bearing indications: the NDB
always appears closer to the coastline that it actually is. The effect is greater the further
inland the transmitting station is. Coastal refraction is therefore reduced if an NDB
located directly on the coastline is used.
Radio waves most nearly perpendicular to the coast line are least affected, and the fur-
ther inland the NDB is, the more significant the potential error.

Actual position
of NDB

LAND
Apparent
position Co
rre
of NDB ct
be
ar
ing
COASTLINE
AD
Fi
ndi
ca tion
Coastal
refraction
Bearings at right angles
to coast – no refraction
SEA

15-60.EPS

Figure 6-59 Costal refraction causes false ADF bearing indications.

Terrain Effect
NDB radio signals have a greater range over water than over sandy or mountainous
country where the range is considerably reduced. For this reason, an NDB located on a
coastline may have quite different useful ranges in different directions. For example, look
at the entry for Darwin in the ERSA. You will note that the range by day over land is
150 nm, but over water it is extended to 450 nm. Similarly, by night we have 85 nm
over land and 110 nm over water.

Sandy/rocky terrain Salt water

low conductivity, rapid attenuation high conductivity, slower attenuation
therefore shorter range therefore longer range IR-1145.EPS

Figure 6-60 Terrain effect can reduce the rated coverage of an NDB over land.

Mountain Effect
Erroneous or fluctuating bearings may result from the mixing of radio waves reflected
from the surfaces of mountains. The ADF may receive one or more of the reflected
waves as well as the correct ground wave. Bearing indications may change rapidly until

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

6: NDB and ADF 207

the affected area is passed. In a few cases, NDBs transmit on a higher frequency (e.g.
1,655 kHz) to minimise mountain effect.

IR-1147.EPS

Figure 6-61 Mountain effect can cause fluctuating ADF indications.

Thunderstorm Effect
Thunderstorms generate considerable electromagnetic energy that may cause the ADF
needle to swing from the direction of the received NDB signal to the direction of the
centre of the electrical storm.

Co-Channel Interference (Interference from Other NDBs)

If radio signals are received from other
NDBs operating on the same or adjacent fre-
quencies to the NDB tuned, the ADF may
give false bearing information due to mixing
of the signals. Generally, NDBs of similar
frequencies are spaced well apart geographi-
cally to avoid this interference. However,
especially at night (when the sky-wave com-
ponent of the NDB signal extends to a far IR-1150.EPS

greater distance than the ground wave), dis- Figure 6-62 At night interference from other
NDBs on the same frequency can occur.
tant NDBs may cause interference.

Overall Accuracy of the NDB–ADF System

A study of the preceding paragraphs has no doubt demonstrated that there are many fac-
tors that can act to reduce both the accuracy of ADF indications and the range of an
NDB. When operating within the published rated coverage of an NDB, and when the
signals being received consist largely of ground waves, an accuracy of within ±5° for
bearings can be expected.
As soon as sky waves or reflected waves interfere with the ground wave, the accuracy
of the ADF usually suffers. Nevertheless, armed with a sound appreciation of its limita-
tions, pilots may confidently use the ADF for a wide variety of purposes and still achieve
an acceptable and safe degree of accuracy. As far as VFR pilots are concerned, the rela-
tively imprecise nature of this radio-navigation aid in no way detracts from its value
when used to augment normal visual en route navigation techniques.
Finally, remember that incorrect tuning of the ADF to the selected NDB is potentially
a major source of error. It is up to you to ensure that you follow the correct procedures:
■ selected;
■ identified; and
■ ADFing.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

208 Navigation

Review 6
1. The letters NDB are an abbreviation for . . . . .
2. The NDB is (a ground-based transmitter/an airborne receiver).
3. NDBs transmit on a frequency in either the . . . . . or . . . . . band.
4. The letters ADF are an abbreviation for . . . . .
5. The ADF is (a ground-based transmitter/an airborne receiver).
6. A particular NDB may be identified by . . . . .
7. The three basic steps that a pilot should follow before using a particular NDB are . . . . .
8. The term RBI is an abbreviation for . . . . .
9. If an aircraft steering MH 250 has a reading of 030 on its RBI (i.e. RB 030), what is:
a. the magnetic bearing to the NDB from the aircraft?
b. the magnetic bearing of the aircraft from the NDB?
10. If an aircraft steering MH 250 has a reading of RB 350 on its relative bearing indi-
cator, calculate:
a. the magnetic bearing to the NDB from the aircraft.
b. the magnetic bearing of the aircraft from the NDB.
11. Atmospheric conditions, such as electrical storms or the periods of sunrise and sun-
set, (may/will not) distort NDB signals, making ADF indications less reliable.
12. Mountains (may/will not) reflect and distort NDB signals, making ADF indications
less reliable.
13. Sky waves from NDB transmissions (are not/are) present during daylight hours. As
a general rule, locators and low-powered NDBs (are/are not) subject to night effect.
14. Coastal refraction affects NDB signals that cross a coastline at (right angles/an oblique
angle). This bending of the signal path means that the ADF needle will point in a direc-
tion that indicates the NDB station is (further inland/closer to the coast) than it really is.
15. The rated coverage of an NDB sited on the coast will often be (the same/greater/
less) over the sea than it will be over land.
16. List four errors of the NDB–ADF system.
17. On MH 020 with RB 010, the MB TO the NDB is . . . . .
18. On MH 020 with RB 005, the MB TO the NDB is . . . . .
19. On MH 020 with RB 000, the MB TO the NDB is . . . . .
20. On MH 020 with RB 355, the MB TO the NDB is . . . . .
21. When steering MH 180, MB 240 to the NDB is indicated by RB . . . . .
22. When steering MH 315, MB 060 to the NDB is indicated by RB . . . . .
23. When steering MH 340 with RB 010, the MB TO the NDB is . . . . . , and the MB
FROM the NDB is . . . . .
24. On MH 150 with RB 350, the MB TO the NDB is . . . . . , and the MB FROM
the NDB is . . . . .
25. On MH 340 with RB 180, the MB TO the NDB is . . . . . , and the MB FROM
the NDB is . . . . .
26. On MH 340 with RB 190, the MB TO the NDB is . . . . . , and the MB FROM
the NDB is . . . . .
27. When steering MH 270, MB 120 from the NDB is indicated by RB . . . . .
28. When steering MH 225, MB 255 from the NDB is indicated by RB . . . . .
29. When steering MH 315, MB 090 from the NDB is indicated by RB . . . . .
30. An aircraft is steering MH 035 with RB 040. Magnetic variation in the area is 10°E.
Calculate:
a. MB TO the NDB;
b. MB FROM the NDB;
c. True bearing from the NDB.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

6: NDB and ADF 209

31. An aircraft is steering MH 335 with RB 355. Magnetic variation in the area is 4°W.
Calculate:
a. MB TO the NDB;
b. MB FROM the NDB;
c. True bearing from the NDB.
32. Complete the table.

MH RB MB TO Variation Plot TB FROM

345 090 10 E

124 328 8W

278 135 8E

056 245 11 W

248 265 9E

209 085 10 E

156 270 8W

33. MH 080; RB 000. What heading would you steer to make a 90° intercept of a track
of 040°M inbound to the NDB? What would be the RB at the point of intercept?
34. MH 080; RB 000. What heading would you steer to make a 60° intercept of a track
of 040°M inbound to the NDB? What would be the RB at the point of intercept?
35. MH 070, RB 010. Which way would you turn to intercept a track of 075°M
inbound to the NDB?
36. MH 155, RB 180. Which way would you turn to intercept a track of 140°M out-
bound from the NDB?
37. MH 155, RB 180. Which way would you turn to intercept a track of 180°M out-
bound from the NDB?
38. You wish to maintain track 360 in no-wind conditions. What magnetic heading
would you steer? What would be RB as you pass abeam an NDB 10 nm to the right
of track (i.e. when the NDB is on MB 090 to the track)?
39. You wish to maintain track 030 in no-wind conditions. What magnetic heading
would you steer? What would be the RB as you pass abeam an NDB 10 nm to the
right of track?
40. You wish to maintain track 030 in no-wind conditions. What magnetic heading
would you steer? What would be the RB as you pass abeam an NDB 10 nm to the
left of track?
41. To track inbound to an NDB on track 340, with an expected crosswind from the
right causing 5° of drift, what magnetic heading would you steer, and what RB
would you expect?
42. To track outbound from an NDB on track 120, with an expected crosswind from
the right causing 8° of drift, what magnetic heading would you steer, and what RB
would you expect?
43. You wish to maintain track 360 and expect 10° of drift caused by a wind from the
east. What magnetic heading would you steer? What would be the RB as you pass
abeam an NDB 10 nm to the right of track?

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

210 Navigation

44. You wish to maintain track 030 and expect 7° left drift, i.e. WCA 7° right. What
magnetic heading would you steer? What would be RB as you pass abeam an NDB
10 nm to the left of track?
45. You are maintaining track 278 with 6° of right drift, i.e. WCA 6° left. You can deter-
mine your position abeam an NDB to the right of track by waiting until the RB is
.....
46. You are maintaining track 278 with 6° of left drift, i.e. WCA 6° right. You can deter-
mine your position abeam an NDB to the right of track by waiting until the RB is
.....
47. You are maintaining track 278 with 5° of right drift, i.e. WCA 5° left. You can deter-
mine your position abeam an NDB to the right of track by waiting until the RB is
.....
48. You are tracking inbound to the XYZ NDB on the tracks (M) shown in the table
below. For the drifts listed, what will be the MH and RB that will indicate that you
are maintaining the inbound track?

Inbound track (M) Drift MH RB

060 8° left

135 5° right

315 9° right

183 11° left

268 3° right

49. You have come overhead the ABC NDB and set heading to track outbound on the
tracks shown in the table below. Complete the columns MH and RB that will indi-
cate that you are maintaining the outbound tracks.

Outbound track (M) Drift MH RB

098 9° right

234 8° left

357 4° left

158 zero

209 3° right

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

 Chapter 7

VOR

The VOR (VHF omni-directional radio MN

range) operates in the radio frequency range
108–118 MHz, which is in the very high fre-
360 radial
quency (VHF) radio band. There are 160 indi- 330 radial 030 radial
vidual channels (frequencies) spaced at 50 kHz
intervals. It is a very useful radio aid and is most 300 radial
0
060 radial
usually known in abbreviated form as the omni

09
27
270 radial 090 radial
or the VOR. However, if you are asked to
define it, you should refer to it as the VHF 18
240 radial 120 radial
omni-directional radio range. As a back-up to vis-
ual navigation, we can use the VOR for: 210 radial 150 radial
180 radial
■ orientation (where am I?) by quickly and IR-1409.EPS

easily determining a position line from a Figure 7-1

A radial is a magnetic bearing from the VOR.
VOR ground station; and
■ tracking to and from a VOR.

As its name omni suggests, the VOR radiates an infinite number of tracks in all directions,
like spokes from the hub of a wheel. For practical purposes, we use 360 of these, each sep-
arated from the next by 1 degree and related to magnetic north. They are called radials.
Each radial is identified by its magnetic bearing away from the VOR station.

VOR Ground System

Ground Station
The VOR ground station transmits two VHF radio signals:
■ the reference phase signal, which is omni-directional (i.e. the same in all directions); and
■ the variable phase signal, which rotates uniformly at a rate of 1800 rpm, with its phase
varying at a constant rate throughout the 360°.

Figure 7-2 (Left) a VOR ground station and (right) VOR antennas.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE 211

212 Navigation

The antenna of the VOR airborne receiver picks up the two signals, the phase differ-
ence (the relative displacement of the wave peaks) of which is measured, this difference
depending upon the magnetic bearing of the aircraft from the ground station. In this
manner, the VOR receiver can determine the radial on which the aircraft is located.
The two signals transmitted by the VOR ground station vary as follows in phase:
■ in phase on magnetic north, which is the reference direction for all VOR signals;
■ 90° out of phase at magnetic east 090°M;
■ 180° out of phase at magnetic south 180°M;
■ 270° out of phase at magnetic west 270°M; and
■ 360° out of phase (i.e. back in phase) at magnetic north 360°M, or 000°M.

360 000

Reference phase
MN
270 090
W E
S
Variable phase

180
IR-1404.EPS

Figure 7-3 The VOR transmits two VHF signals with a phase difference between them.

Every 10 seconds or so a Morse-code identifier signal (or ident) is transmitted, mod-

ulated at 1,020 Hz, allowing you to positively identify the VOR. Some VORs may also
carry voice transmissions. This allows the VOR to provide an automatic terminal infor-
mation service (ATIS). In some cases, a limited voice communications capability may also
exist that can be utilized in the event of failure of normal VHF-COM facilities. Under
these circumstances, you may only receive ground transmissions and not transmit.
If the VOR ground station is undergoing maintenance, the coded identifier is not
transmitted, but it is possible that navigation signals will still be received. Sometimes a
special test ident signal – XP, dah-dit-dit-dah dit-dah-dah-dit – is transmitted. In either
case, do not use these aids for navigation. No radio navigation signal should be used until
positive aural identification is made.
Range of a VOR
Like all VHF transmissions, the range of VOR signals is primarily determined by the line
of sight between the transmitter and the receiver. The principal factors that govern the
maximum range of a VOR (or any VHF) transmitter are therefore:
■ aircraft altitude;
■ height of the transmitting antenna; and
■ height of terrain between the ground station and the aircraft.

These factors are, not unexpectedly, the same as those that determine the distance to
the visible horizon. However, in practice VOR signals (which are in the VHF band)
extend some 15%–20% beyond the visible horizon. Notwithstanding this phenomenon,
a generally more conservative approach is adopted for VOR rated coverages.
The rated coverage of a VOR varies according to the height of the interrogating air-
craft. The rated coverage of signals transmitted by a VOR (and DME) are published in
the AIP. This table is reproduced in figure 7-4 and indicates, for a range of aircraft
heights, the maximum distance for a given station at which signals are considered accu-
rate enough to establish a positive radio fix. Note that actual ranges may be less than
those quoted due to facility and site variations (see ERSA).

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

7: VOR 213

You are likely to be examined in this area, and these rated coverage values should be
memorised. The information can be used to assist you in the planning or selection of
the most suitable VOR stations to use in flight. Notice that, whereas the rated coverage
of an NDB during the day may differ from its rated coverage at night, the published
rated coverage figures for VHF navaids apply to both day and night.
Signals in the VHF band are not reflected by the ionosphere. Therefore, the VOR is
not subject to night effect, which reduces the usable range of lower-frequency navaids
during the hours of darkness.

2.2 Rated Coverages

The following ranges are quoted for planning purposes. Actual ranges obtained may sometimes
be less than these due to facility and site variations (see ERSA). The localizer ranges are for
those installations that have been nominated for position fixing at ranges beyond 25NM:
a. NDB (published in ERSA);
b. VOR and DME:
Aircraft Altitude (FT) Range (NM)
Below 5,000 60
5,000 to below 10,000 90
10,000 to below 15,000 120
15,000 to below 20,000 150
20,000 and above 180
c. Localizer:
Aircraft altitude (FT) Range (NM)
At 2,000 AGL within ±10° of course line 25
Below 5,000 30
5,000 and above 50

Figure 7-4 Extract from AIP GEN 1.5 showing rated coverage of VOR (and DME) ground stations.



     
 
    
    

  



Figure 7-5 Information on VOR stations is available in the ERSA.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

214 Navigation

Where to Find Details of a VOR

VOR positions, frequencies and Morse-code idents for VOR stations are given in:
■ En Route Supplement Australia (ERSA);
■ en route charts (ERCs);
■ Visual Navigation Charts (VNCs); and
■ Visual Terminal Charts (VTCs).

ERSA Information
As with the NDB, we can extract information about all VORs from the ERSA, as shown
in the extract for Gladstone in figure 7-5 (page 213).
From this extract, we can determine the following:
■ ident is GLA;
■ frequency is 116.3 MHz;
■ position (latitude and longitude) is S23°52.0 E151°12.2; and
the aerodrome reference point (ARP) is 105°M and 1 nm from the VOR.
En Route Charts and Visual Navigation Charts
The positions of VORs are plotted on the ERC and VNC along with the callsigns, Morse
code idents and frequencies, as shown in the extract below. You will see that the informa-
tion on the chart is the same as that in the ERSA, apart from the ARP detail. Notice that
the symbol used to indicate a VOR is different from the symbol used to identify an NDB.

         

  
       


  
       
! " # " $  
 # " $ 
%&'()

Figure 7-6 VOR details on an ERC-L.

Visual Terminal Chart

On the VTC, the locations of VORs are indicated by reference to the aerodrome at
which they are sited. The callsigns and frequencies are also shown. You will also note that
around the VOR station, a compass rose is plotted with a magnetic north pointer, which
is correctly aligned with the magnetic variation for that site.
Note. You may notice that some VOR stations are shown on charts as VOR/DME.
This indicates that the VOR and DME are co-located (see chapter 8).
  
       ! 
" #    
#  
  
      

   

$%&'()

Figure 7-7 VOR details on a VTC.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

7: VOR 215

Airborne Equipment
The VOR airborne equipment consists of
000
the following basic items: NAV1
■ The antenna is usually a twin-blade, V- OFF VOICE IDENT

115.95 TO
shaped antenna specifically designed to
FROM
receive VHF signals within the frequency VOL

range 108.0 MHz to 118.0 MHz. VHF-NAV

■ The VOR receiver, and its associated con-
VOR instrument
trol panel in the cockpit, is normally IR-1401.EPS

labelled VHF-NAV. The same set can usu- Figure 7-8 VOR equipment in the cockpit.
ally be used to tune into instrument land-
ing system (ILS) stations (frequency range of 108.0–111.9 MHz) as well. In general-
aviation aircraft, the VHF-NAV set is often combined with the VHF communications
set. Such an installation is called a VHF NAV-COM.
■ A VOR indicator is used to interpret the signals received.

Omni-Bearing Indicator
The simplest and most common type of indicator is the omni-bearing indicator (OBI). A course
deviation indicator (CDI) on the OBI shows deviation, or angular displacement, of the aircraft
from a given track (or omni-bearing) to or from a VOR ground station. The track or omni-
bearing is set by the pilot under the course index with the omni-bearing selector, or OBS.
Note. The term course deviation indicator is an American expression and stems from
their use of the word course for what we call track. To avoid possible confusion, we
will refer to track in the conventional sense as has been used throughout this man-
ual. Course will only be used in connection with the CDI or the course index set
by the OBS control on the OBI.
l
radia
015

OBS course Course

card index

Course deviation indicator

Deviation 3 (CDI)
0 Indicates aircraft’s horizontal
scale
33 displacement relative to the
6

selected omni bearing

30

TO
9
27

12

FROM
OFF 15
24

OFF (or NAV) TO/FROM

21 18 indicator flags
OB
S OFF or NAV showing indicates
unusable signals. When this
M

flag disappears, TO/FROM

015°

flags indicate whether the

Omni-bearing selector (OBS) course selected under the
Used to select the desired omni course index will take you to
bearing under the course index or from the selected VOR
VOR IR-1414.EPS station.
Figure 7-9 The VOR cockpit display for aeroplanes on the 015 radial.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

216 Navigation

The degree of angular deviation from the selected track is measured in dots. Normally
a standardised 5-dot deviation scale is used; that is, 5 dots are arranged on either side of the
centre, with each dot representing 2° of angular displacement from the selected track.
If the aircraft is exactly on the selected track (or omni-bearing), the CDI needle will
be centred. If the aircraft is 2° off the selected omni-bearing, then the deviation needle
will be displaced 1 dot off centre. When the aircraft is 10° (or more) off the selected track,
then the CDI needle will be displaced 5 dots off centre (i.e. a full-scale deflection). How-
ever, VOR indicators employ a variety of presentations, but in all cases, each division on
the scale represents 2°, and full-scale deflection corresponds to an angular deviation of
10° or more either side of the selected radial (i.e. a total arc of 20°). On some VOR dis-
plays, the two inner dots are joined by a circle (as with the VOR indicators shown in this
book). In this instance, if the CDI is aligned with either side of the circle, this represents
a 1-dot deviation or 2°; if the CDI is aligned with the dot immediately to the left or right
of the circle, it represents a 2-dot deviation or 4°. On some indicators, instead of dots,
there may be tick or hash marks. A 1-dot deflection of the CDI represents an angular displace-
ment of 2°; full-scale deflection represents 10° or more.

0
07

4
24
MH
070 15
4
MH
TO
07
FROM 0
5°M
MH

06
06
4

07

°M
070
0

OBS
MN
5°M
24
MH 070
360

5°
VOR IR-1415.EPS

Figure 7-10 Each of these aeroplanes is displaced 6° from the 070 radial.

The To/From Flag

The 090 radial, which is a magnetic bearing of 090 away from the station, is the same
position line as 270 to the station. If an aircraft is on this position line, then the CDI will
be centred when either 090 or 270 is selected with the OBS. Any ambiguity regarding
the position of the aircraft relative to the VOR ground station is resolved with the
to/from indicator. The to/from flag or arrows indicate whether the selected omni-bear-
ing will take you to the VOR ground station or away from it.

090 270

TO TO
FROM FROM

OBS OBS

09 27
0 0
090 radial
VOR
IR-1416.EPS

Figure 7-11 Using the to/from flag.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

7: VOR 217

In the case illustrated in figure 7-11, you can 235 055

centre the CDI by selecting either 090 or 270
TO TO
(which are reciprocals) with the OBS. A track of FROM FROM
090 would take the aircraft from the VOR,
whereas a track of 270 would lead it to the OBS OBS

IR-1417.EPS
VOR.
Note. In our diagrams, we use the white tri-
VOR
angle to indicate the active selection of the
to/from flag. 5
23 al
a di
r
Example 7-1
Illustrate two indications on the VOR cockpit
display indicating that the aircraft is on the 235
radial.
The 235 radial is either:
■ 235 from the VOR; or Figure 7-12
■ 055 to the VOR. Indications that the aeroplane is on the 235 radial.

So, with the CDI centred, the VOR cockpit

display could indicate either 235 from or 055 to the VOR.
At all times, the reference when using the VOR indicator is the track selected using
the OBS control and set under the course index. The selected track determines:
■ CDI deflection; and
■ the to/from flag indication.

The VOR Display Is Not Heading Sensitive

The VOR indicates the position of the aircraft with respect to the selected track, and at
that position the actual VOR display in the cockpit will be identical regardless of the
aircraft’s heading. If the aircraft could turn in a circle on the spot, the VOR indications
would remain the same, and the CDI would not move. Each of the aircraft illustrated in
figure 7-13 will have identical VOR indications, provided the same track is set under
the course index with the OBS.
MH

VOR
06
0

060
06
0

TO
FROM

OBS

0
06
MH
0
33

170
MH
060

0°
0
06 0
24 ial 22
ra d
H
M 16-13.EPS

Figure 7-13 The VOR cockpit display is not heading sensitive.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

218 Navigation

Provided the aircraft maintains the same position

Radial
350
relative to the selected track, the CDI needle will VOR
not move if the aircraft changes heading. )
+ •
MH 005
0 (TO
33
0 3 06
Other Types of VOR Indicator

27 30

6
2

9 12
24
V 1
Radio Magnetic Indicator O
R
15
18 21
V
O
R
l
We know that radio magnetic indicator dia 2 ADF
ADF

0 Ra 1

(RMI) needles can be selected to point 24

towards NDB stations, and that the magnetic

170
bearing to the station is then displayed at the
head of the pointer. However, RMI needles
can also be selected to point to VOR stations. IR-1439A.EPS
NDB
A 2-position switch is usually provided for Figure 7-14 RMI needle 1 indicating the NDB;
each needle, allowing you to select either RMI needle 2 indicating the VOR.
ADF or VOR mode, as desired.
If VOR is selected, the head of the RMI
needle will indicate the magnetic bearing to the VOR station, while the tail of the needle
will indicate the VOR radial on which the aircraft is located, i.e. the magnetic bearing
from the station. This type of indicator can greatly assist orientation. It can also be a
source of potential error if used carelessly.

Horizontal Situation Indicator

In a handful of general-aviation aircraft, you may come across a more complex indicator
called the horizontal situation indicator (HSI). The typical HSI is a combination of a con-
ventional heading indicator (HI) and the familiar VOR CDI discussed previously.
The HSI displays aircraft heading below an upper index mark, or lubber line. It also
incorporates a course bar to indicate angular displacement from the selected omni-bear-
ing, or track, in the same way as the conventional CDI. However, since the angular value
of each dot may vary from the standard 2°, you should consult the appropriate operating
handbook for the equipment.
Lubber line Course-indicating
arrow

COURSE
040
Heading bug
Azimuth card
GS 0 3 GS
33
6
27 30

CDI
TO/FROM indicator
9

ILS glideslope
12

warning flag ILS glideslope pointer

24

15
18 21

Course-setting knob CSE HDG Heading bug set knob

Tail of the course

indicating arrow IR-1442.EPS

Figure 7-15 A typical HSI.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

7: VOR 219

The big advantage of this type of display is its simplified pictorial presentation. A fixed
aircraft symbol in the centre of the HSI together with the movable course bar portrays
the position of the aircraft relative to the selected track or radial in a simple and unam-
biguous plan view as if we were looking down on the aircraft from above. When the
same instrument provides heading as well as course deviation, orientation and tracking
is considerably simplified.

Operation of the VOR

Prior to using the VOR, do the following:
■ switch the VHF-NAV set on (ensure power available);
■ select the desired frequency (such as 113.2 MHz for the Brisbane VOR), as found in
the ERSA;
■ identify the station aurally, using the Morse-code ident signal; and
■ check ‘no flags’, which will ensure that all the warning flags are biased out of view,
thus indicating that the signals and indications are usable.

Orientation Using the VOR and How to Find a Position Line

In discussing orientation and tracking procedures with the VOR, we will describe solely
the use of a conventional omni-bearing indicator (OBI).

Obtaining a Position Line

As we saw in chapter 6, we can orientate ourselves by obtaining a bearing (which is a
position line) from the ground station of a radio navigation aid. With the VOR, the task
is considerably simplified.
To obtain a position line using the VOR, you should do the following:
■ rotate the OBS (omni-bearing selector) until the CDI (course deviation indicator) is
centred;
■ note the indication of the to/from flag; and
■ read off the bearing under the course index. VOR

Example 7-2
You rotate the OBS until the CDI is centred, which occurs with
334 under the course index and the to/from flag indicating to.
Could another reading be obtained with the CDI centred? 334
In this case, the aircraft is located on the 154 radial, and so the TO

CDI will be centred with either: FROM

■ 334 set and the to/from flag showing to; or

15

■ 154 set and the to/from flag showing from.

4r
ad

To find a position line, it is generally simpler to centre the

ial

CDI with the to/from flag showing from. In this way, the bear- IR-1418.EPS

ing under the course index is the magnetic bearing from the Figure 7-16
On the 154 radial.
VOR, which is also the VOR radial.

Plotting a VOR Position Line

As we have just seen, the VOR indicator can be used to determine the radial on which
an aircraft is located at any given moment, which is the magnetic bearing from a
VOR station. However, as was the case with plotting an NDB position line, before a

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

220 Navigation

radial (position line) can be plotted on a chart, it must be converted to a true bearing
from the station. With the VOR, bearing measurement actually occurs at the aid, unlike
ADF bearings which are measured at the aircraft. Consequently, the variation nearest to
the VOR station must be applied to determine the true bearing.

Example 7-3
An aircraft is operating in the vicinity of Tailem Bend (TBD) VOR (TBD) 010 TO
VOR. With 010 set under the course index with the OBS,
the CDI needle is centred, and the to/from flag is displaying +180
to. On an ERC, plot the position line on which the aircraft = 190 FROM
is located. First determine the magnetic bearing from the
VOR. The aircraft is located on the 190 radial of the TBD VOR. Magnetic variation at
TBD VOR is 8°E, therefore the true bearing from the VOR is 190°M + 8°E = 198°T.

SAMPLE ONLY
not to be used conjunction
with flight operations
or flight planning

Position line
plotted on
198°T from
TBD VOR

Variation 8° left

16-17.EPS

Figure 7-17 A VOR radial may be plotted as a position line on a chart.

Tracking Procedures With a VOR

Tracking to a VOR
First of all, do the following:
■ select the VOR frequency;
■ identify the station;
■ check no flags; and then
■ select the omni-bearing that you wish to fly as track.

Provided you are heading approximately in the direction of your intended track, the
centre circle will represent the aeroplane, and the needle will represent the track. Using
the compass or directional gyro (DG), select and fly a suitable intercept heading. Once
track is intercepted, take up what you estimate to be a suitable heading to maintain track
by making a suitable allowance for drift. Endeavour to keep the needle centred by mak-
ing small adjustments to heading.
In figure 7-18, your aim is to track inbound on 030 to the VOR. You set 030 against
the course index with the to/from flag showing to, and if you were on that track (the
ideal), the needle would be centred. If the needle is not centred, you should steer
towards the needle to centre it. This is using the VOR as a command instrument; it com-
mands you to fly towards the needle to regain track.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

7: VOR 221

VOR

MH 030
Desired track 030-TO 010
maintained by steering
HDG 010 (i.e. 20° right drift)

MH 030
010
Back on track;
set up suitable HDG
to maintain desired TR,
say HDG 010

030
MH
350
MH Turn further left to
re-intercept track,
03 03
0 0 steer say, heading 350
(i.e. turn towards CDI)

MH
03 03 Wind blows aircraft
0 0 right of track, (i.e. track
is to left of aircraft)

On track 030-TO,
M

steer heading 030 say

H
05
0

03

Steer 050°M
0

to intercept
030-TO
M
H
05

O 30
0

BS
0

O
ial
0-T
ad
03
0r
21

16-18.EPS

Figure 7-18 Using the CDI as a command instrument.

Determining Drift Angle When Tracking on the VOR

If you are tracking inbound 360°M to a VOR with 360 set under the course index, then
steering MH 360 will allow you to maintain track, provided there is no crosswind. (Note
that in correct VOR terminology, we are tracking inbound on the 180 radial, the 180
radial being 180 from the VOR station; that is, we are tracking 360 to the VOR.)
If, however, there is a westerly wind, it will blow you to the right of this inbound track
unless you lay off for drift. In this case, you might have to head about 8° into wind (that is,
lay off a wind correction angle of about 8° to the left) to allow for right drift. Therefore, you
would steer MH 352 to maintain a track of 360. If the wind was easterly, you might have to
lay off for say 5° left drift. You would therefore steer MH 005 to maintain track of 360.
Just how much drift you need to lay off in each case can be found by trial and error.
You fly a certain heading and see the effect on your track. If you are gradually departing
from track, you alter the heading and return to it, and then adjust the drift angle and fly
a heading that will keep you on track. Of course in the real world, the wind will not be
constant, so the heading to maintain track will also change from time to time. In your
regular scan of the flight instruments, this is one of the things you would look for.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

222 Navigation

HDG 360 352 HDG 0

HDG 05
360 360 360

Drift angles exaggerated IR-1431.EPS

Figure 7-19 Tracking inbound and allowing for drift.

Passage Overhead a VOR Station

Passage of an aeroplane over a VOR ground station is indicated by the following sequence:
■ the needle becoming more and more sensitive, oscillating as you approach the station;
■ the red flag appearing, indicating an unserviceable signal;
■ the to/from flag changing from indicating to to indicating from; and
■ the needle becoming more stable as you leave the station further behind.

090 CDI becomes agitated and

may flick from side to side
TO
Red OFF flag flicks FROM TO–FROM flags
in and out of view OFF change indication
OBS

Zone of confusion

VOR IR-1422.EPS

Flicking
OFF flag
OFF

090
090

090

090

090

Flicking Flicking
TO–FROM CDI

Figure 7-20 Passage overhead a VOR station.

Note. The above indications are caused because the aircraft passes through a ‘cone
(or zone) of confusion’ when tracking overhead a VOR. The size of the cone de-
pends upon the transit height of the aircraft where the higher the aircraft, the larger

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

7: VOR 223

will be the cone. Consequently, it may take some time for the CDI and instrument
flags to settle down after station passage. During this time, maintain a constant
heading on the DG.

Tracking From a VOR

To track from a VOR, do the following:
■ select the VOR frequency;
■ identify the station;
■ check no flags; and then
■ select the omni-bearing that you wish to fly as track from the station.

In figure 7-21 (page 223) your aim is to have the needle centred with 320 set and the
to/from flag showing from, allowing you to track away from the VOR on this radial.

320
MH Maintaining track
with 15° left drift
335

320
MH
345

Turn right to
re-intercept track

0
32
H
M
0
32
Blown left 0
of track 32 On track
H
M
3 20
32
0
Tr
RA 32
ack
DI 0

M
H
AL

04
0 32
0

HDG 040°M
to intercept
320 FROM
M
H O
04
0 32 BS
0

16-21.EPS

Figure 7-21 Using the CDI as a command instrument.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

224 Navigation

Note. If you always select the planned track with the OBS, the to/from flag will
display to when flying towards the VOR and from when flying away from the VOR.
The VOR indicator will then be a command instrument; that is, you are com-
manded to fly towards the needle to regain track. This is logical and easy to
understand.

The Importance of a Command OBS Setting

You may be wondering why we have gone to such lengths to emphasize the use of OBS
settings that allow the VOR indicator to be used as a command instrument (see figure
7-22). To illustrate the importance of selecting the correct OBS setting, consider exam-
ple 7-4.

t
r if
D
MH
01 03
5 0
W/V

0°
M
21

0°
M
03
MH
050

Dr ift
060

060°M °M
TMG 240

IR-1434.EPS

Figure 7-22 Use the CDI as a command instrument.

Example 7-4
You have been attempting to maintain an outbound track 140 with an OBS setting of
140 selected and the to/from flag displaying from; that is, the VOR indicator has been
correctly set up to act as a command instrument for this particular track. Due to a cross-
wind, the aircraft has drifted left of track. Since the command OBS setting is being used,
you know that a turn to the right (towards the CDI needle) is required to reintercept
track 140 outbound.
You now decide to return to the VOR on the reciprocal track of 320°M inbound to
the station but leave the original setting of 140 on the OBS.

VOR
Command
0
14
13
5 Non-command
14

M H
H M
0°

20
M

14
0 3
14
0
ra

0
32
di
al

H
M
0
32
14 320
0– –to
fro

Command
m

16-23.EPS (better)

Figure 7-23 The VOR indicator should always be used as a command instrument.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

7: VOR 225

After reversing heading, there will be little or no change in the VOR indication since
the aircraft is effectively in the same position relative to the station and to the planned
track. Only the heading has been changed. However, while the CDI needle is still
deflected to the right, notice that the planned track is now on your left. If you turned
towards the CDI, the aircraft would actually diverge further from the planned track,
which means the VOR indicator is no longer acting as a command instrument. A turn
away from the CDI needle will be necessary to intercept the inbound track because the
aircraft is now the CDI needle and planned track the centre dot – a somewhat confusing
situation!
To return the VOR to the more convenient command mode, you must select an OBS
setting corresponding to the required inbound track that will cause the to/from flag to
indicate to flag to be displayed, which is 320 in this case. As soon as this is accomplished,
the CDI needle will swing over to the left of the OBI and indicate the correct direction
in which the aircraft must be turned to intercept the 320 track inbound to the station.
To avoid disorientation, always use the VOR indicator as a command instrument.

Tracking Abeam a VOR TR 350M 4 Full-scale CDI deflection

A common means of checking flight 260
(opposite same side,
away from VOR station)
progress is to note the time passing abeam (to
one side of) a nearby VOR ground station.
The most straightforward procedure is the
3 Needle moves
following: away from centre
Wind 90°
■ select and identify the off-track VOR; and 10°
DIA L
■ under the course index, set the radial 260 260 RA VOR
perpendicular (i.e. at 90°) to your course.
10°
2 Needle moves
The CDI will be fully deflected to one toward centre
side if the aircraft is well away from the
abeam position, and it will gradually move 260
from full deflection one side to full deflec- 1 Full-scale CDI
deflection (on
tion on the other side as the aircraft passes same side as
through the ±10° arc either side of the 16-24.EPS
VOR station)
selected radial. The aircraft is at the abeam
position when the CDI is centred. Figure 7-24 Tracking abeam a VOR.

Example 7-5
An aircraft is tracking 350 and will pass approximately 20 nm abeam a VOR ground sta-
tion out to its right. The VOR radial perpendicular to course is the 260 radial, and so
260 (or the reciprocal of the radial 080) should be set with the OBS. Although there are
two OBS settings that may be used to determine when the aircraft is abeam a VOR
ground station, it is suggested that you always set the appropriate radial with the OBS,
i.e. the magnetic bearing from the off-track VOR station. Under these circumstances,
the CDI will be on the same side as the VOR until you have passed through the selected
radial. In the case illustrated, the VOR is off-track to the right, and before passing abeam
the ground station, the CDI will be out to the right. It will centre to indicate the abeam
position and then move to the other side. The abeam position can also be identified by
setting the bearing to the VOR under the course index (rather than radial from the
VOR), in which case the movement of the CDI will be from the opposite side. How-
ever, it is better practice to standardise on a method, and we suggest setting the radial
from the VOR.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

226 Navigation

Intercepting a Track Using the VOR

Visualising Where You Are and Where You Want To Go

As with making intercepts using the ADF, you need to know:
■ Where am I?
■ Where do I want to go?
■ How do I get there?

The easiest method of orientating the aircraft using the VOR is to rotate the OBS until
the CDI centres. This can occur on either of two bearings that are reciprocals of each other.
To ensure that the VOR indicator will act as a command instrument, you must select the
omni-bearing that resembles the aircraft’s planned track. With the correct bearing selected:
■ the to/from flag will indicate to if the planned track is inbound towards the VOR
ground station; and
■ the to/from flag will indicate from if the planned track is outbound away from the
VOR ground station.
Select the planned track in degrees magnetic using the omni-bearing selector (OBS).
Determine which way to turn to intercept the course, and then take up a suitable inter-
cept heading.

Intercepting an Inbound Track

The following is the sequence to intercept an inbound track:
■ select and identify the VOR;
■ orientate yourself with respect to the VOR;
■ set the track to the VOR under the course index and determine the relative position
of this track; and
■ take up a suitable intercept heading, and wait for the CDI to centre.

Example 7-6
While heading 198°M, ATC instructs you to track inbound on the 190 radial to a
particular VOR. There is a wind from the west.
First, orientate yourself by rotating the OBS until the CDI centres. In this case, the
CDI centres on 230 with the to/from flag indicating from. (It would also centre on 050
with the to/from flag indicating to.) You have chosen a 90° intercept, so the heading will
be 100°M to intercept the 190 radial. The track to the VOR on the 190 radial will be
010. As the CDI starts to move (within 10° of the selected course), you lead in by an
amount that allows the aircraft to smoothly join course and allow a wind correction
angle of 5° to counter a wind from the west. The example is illustrated in figure 7-25.

Intercepting an Outbound Track

The VOR is just as useful tracking away from a VOR ground station as tracking towards
it, and it is much easier to use than the NDB–ADF combination.

Example 7-7
You are tracking inbound on the 170 radial to a VOR (that is, 350 set with the to/from
flag indicating to), and ATC instructs you to take up a heading to intercept the 090 radial
outbound (that is, 090 set with to/from flag indicating from). Orientation is not a problem
in this example since you already know where you are (the usual situation). The preferred
method for tracking inbound on the 170 radial is to have 350 set under the course index
since you are tracking 350 to the VOR. This ensures that the VOR indicator is a com-
mand instrument (that is, fly towards the CDI needle to regain track).

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

7: VOR 227

VOR

230 radial 190 radial

Heading 198 Heading 010
MH 010
005
M
O
FR
2 30

Allow
WCA 5 ing
° left

MH 010
198 005
230 MH
100
MH

100
MH
010 full scale

010 moving
CDI

190 FR
010
CDI

TO
OM
16-25.EPS

Figure 7-25 Intercepting an inbound track to a VOR.

MH
MH
03 09 080
VOR 0 0
090 radial 090

W/V
170 ra

MH
03 09
dial

0 0

MH 350
355

Figure 7-26 Intercepting a track outbound from a VOR.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

228 Navigation

You visualise the situation as follows:

■ tracking northward towards the VOR; and
■ the desired track, 090 from the VOR, lies ahead to the right.
To intercept the 090 radial, do the following:
■ set 090 under the course index;
■ take up a suitable intercept heading (MH 030 for a 60° intercept); and
■ maintain MH 030 until the CDI moves from full-scale left deflection towards the centre.
To avoid overshooting the track, you should anticipate the interception and lead in
by commencing a turn just prior to intercepting track with the CDI centred.
The amount of lead-in required for a successful turn from the intercept heading
straight onto the planned track depends upon the following:
■ the rate at which the CDI needle is moving (the higher the airspeed and the closer
the aircraft is to the station, the faster the needle will move and the greater the antic-
ipation required); and
■ the magnitude of the intercept angle itself (the greater the angle, the greater the time
and radius required for the turn onto track and the greater the anticipation required).

Limitations of the VOR System

The VOR, like the NDB–ADF, is not a precision navaid. All VOR indications are subject
to varying degrees of error, arising from a number of different sources.

Ground Station Error

Signal accuracy can be affected by the ground station equipment, namely the transmitter,
aerials and power supply. Bearing errors from this source are almost always less than ±2°.

Site Effect Error

The propagation path of VOR signals is significantly affected by any physical obstacles
(such as buildings or fences) or irregular terrain features (such as rocks) lying in close prox-
imity to the transmitter site. The bearing errors caused by site effect are checked during
the initial commissioning process and periodically thereafter. Bearing errors are usually less
than ±3°. Occasionally, but particularly in areas of unfavourable terrain, site errors in excess
of acceptable limits cannot be avoided. Under these circumstances, the likelihood of unre-
liable bearing information within specific sectors or at certain altitudes and distances will
be notified in the ERSA or by NOTAM if the problem is to be of short duration.

Terrain Effect Error

The bearing information contained in VOR signals arriving at the aircraft may be dis-
torted by spurious signals reflected from terrain between the transmitter and the air-
borne receiver. This type of interference causes oscillations of the CDI or RMI needles.
Rapid oscillations are called scalloping. Slow oscillations are due to an effect known as
course bending. Under normal circumstances, the maximum bearing error that may be
expected from these sources will be ±2°. However, as is the case with site effect errors,
particularly unfavourable terrain can cause more significant errors in certain locations.
These errors will be noted in the ERSA.

Airborne Equipment Error

Bearing errors that may arise as a result of imperfections in the airborne equipment are
usually less than ±2°.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

7: VOR 229

Vertical Polarisation Error

Vertical polarisation error is rarely encountered. VOR stations emit radio waves that are
orientated horizontally; that is, the waves vibrate in a plane parallel to the earth’s surface.
(These are known as horizontally polarised signals.) These are the only type of signals to
which the aircraft’s VOR antenna is normally sensitive. However, signals that are
reflected from large obstacles may be modified so that they become vertically oriented
waves; that is, they vibrate in a plane 90° to the earth’s surface. These spurious signals, if
present, will only be received if the aircraft is banked in a turn or sideslip and the VOR
antenna is moved away from its normal horizontal orientation. Receipt of vertically
polarized waves will be evident to you as large, rapid deflections of the deviation indi-
cator that cease when the aircraft is returned to level flight.

Error Summary
The combined effect at any given moment of all these sources of error on VOR indica-
tions is known as the aggregate error. The exact value of this total error will vary contin-
uously and is difficult to determine precisely. However, under normal circumstances,
aggregate error will rarely exceed ±5°. This is quite acceptable for normal VFR en route
navigational requirements.

Doppler VOR
Bearing errors arising from site effect can be quite significant in some locations due to
unavoidable interference from nearby terrain, vegetation, buildings, etc. Doppler VOR
ground transmitters, which are being installed in increasing numbers throughout Aus-
tralia, are notable for their ability to almost totally eliminate VOR bearing errors arising
from site effect. This eases constraints on transmitter location, reduces site modification
and maintenance requirements and provides increased bearing accuracy.
Doppler VOR stations are easily recognizable by their large dimensions in comparison
to conventional VOR transmitters. The way in which Doppler VOR transmissions differ
from conventional VOR transmissions is of no practical concern to the pilot. No special
equipment or procedures are required to use signals from a Doppler VOR station. The
standard VHF-NAV receiver will accept signals from both conventional and Doppler
VORs.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

230 Navigation

Review 7
1. The VOR is a (VHF/LF/MF) radio navigation aid.
2. Many VORs are paired with an (ILS/DME/NDB).
3. A radial is the (magnetic/true) bearing (to/from) a VOR ground station.
4. You are instructed by ATC to track outbound on the 070 radial from a VOR. In nil-
wind conditions, you would take up a heading of (070/250).
5. You are instructed to track inbound on the 050 radial. In nil-wind conditions, you
would take up a heading of (050/230).
6. A particular VOR may be identified by its . . . . .
7. A VOR ground station should transmit to an accuracy of at least ± . . . . . ° accuracy.
8. Bearing in mind all possible sources of error, VOR indications in the cockpit should
only be considered accurate to within ± . . . . . degrees.
9. Which radio set in the cockpit is used to select a VOR?
10. The needle in the VOR cockpit display is known as the . . . . .
11. Any one of 360 tracks may be selected in the VOR cockpit display using the . . . . .
12. What does a 1-dot deviation of the CDI on the VOR cockpit display indicate?
13. What does a 2-dot deviation of the CDI on the VOR cockpit display indicate?
14. What radial is the aircraft of if:
a. the CDI is centred, 090 selected with the OBS and the to/from flag showing from?
b. the CDI is centred, 090 selected with the OBS and the to/from flag showing to,?
c. the CDI is 2 dots right, 090 selected with the OBS and the to/from flag showing to?
d. the CDI is 1 dot left, 090 selected with the OBS and the to/from flag showing from?
15. You are flying MH 080, with the OBS selected to 080, CDI needle showing 2 dots
right, and the to/from flag showing from. Planned track is the 080 radial outbound.
Is this track to your left or right?
16. You are flying MH 300, with the OBS selected to 300, the CDI needle showing 3
dots left, and the to/from flag showing to. If the aircraft is now turned to the recip-
rocal heading of MH 120, would the indications in the VOR cockpit display change
in any way (assuming the OBS is left unaltered).
17. A VOR must be positively identified by an aural . . . . . identification signal.
18. A VOR identification signal is transmitted about once every . . . . . seconds.
19. What angular deviation from track is represented by half-scale deviation of the CDI?
20. Specify which aircraft illustrated in figure 7-27 could have the given VOR indications.
A

VOR
B
C 080

260

080 260 080

TO TO

FROM

OBS OBS OBS

16-28.EPS
(i) (ii) (iii)

Figure 7-27 Question 20.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

 Chapter 8

DME

Distance-measuring equipment (DME) is a radio navigation aid designed to provide

continuous indications of an aircraft’s distance from a selected DME ground station.
As an aid to visual navigation, the system may be used for the following purposes:
■ orientation by fixing the position of the aircraft in combination with position lines
(bearings) obtained from other navaids such as VOR or NDB;
■ reporting distances from ground stations for separation purposes; and
■ calculating groundspeed, where, if an aircraft is tracking directly towards or away from
a DME ground station, the rate of change in indicated distance can be used to calcu-
late groundspeed.

The DME System

The DME system operates in the UHF frequency band and is often referred to as the
1,000 MHz DME, since the operating frequencies are between 960 MHz and 1,215 MHz.
DME is an internationally standardised system and is installed at all international air-
ports and along major air routes throughout Australia.
There are 252 separate channels available for DME. Each channel is numbered from
1 to 126, followed by either an X or a Y suffix, giving a total of 252 different designa-
tions; for example, the Melbourne DME operates on channel 88X.
The military equivalent to DME is TACAN (tactical air navigation system). This
UHF system provides both distance and bearing information for military users – the
civilian DME system employs practically the same equipment as the distance-measuring
component of TACAN. Civil aircraft equipped with a DME receiver may, therefore,
tune into a military TACAN station to obtain distance indications only.
In Australia, the DME ground stations are normally co-located with VOR transmitters
to provide bearing and distance measurement capability. Occasionally, a VOR will be co-
located with a TACAN (usually at joint-user airports). This enables the use of the VOR com-
ponent for bearing and the distance measurement component of the TACAN for distance.
DME equipment installed in Australian light aircraft is commonly of the VAN-X type,
which includes a combined indicator and controller unit fitted to the instrument panel
(see figure 8-1). This uses a digital display to indicate DME distance, rate of closure and
time to the station (in minutes). Other types of DME indicator usually conform to a
similar arrangement.
Groundspeed

FREQ GS/T

119.9 120 58
NM KT MIN IDENT
PULL
OFF RMT

Distance Time
to station to station IR-1003.EPS

Figure 8-1 Typical DME indicator.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE 231

232 Navigation

It is important to note that DME frequencies are not tuned directly by the pilot. In
most cases, the DME is paired with a VOR. Whenever one of these VOR frequencies is
selected on the VHF-NAV set, the associated UHF DME frequency is automatically
tuned on the DME receiver (provided one is fitted and switched on). However, the
DME station can be separately identified provided a monitoring switch is available in
the cockpit.
As DME indications are also received from TACAN stations, the appropriate UHF
frequency is shown. When this is selected and identified, the DME component of
TACAN stations may be used. No bearing information is available of course.

Where To Find Details of a DME

Details about DME stations can be found in the same way as for other radio-navigation
aids, which is in the following:
■ En Route Supplement Australia (ERSA);
■ en route charts (ERC); and
■ Visual Terminal Charts (VTC).

Examples of each are shown in the relevant extracts below.

ERSA

17-02.EPS

Figure 8-2 DME information in the ERSA.

ERC Low VTC

  
not to be used in conjunction
with flight operations
or flight planning

Figure 8-3 Mallacoota DME information on the ERC and Melbourne DME information on the VTC.

As explained earlier, the DME and VOR stations are normally co-located, and to tune
to the DME, the paired VOR frequency is selected. This is shown in the ERSA and
ERC-L extracts for Mallacoota (figures 8-2 and 8-3) where the VOR and DME fre-
quency is 117.5, and in the VTC extract for Melbourne (figure 8-3), which shows a
VOR/DME frequency of 114.1.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

8: DME 233

DME Operating Principles

DME operates on a similar principle to radar. The airborne DME equipment transmits
a continuous series of radio pulses, known as interrogation pulses. The ground station
interrogates these pulses and if they are acceptable transmits a series of reply pulses back
to the aircraft.

Interrogator

e
puls
a t c hing
L or lse
n pu
r r o gatio
inte
e
puls
g r e p ly
gin
Ran
Ground beacon
(transponder)

IR-1007.EPS

Figure 8-4 Operation of the DME.

Radio energy, like all electromagnetic energy, travels at a constant speed, which is the
speed of light. The DME equipment in the aircraft is able to measure the time interval
between the transmission of the interrogation pulses and the reception of the reply
pulses from the station. This elapsed time is then converted into an equivalent distance.

Range and Rated Coverage

DME operates in the UHF frequency band. We noted earlier that radio waves in these
frequency bands travel in essentially a straight line. However, because radio signals in this
frequency band have a tendency to follow the curvature of the earth because of atmos-
pheric reaction, the UHF horizons lies slightly beyond the visual horizon.
Any large obstructions, such as mountain ranges, will block the passage of UHF radio
signals, creating a radio ‘shadow’ behind them. If there is high terrain near a DME sta-
tion, its range in certain directions may be reduced.

Reception

No reception

IR-0918.EPS

Figure 8-5 Terrain may block the reception of VHF (and UHF) signals.

Any reduction in the usable range of a DME due to intervening terrain may usually
be overcome by climbing to a higher altitude.
The rated coverage of radio navigation aids was covered in chapter 7, and in figure 7-
4 (page 213) we gave an extract from the AIP showing the rated coverage for VOR and
DME ground stations.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

234 Navigation

DME Accuracy
For the purposes of visual flight operations, we can say that the DME is an inherently
accurate radio-navigation aid. The system does not suffer from limitations such as night
effect, interference from static or thunderstorms, site errors or propagation disruptions
like mountain effect or scalloping. The only significant limitation of the DME arises
from the fact that it measures the straight-line distance between the aircraft and the
ground station, which is the slant distance.

6,000 ft
AGL

m
60 n
DME DME
ground
station
Slightly less
than 60 nm IR-1001.EPS

Figure 8-6 DME measures slant distance.

The slant distance will always be greater than the actual ground distance between the
aircraft and the DME station. However, unless the aircraft is operating at high altitude
and close to the ground station, the slant distance may, for all practical purposes, be
treated as the horizontal distance of the aircraft from the station.
The slant error will be greatest when the aircraft is directly overhead the DME ground
station. In this position, the DME will indicate the height of the aircraft above the sta-
tion (in nm). For example, an aircraft flying at 30,000 ft would have a DME indication
of slightly less than 5 nm when directly overhead the ground station, but at a range of
50 nm, the DME indication (slant distance) is only about nm greater than the actual
ground distance.
The greater the distance from the DME station, the less the slant error.

9,000 ft
DME 20 nm AGL DME 1.5 nm DME 20 nm

nce
di sta
Sl ant

Slightly less than 20 nm

horizontal distance
IR-1002.EPS

Figure 8-7 The DME will indicate the height of the aircraft overhead the DME station.

There is usually a null-signal zone directly overhead each DME ground station, and
this may cause DME indications to ‘drop out’ during station passage. A red failure flag
will usually appear to show that the signals are unusable.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

8: DME 235

Position Fixing With the DME

A DME distance actually represents a circular position
line around the ground station. An aircraft receiving
the DME is located somewhere along this line.
DME stations are often co-located with VOR or
NDB transmitters. When a circular position line DME
derived from DME indications is used in conjunction
with a straight position line obtained from a co-
located navaid, it is possible to establish a radio fix.
Such a fix will be very accurate, because the position
lines intersect each other at 90°.
However, when a semicircular DME position line 35 D M E IR-1004.EPS

is used in combination with straight position lines

Figure 8-8
determined from VORs or NDBs that are not co- A circular position line from a DME.
located with it, significant inaccuracies can result if
they intersect at angles less than 45°. For example, if
an aircraft is tracking directly from one VOR station
to another, a circular position line established from a
DME station abeam this track cannot provide an
accurate and unambiguous fix.

Example 8-1
Consider an aircraft that is tracking north-west from Mt Isa (MA). You may establish an
accurate position anywhere along this track by utilising the MA VOR (or NDB) and
DME, since the position lines from these co-located navaids will intersect at 90°.
However, an accurate fix is not possible if you were to use a straight position line
obtained from the Camooweal (CMW) NDB in combination with a circular position
line determined from the MA DME, since these position lines would intersect at a very
shallow angle.

MA MA
DME CMW DME
NDB
MA
VOR or NDB

CMW CMW
Good Poor
Fix Fix

MA 17-09.EPS MA

Figure 8-9 DME position lines must be used carefully to ensure that radio fixes have
adequate accuracy (that is, intersect at not less than 45°).

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

236 Navigation

Two circular position lines from LT VOR/DME

widely separated DME stations may also

157
be used to establish a radio fix. How-
ever, there may be some uncertainty in
these cases, as there will be two possible
positions for the aircraft at any one time, LT DME 40
and a third position line may be required
to resolve the ambiguity.
HB DME 48

Example 8-2
You are flying from Launceston (LT) to

79
Hobart (HB), and you obtain simulta- Could
also be
neous DME ranges from LT and HB. here!?
Where are you? As can be seen from the
Could
sketch in figure 8-10, there are two pos- be
sibilities. The only way to resolve this here?
ambiguity is to use a third position line,

336
which in this case could be a VOR
17-10.EPS HB VOR/DME
radial from either LT or HB. This will
immediately solve your problem. Figure 8-10 A third position line may be required if two
DME arcs are used to establish a radio fix.

Finding Groundspeed Using the DME

Many DME indicators are capable of displaying the rate of closure to the selected DME
ground station. If the aircraft is tracking directly towards or away from the station, then
the rate of closure will be equal to the current groundspeed (in fact, some indicators
label the rate of closure as GS), except when the aircraft is very close to the station.
If the DME equipment in the aircraft does not provide a groundspeed readout, you
can simply note the DME distance at two particular times and carry out a simple calcu-
lation based on the familiar relationship of groundspeed = distance  time, using either
mental arithmetic or a navigation computer. Again, this is only accurate when the air-
craft is tracking directly to or from the DME ground beacon.

Example 8-3
You note DME distance and time while tracking directly towards a DME ground sta-
tion. Calculate the groundspeed.
DME 35 Time 0215 UTC
DME 25 Time 0220 UTC
10 nm 5 min = GS 120 kt (Answer)
A quick method for checking the current groundspeed is to note the DME distance
covered in ⁄¡ of an hour (36 s). Simply multiplying this distance by 100 will give
the distance travelled in 1 hr, which is the groundspeed in knots.

Example 8-4
You are tracking directly away from a DME ground station and observe that the indi-
cated DME distance increases by 1.8 nm over a time interval of 36 s. What is the current
groundspeed of the aircraft?

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

8: DME 237

1 hr = 60 min
= 60  60 s
= 3,600 s
 1/100 of an hour = 36 s

The aeroplane has travelled 1.8 nm in 36 s.

Groundspeed = distance  time
= 1.8 nm  36 s
= 1.8 nm  1/100 hr
= 180 kt

Note. Since DME indications represent a slant distance from the ground station,
the groundspeed values calculated will only be accurate when this slant distance is
approximately the same as the actual ground distance. As a rough rule of thumb,
do not use the DME for a groundspeed check when you are higher than 5,000 ft
and closer than 10 DME.

Tracking Abeam a DME Ground Station

As an aircraft passes abeam a DME ground station, the rate of closure will gradually
decrease and will be equal to zero at the abeam position itself. As the aircraft proceeds,
the DME distance indications will gradually increase at a progressively faster rate; that
is, the rate of departure will increase. Do not use the DME for groundspeed checks
when tracking abeam the DME ground station.

GS = 120 kt

85 kt 23 DME
Rate of departure
increasing

40 kt 19 DME

Abeam DME DME

18 DME
Rate of
closure = 0 kt

Rate of closure
decreasing
40 kt 19 DME

85 kt 23 DME

GS = 120 kt
IR-1048.EPS

Figure 8-11 Tracking abeam a DME ground station.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

238 Navigation

Review 8
1. DME measures (horizontal/vertical/slant) distance.
2. The DME system operates in the . . . . . frequency band. There are (48/126/252)
different channels available, which are tuned by (selecting the appropriate channel
number on the DME control panel/selecting a paired VOR or ILS frequency on the
VHF-NAV set).
3. If an aircraft tracking directly towards a DME station is at 37 DME at time 0115 and
at 27 DME at time 0120, what is its groundspeed?
4. If an aircraft tracking directly away from a DME station is at 22 DME at time 1223
and at 32 DME at time 1230, what is its groundspeed?
5. A DME can provide a (circular/straight) position line.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

 Chapter 9

GPS Navigation

Note. GPS is not part of the CASA day VFR syllabus.

Global navigation satellite system (GNSS) is the generic term used to describe an evolving
global position and time determination system. The system includes satellite constella-
tions, aircraft receivers, system integrity monitoring and augmentation as necessary to
achieve the required navigation performance (RNP) for the particular phase of opera-
tion.The Navstar Global Positioning System (GPS) is the US military satellite-based
radio navigation system that now constitutes one component of GNSS. It provides users
with position and time information of great accuracy, anywhere on the earth, 24 hr a
day and in all weather.

Global Positioning System

GPS consists of 24 satellites (21 operational plus 3 spares) orbiting the earth in six orbital
planes. A number of ground stations around the world monitor and control the satellite
system. The system has three major segments:
■ space segment, the satellites;
■ control segment, the ground-based tracking and system adjustment; and
■ user segment, the receiver and processor equipment.

Space segment

Colorado
Springs
User segment –
airborne equipment

Ascension Control segment

Island
Diego
Garcia
Kwajalein
Hawaii

Monitor stations

Figure 9-1 Global positioning system.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE 239

240 Navigation

Space Segment
The space segment consists of a constellation of 24 satellites orbiting the earth at an alti-
tude of just over 20,200 km (10,900 nm) in six strategically defined orbital planes. Three
of the satellites are operating as spares with the remaining 21 in the constellation suffi-
cient to provide global navigation coverage. The objective of the GPS satellite configu-
ration is to provide at least five satellites in view from any point on earth. The satellites
orbit at an inclination angle of 55°, taking approximately 12 hr to complete an orbit.
The orbital position of each satellite is known precisely at all times by using almanac
and ephemeris information. Almanac information is the routine, long-term data about
the rising and setting, and the tracks and timings of all the satellites in the constellations.
This information tells you where to look to find a satellite. Ephemeris information is
the short-term, precise details on an individual satellite giving its exact position, condi-
tion and any correction information needed to produce accurate ranges.
7 2

18
4
15 10
5
12 19

21
13

16
20

8
3
14

17 9
1
11

6 IR-1707.EPS

Figure 9-2 24 satellites at 20,000 km – each orbit takes 12 hours.

Satellite Transmissions
Each satellite transmits its position and precise time of transmission, and a separate signal
used by the receiver to establish range from the satellite. This is achieved by the satellite
carrier wave being modulated with a 50 bits per second navigation message and a unique
encoded signal known as a pseudorandom code. It repeats itself every millisecond and is used
by the GPS receivers to recognise and track individual satellites for ranging purposes.
There are two types of pseudorandom code providing for two types of service:
■ a precise positioning service (PPS) accessed by the precision (P) code that is only available
to authorised military users and which permits extremely precise position resolution
and full access to the total capacity of the satellite system; and
■ a standard positioning service (SPS) accessed by the coarse/acquisition code (C/A code) is
made available for general civilian use.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

9: GPS Navigation 241

Prior to mid-2000, SPS had been a degraded signal, having its accuracy reduced to
the order of 100 m in lateral position and 140 m in altitude (95% of its capability) given
a quality receiver. This deliberate degradation, known as selective availability (SA), has
since been switched off and the accuracy of the system is greatly improved now univer-
sally providing a precision that had only been available to the military.
A minimum of three satellites is required to determine a two dimensional fix if alti-
tude is known; for a three dimensional fix, four are required. The navigation message
contains information on satellite ephemeris, GPS time reference, clock corrections,
almanac data and information on system maintenance status.
Control Segment
The controlling authority is the United States Department of Defence. By letter of
agreement between the United States Government and ICAO, civilian access is permit-
ted on a no-cost basis for the foreseeable future. It remains though, in the end, a US
military system but with an increasingly utilised civil component.
The control segment includes monitoring stations at various locations around the
world, ground antennas and up-links, and a master station. The stations track all satellites
in view, passing information to a master control station that controls the satellites’ clocks
and orbit states, and the status of the navigation messages.
Satellites are frequently updated with new data for the compilation of the navigation
messages. Assuming the current level of space vehicle technology, the planned life span
of a GPS satellite is seven to eight years.
User Segment
As previously mentioned, the receiver identifies each satellite by its unique pseudoran-
dom code. It then starts to receive and process navigation information. Ephemeris data
takes about 6 s to transmit while almanac data takes about 13 s. The almanac data is
stored in the receiver’s memory. During operation, almanac data in the receiver is up-
dated on a continuous basis. On startup, the receiver recalls the data that was last in
memory on the preceding shutdown.
Using the stored almanac data, the receiver determines which satellites should be in view
and then searches for their respective codes. It then establishes ranges to the satellites, and by
knowing their position, computes its own position. This process is known as pseudoranging.
Range determination is a simple matter of measuring the period between the time
of transmission and the time of reception of each satellite C/A code and multiplying
that time interval by the speed of light in free space. The GPS receiver does this by emit-
ting its own code at the same time as the satellite, using it and the time the signal from
the satellite is received to establish the time interval. Timing is critical. This is why time
reference is provided by synchronised, high-precision atomic clocks in the satellites.

How GPS Works

The GPS receiver is a position-finder system. It uses the known position of as many sat-
ellites as can be acquired and then computes a three-dimensional fix based on their
range, calculated from the elapsed time of the signal.
Fixing Position
A three-dimensional position in space (position and altitude) is accomplished by the
receiver determining where it must be located to satisfy the ranges to four or more
appropriately positioned satellites. A two-dimensional fix requires only three satellites to
be in view if altitude is known.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

242 Navigation

Synchronisation of the receiver’s time refer- Satellite 2

ence with that of the satellites is vital. Timing
errors are detected and eliminated by the Satellite 1
receiver’s computer. Figure 9-3 shows a two- 4 seconds
dimensional position established assuming the
respective clocks are synchronised perfectly.
However, if the receiver’s clock is, say, one sec-
ond fast, as is the case in figure 9-4, then the 5 seconds
Fix position
period between transmission and reception
with respect to each of the three satellites
interrogated will be sensed initially as taking
one second longer. This will be represented as
a gross error in all three ranges and thus rather
than producing a precise fix will create a very 3 seconds

large area anywhere within which the receiv-

ing aircraft could be positioned. Satellite 3 NAV-68.EPS

The receiver’s computer senses this and

Figure 9-3
immediately begins a trimming process until Two-dimensional fix established with perfect timing.
it arrives at an answer which allows all ranges
to arrive at the one and only position possible. This process automatically eliminates the
effect of receiver clock error for subsequent tracking and position-fixing.

Satellite 1 5 seconds Satellite 2

Corrected
fix position
6 seconds

Aircraft can be anywhere within this

area until computer “trimming”
establishes the correct position fix.

4 seconds

Satellite 3
NAV-69.EPS

Figure 9-4 Effect of receiver clock error of one second on two-dimensional fix.

Receiver Design
The capability of making range calculations to three, four or more satellites has an impact
on the design, cost and accuracy of GPS receivers, that is, whether they are single-channel
receivers operating sequentially or the more expensive and accurate receivers providing
multiple channels operating simultaneously. GPS receivers approved as a supplemental or
primary means navigation aid have multiple channels and come under the provisions of a
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Technical Service Order (TSO C-129). IFR and
primary-navigation certification specifications for GPS equipment include a requirement
for multiple receiver channels and a navigation integrity monitoring system known as
receiver autonomous integrity monitoring (RAIM). The use of portable, non-certified GPS
receivers cannot be relied upon for aircraft navigation; this chapter deals only with those
receivers that are authorised as conforming to TSO C-129.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

9: GPS Navigation 243

Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring

Receiver autonomous integrity monitoring (RAIM) is a special receiver function that
analyses the signal integrity and relative positions of all satellites that are in view so as to
select only the best four or more, isolating and discarding any anomalous satellites. At
least five satellites must be in view to have RAIM find an anomalous situation and six
to actually isolate the unacceptable satellite.
When operating, RAIM ensures that the minimum acceptable level of navigation
accuracy is provided for the particular phase of flight. In the process, it ensures that the
potential error known as the position dilution of precision (PDOP) or geometric dilution of
precision (GDOP) is minimised. The PDOP depends on the position of the satellites rel-
ative to the fix. The value of PDOP determines the extent of range and position errors.
When the satellites are close together, the tetrahedron formed covers a large area and
results in a high PDOP value (figure 9-6). However, when the selected satellites are far
apart, the area covered by the tetrahedron is much more compact, resulting in a lower
PDOP value and therefore greater accuracy. A PDOP value of less than six is acceptable
for en route operations. A value of less than three will be required for non-precision
approaches.

Receiver
position
Ra
ng

Ra
e
e

ng
nge

Receiver

ng
Ra

position
Ra

e
in here
NAV-71.EPS

Error Error

Error Error NAV-70.EPS

Figure 9-5 Good satellite geometry Figure 9-6 Poor satellite geometry
resulting in low PDOP. resulting in high PDOP.

Barometric Aiding
Barometric aiding is the process whereby the digital data of the pressure altimeter is used
by the GPS receiver as, in effect, the range readout of a (simulated) additional satellite.
It is only applicable when there are less than five satellites in view and RAIM alone can-
not be effective. Barometric aiding provides additional backup and RAIM capability and
therefore increases the navigation coverage of GPS.

Masking Function
The masking function in the GPS receiver software ensures that any satellites in view
that lie below a fixed angle of elevation relative to the receiver are ignored. This is due
to the range errors that will be generated because of the greater distances that their sig-
nals will have to travel through the ionosphere and troposphere to reach the receiver.
The fixed angle stored in the receiver is known as the mask angle, although in some
receivers, it is determined automatically by the receiver, depending on the strength of

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

244 Navigation

the transmitted signals at low angles of elevation, receiver sensitivity and acceptable low-
elevation errors. When fixed, it is typically set at 7.5° (figure 9-7).

Yes

Yes Yes

Yes

No
7.5° 7.5°
Aircraft receiver
Elevation angle
(in this case 7.5°)
Earth

IN14-14.EPS

Figure 9-7 Mask angle.

Receiver Displays
Displays for the pilot vary from one GPS unit to another. Flight planning data is usually
entered via an appropriate keypad on a control display unit (CDU) or control panel. The
usual navigation information is displayed: position, track, groundspeed, estimated
elapsed time (EET) and, with a TAS input, TAS and wind. The unit must also be capable
of showing satellite status, the satellites in view and being tracked, the value of PDOP,
RAIM status and signal quality.

Operating Modes
GPS receivers normally provide three modes of operation:
■ navigation with RAIM;
■ navigation (two- or three-dimensional) without RAIM; and
■ loss of automatic navigation (annunciated as DR in some receivers).

Differential GPS
For GPS to be of any value as a primary navigation source for precision approach and
departure operations, an extremely high order of accuracy is required. Furthermore, that
high accuracy standard should be available 99.99% of the time. The accuracy of GPS has
improved greatly now that selective availability has been switched off.
An additional means of improving the accuracy for approaches is by using an
enhancement known as differential GPS (DGPS). A GPS receiver is installed at a ground
station located in the terminal area. The station compares the GPS computed position
with the actual (surveyed) position of the station and determines the difference, if any,
which of course would be common to other GPS receivers operating in the area. The
station transmits the appropriate error correction signal by data link to the aircraft with
the result that an accuracy in the order of +1 to –10 m is achievable. Figure 9-8 shows
the simplicity of the concept.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

9: GPS Navigation 245

GPS satellites

Surveyed
Correction antenna Differential
transmitter receiver

Correction terms NAV-53.EPS

Figure 9-8 Differential GPS.

This enhanced standard of accuracy is acceptable for non-precision instrument pro-

cedures but not for precision approaches. However, much research and development
work is being undertaken, particularly by the FAA, to improve the accuracy even fur-
ther.
As well as developing differential GPS for precision operations, a much wider net-
work of ground receivers, with geostationary navigation receiver and communication
satellites and relays, is being developed for en route operations. The enhanced network
is known as wide area differential GPS (WADGPS) (figure 9-9).
Geostationary satellite
GPS satellites (e.g. Inmarsat)

Differential
correction
message

Differential
correction

Wide area differential

(WAD) GPS
ground station
NAV-72.EPS

Figure 9-9 Concept of wide area differential GPS.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

246 Navigation

Note. It is important to point out that GPS (GNSS) is still a developing technology
as far as civil air operations are concerned. At the time of publication, GPS equipment
meeting system integrity standards and operated in accordance with specified limita-
tions and procedures is approved as a primary-means navigation aid for IFR en route
operations, specified IFR arrival procedures and certain non-precision approaches.

GPS Errors and Limitations

So far, the errors we have covered are receiver clock error and how it is resolved, the
effect of PDOP on position accuracy, and the accuracy (or errors) associated with
receiver design. However, there are other errors affecting GPS performance that we
must examine briefly.

Ephemeris Error
Ephemeris error is the error inherent in the data that defines the satellite’s current posi-
tion, which, in turn, is transmitted to the receiver.

Multi-Path Error
In a similar manner to the behaviour of signals used by other radio navigation systems,
it is possible for some of the satellite signals, the pseudorandom code signals, to reach
the receiver antenna after both bouncing off the earth’s surface as well as directly from
the satellite. Thus the receiver can receive signals from different directions. This can lead
to distortion of the C/A and P-coded pulses that in turn can induce a ranging error.

Ionospheric Propagation Effects

The ionosphere, which we know is the band of charged particles that lies between 80
and 120 miles above the earth’s surface, affects the propagation speed and thus the travel
time of the GPS signals, thereby degrading the accuracy of the position. Ionospheric
propagation effects can be offset by the receiver with data received from several satellites.

Tropospheric Propagation Effects

The lower region of the atmosphere, the troposphere, contains significant amounts of
water vapour. The effect of this is to slow down the satellite signals inducing ranging
errors. This tends to degrade accuracy. However, tropospheric propagation effects are
minimised by appropriate compensation in the receiver.

Receiver Error
Receiver error is simply a small ranging error brought about by the difficulty of match-
ing precisely the receiver’s emitted digital pseudorandom code with that of the satellite.

Interference
Because GPS (GNSS) signals are relatively weak, interference can cause significant deg-
radation in navigation or, under certain conditions, complete loss of navigation capability.
With more and more extensive use of all bands of the electromagnetic spectrum, the po-
tential for interference problems has increased. Interference to GPS operation can occur

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

9: GPS Navigation 247

from electromagnetic influences on board the aircraft (such as insufficient shielding from
VHF transmitters and other equipment) and from external sources (such as high-powered
radar, TV and FM stations in the vicinity of the receiver). Minimisation techniques and
shielding systems offset these problems. However, where GPS integrity is suspect, or
there is a loss of RAIM or interference is experienced, occurrences should be reported
with comprehensive details of the circumstances so that the matter can be properly re-
corded and investigated. GPS system verification sheets are available for this purpose.

Tracking Accuracy and Collision Avoidance

Tracking accuracy should not really be classified as an error, rather it is a testament to
the precision of GPS. Its very quality of precision track-keeping highlights the increased
potential for collision, particularly head-on collision, with other GPS-equipped aircraft
operating on the same track, or approaching the same turning point. As discussed later,
this problem is not helped by the propensity of some pilots to have their heads always in
the cockpit. It is essential to maintain the required separation procedures and to maintain
a thorough lookout. However, this problem is considered to be so significant that there
have been discussions in the United States and Europe about the notion of requiring
airline operators to flight plan with small track offsets as a safety measure in addition to
ATS separation when navigating by GPS.

GPS Error Magnitudes

Typical magnitudes for GPS errors are listed in the table below.

Sources of GPS Error C/A Code DGPS P-code

a. Clock error 2m 0 2m
b. Ephemeris error 4m 0 4m
c. Ionospheric propagation error 8m 0 1m
d. Tropospheric propagation error 3m 0 3m
e. Receiver noise error 1m 1m 1m
f. Total pseudorange error [square root of sum of 10 m 1m 6m
the squares of (a) to (e)]
g. Maximum position dilution of precision (factor) 3 3 3
h. Total position error [f  g approximately] 29 m 3m 17 m

Table 9-1 Magnitude GPS error.

Operations Without RAIM

If RAIM is lost, the accuracy of the system is considered unacceptable for both naviga-
tion and ATC separation purposes. Therefore tracking must be closely checked against
other navigation systems. Moreover, if in CTA, ATC must be advised that RAIM is lost
in any of the following situations:
■ RAIM is lost for more than ten minutes, even if GPS is still providing position infor-
mation;
■ RAIM is not available when ATC request GPS distance, or if an ATC clearance or
requirement based on GPS distance is imposed;
■ the GPS receiver is in DR mode or loses navigation function for more than one
minute; or
■ indicated displacement from track centreline exceeds 2 nm.

ATC may then adjust separation.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

248 Navigation

If valid position information is lost (2D and DR mode) or non-RAIM operation

exceeds ten minutes, the GPS information is to be considered unreliable. Other naviga-
tion techniques should be used until RAIM is restored. If RAIM is restored, the appro-
priate ATS unit should be notified prior to using the GPS for primary navigation, to
allow ATC to reassess the appropriate separation standards.

Geodetic Considerations
We know that the closest shape that the earth resembles is an oblate spheroid. However,
this is too gross an approximation for precision mapping purposes since the earth has, in
reality, a much more irregular shape. In other words, the shape of the earth at a particular
locality will differ somewhat to the shape of the earth at another. Consequently, as
shown in figure 9-10, it is common practice to adopt a local ellipsoid, which is an ellip-
soid (mathematical model or geodetic datum) that provides the closest approximation to
the shape of the earth or geoid over the particular area of interest.
GPS receivers and databanks use a global datum known as World Geodetic System
(WGS) 84. However, other datums exist; for instance, Glonass, the Russian satellite
positioning system, uses a Russian datum known as Parameters of the Earth (PE) 90.
The problem is that the coordinates for a position from one datum will usually result in
a different position using a map based on another geodetic datum. For example, the run-
way touchdown point coordinates extracted from, say, an aerodrome chart not based on
WGS 84 might in fact represent the position of an adjacent taxiway if keyed into the
GPS. The differences can be significant with errors as high as hundreds of metres. To this
end, since GPS (GNSS) is now an international navigation reference, ICAO has for-
mally adopted the WGS 84 geodetic datum for their aeronautical charts and databanks.

Local ellipsoid
or geodetic datum True Earth
shape

True Earth
shape

NAV-74.EPS

Figure 9-10 In mapping, it is common practice to use a local ellipsoid.

Human Factor Considerations

We know that in its fully operational mode, GPS has the capability of providing precise
navigation information and guidance. However, like all forms of advanced computer
technology, its capability, and therefore ultimately the safety of the flight, is governed
largely by the manner in which the equipment is operated and monitored. This is espe-
cially so when the equipment interfaces with an autopilot, flight director or advanced

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

9: GPS Navigation 249

autoflight system. Regardless of equipment design and ergonomic factors, ultimately the
pilot in command must shoulder the responsibility for the safe performance of any avi-
ation system under his or her control.
Accident and incident history shows, however, that an alarming number of pilots tend
to be too trusting when using advanced aviation technology. GPS operation is a case in
point. There are some who are quite happy to allow the equipment to ‘drive the ship’ with-
out questioning its accuracy, or applying basic airmanship principles such as cross-checking
the steering data it provides. Put simply, some pilots operating equipment like GPS can and
often do lose situational awareness; that is, they allow themselves to drop out of the loop.
Generally, the tendency develops as the result of complacency since GPS seems to
perform so admirably for most of the time. However, GPS is subject to a number of
errors and limitations. It can also fail or, in some cases, lose its power supply. However,
there are also important errors and procedures related to human factors applicable to
GPS (and, for that matter, all automated systems) that need to be addressed.

Mode Error
Incorrect mode selection is a very significant problem and one that has come more into
prominence now that fully integrated autoflight systems and flight management systems
are commonplace; for example, a tracking error may occur because the autopilot con-
troller has been left in heading instead of navigation mode.
In the context of a GPS, it is not possible to discuss specific modes because of the
differences in the design of the various receiver CDUs and control panels. However, suf-
fice to say that when a GPS mode or function switch is operated, a positive check should
always be made to ensure that the action or function desired has actually been selected.

Data Entry Error

As the term implies, data entry error is the error caused by inserting incorrect informa-
tion, usually via the CDU or panel keyboard, into the GPS computer. It applies to all
RNAV systems and can have catastrophic consequences. In the overwhelming majority
of cases, incorrect waypoint position coordinates are inserted, being a human error
caused by either inattention, unfamiliarity, or a simple typographical error when trans-
ferring data from a navigation chart to the GPS. However, ergonomic factors can con-
tribute to the problem. Some GPS receivers have complicated CDU keyboards or
control panels, or alphanumeric displays which are difficult to read. It is also not
unknown for databases to carry mistakes, either through transcription errors by the pro-
vider or incorrect navigation data being supplied by the relevant aeronautical informa-
tion service – all the more reason for using only current databases, checking NOTAMs
and adopting rigid data-validation procedures.

Data Validation and Cross-Checking

Validation and cross-checking procedures are designed to detect data entry errors and,
in the broader sense, confirm GPS reliability and accuracy by comparing the navigation
output with other navigation sources. The following procedures are recommended:
■ All data entered, either manually or from a database, should be checked carefully by
the pilot against the relevant and current navigation chart. This check should include
a second crew member in the case of a multi-crew operation.
■ To reduce the chance of data entry error, navigation data should be derived from a
current database that cannot be modified by the crew.
■ Only data from a validated, current database should be used for navigation below LSALT.
■ All GPS-generated tracks and distances of the flight plan (waypoint string) should be
checked against the current chart and flight plan for accuracy before flight and at any

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

250 Navigation

time in flight prior to embarking on an amended route, such as prior to ‘direct-to’ track-
ing or a diversion to an alternate; that is, a check for reasonableness should be carried out.
■ If the navigation data is derived from a database, the database should be checked to
ensure that it remains current for the duration of the flight.
■ Radio navigation aids, other RNAV systems if installed and, where appropriate, DR
and visual navigation techniques should be used to cross-check and backup the GPS
navigation data (keep it honest).
■ When within coverage of conventional radio navigation aids, the navigation perfor-
mance of the GPS should be checked to ensure that track is maintained within the
tolerances as defined for the most accurate aid being received. If there is any discrepancy,
the navigation information provided by the radio navigation aids must take precedence.
Automation-Induced Complacency
Automation-induced complacency is a man–machine interface problem, which we have
already touched on. It is one that could be characterised by the question, ‘Who’s in
charge, Captain?’ It is a condition whereby pilots become complacent and overdepend-
ent on the automatic features of the aircraft. It has come more into prominence in recent
years with the advent of glass-cockpit aircraft with fully integrated automatic systems.
It is usually an insidious process whereby, over time, complacency sets in; it is as
though the magic machinery assumes control that is relinquished by the pilot. The pilot
is usually blissfully unaware of what is really going on. It is a condition that is highly
relevant to GPS operators.
As mentioned previously, there is a tendency for pilots to drop out of the loop. They
allow the machine, in this case the GPS, to work on its own without considering its lim-
itations or potential to get things awfully wrong. The effects of automation-induced
complacency can be particularly significant when the cockpit workload is high. There
seems to be a reluctance to intervene and take control away from the machinery even
when something is obviously not going according to expectations.
Pilots lose sight of the fact that GPS is only a tool and cannot think for itself. It works
well most of the time, albeit within defined limitations and subject to certain errors.
However, it needs to be set up correctly, monitored continuously, and its data validated
by appropriate cross-checks and backup procedures. Like any other aviation technology,
GPS can occasionally let you down. Some of the cockpit disciplines necessary to combat
the problem have already been discussed.
Here are a few more tips, which are relevant to the operation of other automatic sys-
tems as well as GPS:
■ Know exactly what the system’s operating modes, limitations and errors are.
■ Be clear in your mind beforehand what you wish the system to do.
■ Be suspicious. Look for errors. Always double-check data output against data input
and against other data sources.
■ Always know what the equipment is doing. Manage it. Don’t let it manage you.
■ Reject the assistance of a system that is not performing to your expectations or that
is providing conflicting information. Either resolve the ambiguity properly or ignore
the system altogether.
■ Arrange your cockpit priorities. Flying the aircraft must always come first.

Keep in the loop. Stay in command even if you delegate control.

Non-Standardisation of GPS–Pilot Interface
Non-standardisation of GPS keyboards or control panels, functions and displays is a fac-
tor that significantly increases the potential for pilots to make errors. The proliferation
of GPS types contributes to the problem, making it difficult for pilots to transfer from

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

9: GPS Navigation 251

one type to another, hence the regulatory requirement for GPS-type training for IFR
pilots. Clearly, some form of standard design code for controls and displays of advanced
avionics would be desirable, but is unlikely to be realised. With some GPS receivers, it
would appear that marketing and engineering considerations have taken precedence
over the operating needs of the user. What looks neat and nice in the glossy brochures
can end up having many shortcomings when situated in an aircraft cockpit; that is, ergo-
nomic (man–machine interface) considerations have not been properly addressed. Some
GPS receivers are not user-friendly. A further important factor is the placement of the
equipment in the cockpit. Poor design combined with poor placement can make it
extremely difficult for pilots to interface with the equipment with confidence. A few of
the considerations that are causing concern are described below.
Size
As is the trend in mobile telephone and computer markets, we are told by the marketeers
that small is good, tiny is better. Consequently, some GPS equipment is unsuitable for air-
craft. Tiny keyboards and miniature displays in a cockpit might look neat but are quite
impractical, contributing in a large measure to data entry error, particularly in turbulence.
Control Knobs and Switches
Control knobs and switches are a significant area of non-standardisation. There is also con-
siderable variation in the types of knobs and switches, their size, the direction in which
they operate and their functions. To aggravate the problem, there is a growing trend
towards providing multi-functional controls in the interests of neatness and compactness;
that is, providing knobs that control more than one function depending on the mode
selected. The trade-off is usually added complexity. Therefore, the potential for mistakes
increases correspondingly, especially when workload is high. A GPS receiver with simple,
unambiguous controls and switches is clearly the best choice, all else being equal.
Data Display
Screen size can be critical, particularly having regard to the placement of the unit in the
cockpit. However, the size and definition of characters and symbols are also important
issues. The data must be clearly discernible within the general cockpit scan, but not too
prominent so as to be a distraction diverting the pilot’s attention from the primary task
of flying the aircraft. Generally, with monochrome displays, CRTs are superior to liquid
crystal, especially under varying cockpit light conditions. However, the technology in
this area is improving rapidly and colour displays are becoming more common, high-
lighting a need for standard colour codes as well as standard symbology.
Position in the Cockpit
The position of the unit in the cockpit will be influenced by its design and size. Ideally, the
GPS should be located within the NAV/COM group on the main instrument panel or cen-
tre pedestal panel, depending on the aircraft type and the information displayed; for exam-
ple, some receivers can display a CDI on the data screen. The position must ensure that
parallax errors and potential physiological effects, such as spatial disorientation, are avoided.

Human Information Processing and Situational Awareness

Human information processing and situational awareness are complex human behav-
ioural issues that have challenged academics, psychologists, and human-factor experts
over the years. It is extremely relevant to GPS operation and monitoring. Literally hun-
dreds of technical papers, study references and books have been written on these mat-
ters. Some of these are available in technical libraries for the keen-minded to pursue.
For our purposes, a brief and simple overview will suffice.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

252 Navigation

Information Processing
The human brain can be likened to an information processor or computer. The brain
has evolved to act logically to incoming stimuli, and like the computer, follows a pro-
grammed path to a programmed result (often this means a decision).
The process can be influenced by past experiences, training and knowledge (stored
data). Under certain circumstances, these influences can be very compelling indeed.
Any stimuli first has to be sensed by one or more of our sensory organs, such as the
eyes, ears and skin. Our interpretation of what is sensed will either be related directly to
the stimuli, or more often than not modified significantly by past experiences and
knowledge; for example, everyone has experienced an odd sensation of stepping up or
down an escalator which isn’t working, and most of us understand that the command
‘right engine’ means the one on the right, not the one that isn’t wrong.
The brain generally is a serial processor, or single-channel system, in which information
passes through sequentially. In other words, we cannot concentrate on more than one thing
at a time. This is why in the cockpit we have information displays, and warning and caution
systems with lights and bells to shift our attention immediately should the need arise.
The final part of the process is to convert the stimuli that has been interpreted (and mod-
ified) into a decision and some kind of action. The important consideration here is that the
quality or correctness of the decision will depend to a great extent on the amount of infor-
mation obtained (the number of stimuli) and the extent to which past knowledge and expe-
rience has been used in making it. The implementation of the decision – the action – also
requires the pilot to adopt the correct response and, importantly, to perceive and interpret
the feedback to validate the process that led to the decision and action in the first place.
Accident statistics show how easy it can be for pilots to rush into decisions based on
insufficient information. There is also a condition known as false hypothesis whereby in
relation to processing stimuli, the pilot’s past knowledge and experience become so
dominant that the expectancy of a particular outcome is unduly raised. Usually, infor-
mation is either incomplete or misinterpreted and false conclusions are drawn. For
example, a pilot reports that a piston-engine aircraft’s cruise performance is down by
around 10 kt. The cylinder-head temperature is low, therefore the engine is assumed to
be running rich, affecting power. But, after landing, the cowl-flap circuit breaker is
found to be popped. The cowl flaps had been fully open for the entire flight causing
extra drag, low CHTs and lower than expected cruise performance. The message from
this simple example is that more information should have been sought. Therefore the
keyword in the whole process is information. To gain information, the pilot must be in a
situation to receive it. This means that the pilot must be situationally aware.
Situational Awareness
Situational awareness can be described as the degree to which a pilot is conscious of the
constituents that make up the environment in which she or he is operating. Put simply,
it characterises how closely one is in touch with what is going on. It requires conscious
effort and attention, with the pilot expending time and energy in order to stay in touch,
and it is fundamental to the information processing mechanism previously described.
It is an orderly process, and in the context of aircraft operations, includes the disci-
plines of system monitoring, regular checks, and cross-checks. These procedures ensure
that the pilot or crew is completely aware of how the aircraft and its systems are per-
forming, the factors that influence its operation (like weather, traffic and ATC), and
whether operations are proceeding in accordance with plans.
Compulsive Fiddling
Since we are examining human factor issues, it is appropriate to have a final word about
a disease with which many pilots are afflicted. It is called compulsive fiddling. It is especially

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

9: GPS Navigation 253

common whenever new technology is introduced into the cockpit. The attraction to
fiddle with the new equipment is, for some, overwhelming. The symptoms include
excessive tapping, switching and adjusting, usually with the pilot’s head down and eyes
focused on the new toy and little regard for how the aircraft is performing or what is
happening in the real world outside the cockpit. As we have mentioned, the potential
for collision has increased markedly with the advent of GPS. Clearly, compulsive fid-
dling is a danger that must be recognised and avoided. The importance of maintaining
situational awareness when operating GPS cannot be overemphasised.

Airworthiness Requirements
Pilot Training
It is a requirement that, prior to operating GPS equipment for primary navigation, the
pilot must undertake training with an approved organisation and in accordance with a
syllabus set down in the CAOs. Satisfactory completion of the course and competence
must be demonstrated and certified in the pilot’s logbook by an approved person (FOI,
or chief pilot, or CFI of the organisation or their representative).
Aircraft Equipment
Under current policies, GPS receivers approved for IFR primary-navigation purposes
must have the US FAA Technical Standards Order (TSO) C-129 authorisation or its
approved equivalent. Installation must meet CASA airworthiness requirements, demon-
strate accuracy and reliability, and must include the connection of the automatic baro-
metric aiding function.

Airborne GPS

Aircraft Equipment
The GPS aircraft equipment consists of the following:
■ receiver unit;
■ antenna;
■ barometric and heading inputs;
■ external CDI and mode switch; and
■ annunciator.

Receiver Unit
The receiver unit is much more than just a receiver. It usually houses a 12-channel receiver,
a very capable processor, a keypad, a display system and has a slot for the data card. For
aircraft use, the receiver must comply to the US FAA TSO C-129 specification. This spec-
ification states that the GPS unit must be panel-mounted and have permanent power and
antenna fittings, must provide certain functions and have an up-to-date database.
Antenna
The antenna is permanently mounted usually on top of the aircraft and hard-wired into
the receiver. The top mounting is important as the GPS signals are very low power trans-
missions and shielding of the antenna will reduce satellite reception.
Barometric and Heading Inputs
To facilitate barometric aiding, a compatible digital altitude signal is provided from a
servo altimeter or an air data computer. Similarly, a modern remote compass system can
supply a digital input of aircraft heading.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

254 Navigation

External CDI
The GPS can be coupled to the HSI and displayed on the CDI. This makes GPS tracking
similar to that of the VOR. A mode switch is provided so the GPS or NAV1 can be
selected to the CDI. This means the GPS can be coupled to the autopilot, which is very
helpful for en route flying if the GPS is delivering accurate information.

Annunciator
As the CDI can be provided with NAV1 or GPS tracking information, a mode annunci-
ator is provided including failure indications.

Airborne GPS Features

The GPS is an area navigation system as well as an approach aid. To designate each flight
plan position, reporting point or radio aid, the system uses waypoints (WPT). Waypoints
and waypoint data form the GPS database, which is provided on a computer data card
or updated by connecting to a computer to replace the database file. Some waypoints
can be entered manually and these are known as user waypoints.
The importance of the correct entry of the waypoints cannot be overstated. Database
information is provided on a card that has been validated and cannot be modified. Using
your GPS manual, you should work out how to view the database. For instance, the
code YPPF will display Parafield Airport in South Australia. The latitude and longitude
are displayed and there are usually options showing ATIS, tower and ground frequencies.
The code PF will display the NDB showing its location and frequency.
Most data cards provide very large international databases, which is wonderful if you fly
in other countries; however, having so much information at your fingertips can cause
problems if you are not careful as you select WPTs. As an example, say you are wanting to
overfly Strathbogie (SBG) in central Victoria. When selecting SBG, the GPS displays a
duplicate WPT alert message then lists an NDB and a VOR. As the VOR is more accurate
for tracking, it is tempting to select the VOR without reading the other information. In
fact, the SBG NDB is the right aid as it is at Strathbogie; the SBG VOR is in Austria, as
will be discovered later when it is found that the distance to the next WPT is 8,660 nm!
Unless you are flying to remote locations, you should avoid user WPTs until you get
to know your GPS. Keying in a WPT designator and the latitude and longitude to create
a user WPT seems simple enough, but it is easy to get it wrong. Always have any user-
entered data cross-checked (does it look right?).
There is a feature on all units that allows you to save the current position as a WPT.
This is another way to create a user WPT and is very useful and accurate if you are at a
remote airfield or have a good fix at a particular position. You should designate that posi-
tion with a familiar code so it is easy to find later.
All GPS units have a direct-to or a goto function. This allows you to track from your
present position direct to a position you select. You will have to activate the function by
pushing the button, selecting the position then entering the position by either pressing
the enter button or the direct-to button again. This feature can cause real problems if
you shortcut to your destination. Your flight preparation and planning probably made
you aware of entry procedures and clearances for your original track; however, on your
new track, you may need some time to check that you are not going to fly through a
restricted area or use a different frequency.
Airspace alerts can be helpful but are usually an unnecessary distraction. Coupled
with good preparation, these can be set to trigger at a particular distance from special
use airspace (SUA). If you have planned correctly, you will not need these alerts so you
need to know how to turn them off. The nearest airfield (NRST) function provides a
good option for an emergency. This can be set up to accept airfields at which you would

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

9: GPS Navigation 255

land a particular type of aircraft in a critical situation, such as a fire or a fuel leak. The
parameters of runway length and surface type can be input when you set up the GPS,
so, if you do this correctly, the GPS will eliminate those fields that would put your air-
craft at an unacceptable risk.
Most units have a facility for you to enter a flight plan and fuel on board for fuel plan-
ning. When you learn how to use these planning functions, you can use them to cross-
check your actual plans. A simulator program is usually built into the unit and its use is
invaluable. You can run the simulator program on a flight-planned route and check that
it all works as it should.

Setting Up the GPS

There are many features of the GPS that can be customised, such as what information
is displayed, how it is displayed, and units of distance, speed and altitude. In aviation,
many of these units have already been standardised, so we do not really have a choice:
headings are in degrees magnetic, distance in nautical miles, speed in knots and altitude
in feet. It is important that the GPS displays information in the units commonly used in
aviation. The latitude and longitude should be set in the hemisphere–degrees–minutes
format (H DDD MM.MMM) so a position would appear as S033 56.219 E147 11.522.
Note that this shows minutes to three decimal places instead of seconds of arc.
There are a host of other parameters that you can set up in the system memory. For
instance, you can key in the checklist for your aircraft. Your GPS preflight checks should
include stepping through the set-up items to ensure the system will function in accord-
ance with your operating manual. A word of warning here too: allow yourself time to
learn how to use each of the many features before you rely on them. You will need to
validate your entries, so use someone else to cross-check them or use the GPS in parallel
with the recommended method of navigation until you are confident with the system.

Using Airborne GPS for Navigation

There are many different types of GPS units that meet the TSO C-129 standard. While
many of the modes and functions of each unit are similar, terminology and keying sequences
vary. You will have to spend some time on your particular unit to gain confidence with the
system. Some manufacturers also produce some computer-based trainers that allow you to
explore the receiver modes and functions in your own home and in your own time.
As there are many manufacturers of GPS units, some of the descriptions used here
may not relate exactly to your set. The operating manual (pilot guide) for your particular
set must be available in flight as a ready reference.
Turning on the GPS initiates the self-test. The computer is programmed to load the
last almanac data with which it starts a search to locate the satellites in view. Before you
can proceed, an alert indicates that there are messages to view. You will have to push the
message (MSG) or page (PGE) button to read them in turn:
EXT ALTIMETER OK
INT CDI 1NM
EXT CDI 1NM
DATABASE EXPIRED
GPS CTR OK
ENTER FUEL ON BOARD
In this case, the database needs to be updated and, although optional, fuel may be
entered providing a useful cross-check. It will take between 3 and 12 min for the GPS
to locate the satellites and find its position. Having done so, it will prompt you to select
a mode.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

256 Navigation

Display
The display area of the GPS unit can be a little window powered by light-emitting
diodes (LED) or liquid crystal displays (LCD). Liquid crystal technology can be readily
used to provide a map display. The map display is not essential but can help with orien-
tation by showing position in relation to the airfield. The map display can be customised
to show WPTs, airspace boundaries and tracks.

Mode Keys
The GPS unit typically has several mode keys, which are described below.

NAV (Navigation)
The navigation mode allows the pilot to see the navigation information such as ground-
speed, direction, destination, elapsed time and ETA.

WPT (Waypoint)
The waypoint mode allows the entry and retrieval of waypoints. All WPTs can be
viewed, but only user-defined WPTs can be edited. A commercially prepared database
is required for IFR operations.

FPL (Flight Plan)

Flight plans, which are a series of waypoints, can be prepared and stored in this section.
Most receivers will be capable of storing at least twenty flight plans or routes.

CALC (Calculator)
The GPS calculator can perform many basic computer functions in conjunction with
the passage of the flight. Determination of actual wind en route, fuel consumption, ver-
tical navigation and storing present position can be carried out in this mode.

AUX (Auxiliary)
The AUX pages may include checklists, system status information, sensor status infor-
mation, system setup and installation.
Note. The AUX page called setup allows you to customise some settings. It is impor-
tant that standard aviation units (such as nautical miles) and formats are used.

Other Function Keys

NRST (Nearest)
The NRST key allows you to view information about the 20 nearest airfields or other
WPTs.

D (Direct-to or Goto)
The direct-to key is used to fly any WPT in the database and to activate the flight plan.

MSG (Message)
The MSG key is used to view system messages.

ENT (Enter)
The enter key activates the selected field and accepts data entry.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

9: GPS Navigation 257

Selector Knobs
Generally, the large outer knob is used to
select and advance the cursor within a data
field. The small inner knob is used to
change the data within the selected field.
Unless you have a stored flight plan, you IR-1028.EPS

will need to decide the route and enter Figure 9-11 Selector knobs.
the waypoints.

Flight Preparation
With all IFR flights, flight notification is required, so it is sensible to start by preparing
the flight plan form by filling in the route information directly from your TAC and
ERC. Our route is from Moorabbin (YMMB) to Mount Gambier (YMTG).

DEP PT / ETD LSALT FL TAS TR WIND HDG GS DIST ETI PLN REV ATD
or MAG MAG EST EST ATA
ROUTE SEGMENT
ALT
LANDING POINT

YMMB

W635 AV 1700 250 30

WBL 2500 249 96

POD 2200 257 46

W710 YMTG 2300 306 47

IR-1001.EPS

Figure 9-12 Preparatory flight plan.

Entering the Flight Plan (Trimble 2000 Approach Plus)

Press the FPL mode switch until you see:
STORED FLIGHT PLAN
or
NO STORED FLIGHT PLAN

Turn the selector knobs until you see:

IR-1002.EPS

D
ADD NEW FLIGHT PLAN
MSG
s t a r t + AY M M B –end
ENT
NAV WPT FPL CALC AUX NRST

Figure 9-13

Press ENT to address the data field.

IR-1003.EPS

D
EDIT FLIGHT PLAN
MSG
YMMBA ++end
ENT
NAV WPT FPL CALC AUX NRST

Figure 9-14

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

258 Navigation

This set uses a flashing ‘+’ symbol to indicate the field is ready for editing. The next step
is to select the WPT type. The table below shows the suffixes used for the waypoint type.
A airfield V VOR
_APRCH approach N NDB
_SID standard instrument departure I intersection or reporting point
_STAR standard instrument arrival U user

Table 9-2 Waypoint types.

Select A then rotate the outer knob to move the cursor to the next field. As we want
to enter YMMB, rotate the inner knob until a Y appears. Use the outer knob to move
to the next field, then the inner knob until an M appears. Keep going until you have
YMMBA displayed. Press ENT to complete this entry.
Press ENT again to address the next data field. As the next WPT is the Avalon VOR,
rotate the inner knob to display the letter V. Move the cursor to the next field (outer
knob), select the letter A (inner knob), and move again and select V so you now see AVv.
Press ENT to complete this entry.
Press ENT again to address the next data field. Continue with the entry process until
you have entered: WBLN, PODN, and YMTGA.
Your first flight plan entry is the hardest. As you become more familiar with the set,
it take less time. It becomes much easier to enter the data and unfortunately much easier
to make a mistake. The care taken here will be well rewarded with the ease of use when
you are airborne. If you enter incorrect data, you may not have time to fix it while you
are flying, or if you try, you may become engrossed in the data and take inappropriate
and unnecessary risks as your mind is not on the primary task of flying.
As you are not rated for GPS non-precision approaches (NPA), YMTG should be des-
ignated as an airfield. If you were GPS NPA approved, it would be appropriate to be
prepared to complete a GPS NPA into Mount Gambier and you would enter
YMTG_APRCH. To activate the flight plan in this case, simply press the D key twice.
Some systems have you select the plan, press ENT, select activate and press ENT again.
Flight Planning
With the route decided, the flight plan half completed and the GPS programmed, the
application of the meteorology and NOTAMs should make the flight and fuel planning
easier. Your confidence will grow with time on the GPS, but always use those other radio
navigation aids to cross-check the GPS; you may then enjoy the flight.
En Route Navigation
During the preflight checks on your aircraft, the GPS is turned on, the built-in tests run
automatically and the system begins its initialisation. It then displays some messages. At
the appropriate time, these should be checked and you should satisfy yourself that the
GPS is fully functional and that the active flight plan is the correct one. Cross-check user
entered data and check the system setup.
The NAV key selects the navigation mode,
IR-1004.EPS

D
which displays the primary NAV page. The AV V _ _ _ ° _ _ _
TO N
M0:__
MSG
primary NAV page provides the information [ . . . 0 . . . .] _ _ _ ° 1 4 3
TK KT

you need to navigate along the selected route. ENT

NAV WPT FPL CALC AUX NRST
The display is organised into two lines with
the top line showing bearing, distance and Figure 9-15 Primary NAV page.
time to the next WPT. The bottom line shows
the internal CDI, track and groundspeed.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

9: GPS Navigation 259

It is common for the NAV mode to have up to 10 different pages of information. It

is important to become familiar with these pages so as to be able to view those pages
with the information you want and to return to the primary NAV page. The total time
and distance for the active flight plan is available by activating the correct page and
addressing the last WPT in the plan.
Some navigation information will only be available if other systems are linked to the
GPS unit; for example, true air speed (TAS) is only available if you have an air data com-
puter connected, and heading requires a link to a compass system. The GPS continually
fixes its position from the satellite signals; this allows it to generate actual track and
groundspeed as displayed on the primary NAV page. To compute wind direction and
speed, the aircraft heading and the current TAS is used.
Some respect must be given to the total flight sector when dealing with time intervals
and ETA. The GPS computes the time on the current groundspeed, which is a ‘spot’
groundspeed that may not be representative of the average groundspeed for your flight. If
you fly into strong headwinds, say, the time intervals and ETA will all increase. Taking a
look at the forecast winds, though, might show that the conditions change to nil winds or
even tailwinds further into your flight. In such cases, the ETA will need to be adjusted to
allow for these changes in wind conditions.
The actual track is compared to the flight-

IR-1005.EPS
D
planned track to produce cross-track error,
MSG
and this is present on a CDI internal to the [ . . . 0 . . . .] 1 2 4 ° 1 4 3
TK KT

GPS. The internal CDI is similar in function ENT

NAV WPT FPL CALC AUX NRST
to the conventional CDI used for VOR
command tracking; however, the scale has Figure 9-16 GPS CDI indicating a need
more options that allow very accurate track- to turn slightly left to regain track.

keeping.
When the flashing vertical bar is on the

IR-1006.EPS
D
centre circle, the aircraft is on track. If the bar
MSG
is displaced left or right, simply fly towards . . . 2 .6 . . . . ] 1 4 9 ° 2 5 0
N
M
TK KT

the bar (CDI). ENT

NAV WPT FPL CALC AUX NRST
If the cross-track error becomes greater
than the scale setting, a flashing arrow replaces Figure 9-17
the left or right bracket and the off-track dis- GPS CDI indicating 2.6 nm right of track.

tance will be displayed numerically.

In most GPSs, the CDI scale is controlled automatically with full-scale deflection
being 5 nm en route, 1 nm for terminal navigation and 0.3 nm for the GPS approach.
As the aircraft approaches a WPT, an alert message will be displayed or the displayed
WPT will start flashing. The system automatically activates the next flight-planned WPT
and the internal CDI shows the new track and any deviation from that track. An alert
message will advise of the new track for you to set under the HSI course pointer to allow
the conventional CDI to work correctly. The message self-cancels when the course is
set. If the autopilot is coupled to the GPS, it will turn onto the new track; however,
neither system, of course, will make the radio call or check for other traffic.
Mostly, GPS performance is excellent; however, if you have any doubt you should
cross-check your position with the conventional aids. The system status pages will help
you monitor for correct function. For IFR flight, the GPS must be TSO C-129
approved. This means RAIM will continually monitor the receiver performance and
reduce the need for you to fiddle with the set to manipulate the status pages.
If your system has a moving map display, it helps your awareness of the next turning
and reporting points. It also presents an airspace visual display to help you remain outside
control areas (OCTA) or alert you when a clearance is required.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

260 Navigation

Tracking Accuracy and Collision Avoidance

High-accuracy tracking is testimony to the precision of GPS. The drawback is, though, that
this very quality of precision track-keeping increases the potential for collision, particularly
head-on collision, with other GPS-equipped aircraft operating on the same track, or
approaching the same point from the same direction. This highlights again the need for
good communications and the correct maintenance of IFR-cruising levels. When the GPS
is being used as an aid for VFR flying, give serious consideration to flying a parallel track to
the right of the actual track to allow reasonable separation from aircraft flying in the oppo-
site direction. GPS should never be the primary means of navigation under VFR flight.

Area Navigation
An area navigation system is equipment that collects and processes navigation informa-
tion then outputs it as indications or control signals. These navigation systems accept
range and bearing data from the VOR and DME stations, pseudorange codes from sat-
ellites. Another type of area navigation system is the inertial navigation system (INS).
Essentially, these systems each have a method of keeping or finding position. They
are often supported with barometric inputs from direct sensors or air data computers.
Each of these systems is subject to an approval process that determines how and when
they may be used. As well as being an approach aid, GPS is an area navigation system.
Modern cockpits now integrate all of these data together with flight and systems data,
into combined electronic displays – known as multi-function displays (MFDs). These
form a glass cockpit.

Figure 9-18 The glass cockpit of a Cirrus aircraft

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

9: GPS Navigation 261

Sole Means of Navigation

A navigation system that, for a given phase of flight, satisfies the required accuracy, integ-
rity, availability and continuity performance requirements may be used as the sole means
of navigation. This is the highest level of approval, and the only system with this approval
is the INS. However, there are conditions placed on operating the INS as a sole system,
such as elapsed time from departure, other aircraft equipment and operator competence.
(Another sole means of navigation is a competent pilot).

Primary Means of Navigation

A navigation system that, for a given operation or phase of flight, satisfies accuracy and
integrity performance requirements but not necessarily the availability and continuity
requirements, is deemed to be a primary means of navigation system. Safety of such systems
is achieved by imposing operational requirements and restrictions. The GPS is approved
as a primary means of navigation for en route flight. There are equipment (TSO C-129),
training and recent experience requirements for the operation of the GPS. However,
GPS should never be used as a primary means of navigation for VFR flights.

Supplemental Means of Navigation

A navigation system that must be used in conjunction with a sole means navigation is a
supplemental means of navigation. The GPS is approved as a supplemental means of navi-
gation for a non-precision approach (NPA). This means the pilot must be qualified to
use another primary aid such as the ADF or VOR, for which the aircraft must be
equipped and the aid available. Operational restrictions here include the equipment
(TSO C-129), training and flight test qualification. The GPS is also approved as a sup-
plemental system for VFR flight.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

262 Navigation

Review 9
1. The GPS unit interrogates several satellites and measures the time taken for each sig-
nal to be returned like a transponder. How is an error in the clock compensated?
2. How does RAIM ensure that the minimum acceptable level of accuracy is main-
tained?
3. What is the masking function of the GPS receiver?
4. Differential GPS improves accuracy by use of a local . . . . .
5. Why is tracking accuracy considered a GPS error?
6. Loss of RAIM should cause the GPS to be considered as . . . . .
7. The greatest inaccuracy with GPS is associated with the . . . . .
8. The great attribute of GPS can also lead to our greatest vulnerability if we totally
trust the system and do not check other information. The best protection is . . . . .
9. There is a famous saying, ‘garbage in, garbage out’. What is its relevance to GPS?
10. What is SA? What does SA mean?
11. The abbreviation for area navigation is . . . . .
12. GPS is an area navigation system where en route navigation is normally achieved by
tracking between . . . . .
13. When using an RNAV system for track guidance, the aircraft must be flown to
remain within . . . . . nm of the planned track.
14. The space element of GPS consists of . . . . . satellites orbiting the earth every
. . . . . hours at an altitude of . . . . . km.
15. At least . . . . . satellites must be observed for a GPS three-dimensional fix.
16. What is a primary means of navigation method or system?
17. For civilian GPS operations the pseudorandom code used is the . . . . . code, and the
service provided is known as the . . . . .
18. The deliberate degrading of the accuracy of GPS for civilian use is known as . . . . .
19. Range from a satellite is determined by the . . . . . measuring the period between
the time of transmission and the time of . . . . . of the satellite signal.
20. RAIM is a continuous receiver checking system that ensures at least . . . . . effective
range inputs are being used to determine the GPS position.
21. What feature of the TSO C-129 GPS system provides additional redundancy and
RAIM capability?
22. What are the three operating modes normally provided by a GPS receiver?
23. Atmosphere induced errors in the satellite signals are reduced by . . . . . low-eleva-
tion satellites.
24. The masking angle for a TSO C-129 receiver is . . . . .°.
25. If RAIM is lost in CTA, ATC must be advised . . . . .
26. All manually entered data must be . . . . .
27. The closest shape that the earth resembles is . . . . .
28. The earth model that is used by GPS is . . . . .
29. Concerning RNAV routes, what is the significance of a route designated with the
letter T?
30. Specific LSALTs are not shown on RNAV routes. True or false?
31. During RNAV operations, whenever track guidance for the route flown is available
from conventional radio navigation aids, the pilot must ensure that . . . . .

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

 Appendices

Appendix 1. Glossary of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

Appendix 2. Typical Multiple-Choice Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

Appendix 3. Answers to Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287

Appendix 4. Typical Multiple-Choice Questions:

Answers and Explanations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
 Appendix 1

Glossary of Terms

Actual Time of Arrival (ATA) Altitude

The time (to the nearest minute) at which the The distance in feet above Mean Sea Level, indi-
navigator of an aircraft logs the aircraft’s posi- cated by a pressure altimeter with sub-scale set to
tion as overhead a nominated position. the current QNH for the location of the aircraft.

Actual Time of Departure (ATD) Arc of Longitude

The time (to the nearest minute) at which the The angular difference between one meridian
navigator of an aircraft deems the aircraft to of longitude and any other selected meridian of
have set course on departure from immediately longitude, expressed in degrees (and relevant
overhead the point of departure or airfield of sub-divisions thereof, if appropriate).
departure.
Area Navigation
Airfield Elevation A method of navigating an aircraft by use of an
The designated height of an airfield in feet on-board computer coupled to an indicator
above mean sea level. This is the height of the similar to a VOR CDI indicator or Horizontal
highest point on the landing area of the airfield. Situation indicator (HSI). It allows the use of
positions not marked by ground-based radio
Airfield Reference Point (ARP) navigation aids, these positions being known as
The designated geographical location of an air- waypoints. A waypoint may be expressed as a
field. This is normally a position close to the in- location marked by a VOR radial and DME
tersection of the runways (where there are distance from a co-located DME, or it may be
more than one) or a position about half way a position determined from the use of a con-
along the sole runway. It is expressed as geo- stellation of satellites, as in GNS or GPS.
graphical co-ordinates (to the nearest second
latitude and longitude. Area QNH
A three-hour forecast of the QNH of a repre-
Airfield QNH sentative low-level place within, or on the
See QNH boundary of, an Area QNH Zone. It is for use by
aircraft cruising at or below the transition altitude
Aggregate Error and outside the range of a suitable local QNH.
The total effect of all errors associated with the
VOR radio navigation system existing at any Area QNH Zone (AQZ)
point in time. It is the sum of all of ground sta- An area designated in the AIP within which the
tion error, site effect error, terrain effect error forecast Area QNH applies. In Australia, AQZs
and airborne equipment error. Aggregate error are depicted on the Planning Chart Australia
should not ever exceed ±5°. (PCA) and are described in the Designated Air-
space Handbook (DAH).
Agonic Line
The line on the earth’s surface along which the Atomic Time
value of magnetic variation is zero degrees. At The time kept by a cesium-beam atomic clock.
any position along this line, a magnetic com- In 1967, the 13th General Conference on
pass will indicate the direction of the true north Weights and Measures, defined the SI unit of
pole after an allowance for compass deviation time as the ‘second’ where “the second is the
has been made. duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radi-
ation corresponding to the transition between
Altimetry the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of
The study of the determination of height by the the cesium-133 atom”.
use of the instrument called the altimeter. Since
most altimeters use the reduction of atmos- Australian Surveying and Land
pheric pressure with height as the determinant Information Group (AUSLIG)
of height, this study includes the subject of pres- A division of the Australian Department of In-
sure changes with height in the atmosphere. dustry, Tourism and Resources, charged with

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE 265

266 Navigation

the responsibility, (amongst others), of produc- that a higher degree of navigational information
ing maps of Australia in various formats, in- was available only to military users of the sys-
cluding aeronautical charts. tem. In May 2000, this discrimination was re-
moved so that the term no longer has any rele-
Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) vance. See also Precise positioning service (PPS).
The airborne component of the radio naviga-
tion system which has been developed to pro- Civil Twilight
vide the navigator with relative bearing infor- The period of time which transpires between
mation to a medium frequency transmitter lo- the beginning of daylight and sunrise and also
cated on the ground. Most ADF receivers are between sunset and the end of daylight. The pe-
capable of being tuned to any frequency in the riod of time involved depends upon the time of
range 190 to 1750 kHz. year and the latitude of the place. Near the equa-
tor, civil twilight lasts for only a few minutes at
Barometric Aiding any time of year. In Polar regions, civil twilight
The process by which data from a pressure al- might literally extend for the full 24 hours of the
timeter is fed to a GPS unit to assist in provid- day before and after the summer solstice.
ing a more accurate position fix in conditions
when less than five satellites are available to the Closing Angle (CA)
GPS unit and RAIM is otherwise not reliable. The angle calculated as being required to close on
a selected point after determining that the aircraft
Bearing is off track at some point during a travel flight. It
The angular direction of a distant point ex- is usually determined by use of the 1:60 rule.
pressed in degrees from a selected datum such
as the nose of the aircraft (gives relative bear- Coarse/Acquisition Code (C/A Code)
ing), True north (gives true bearing) or Mag- See Civilian Access Code
netic north (gives magnetic bearing).
Coastal Refraction
Beginning of Daylight (BoD) An error associated with the transmission of ra-
That time before sunrise at which the centre of dio waves in the medium frequency range from
the sun is located 6° below the celestial hori- a non directional beacon. It results in the appar-
zon. This time marks the start of morning civil ent bending of the ground waves as they cross a
twilight. coastline, caused by the differences in conduc-
Calibrated Airspeed (CAS)
tivity of land and water. The error is nil if these
waves cross the coast at 90° and reaches a max-
The airspeed indicator reading corrected for
imum when they cross the coast at about 30°.
ASI system errors, sometimes called “true indi-
cated airspeed”. By most definitions, the appli- Compass Deviation
cation of density error correction to CAS yields The angular difference between compass north
True Airspeed (TAS). This is accomplished by and magnetic north in a given aircraft compass.
using a navigational computer. The difference is determined by the process of
Cardinal Headings Compass Swing and are shown on a compass
The major directions shown on the compass deviation card displayed next to the compass.
rose; North, East, South and West.
Compass Swing
Central Standard Time (CST) The process of determining the difference be-
The local standard time kept in South Australia tween an aircraft’s compass readings and the indi-
(when daylight saving time is not in operation), cations of an external datum compass known as a
and the Northern Territory. It is the local mean ‘wild datum compass’. The process is carried out
time on the longitude of 142° 30' East and with all aircraft engines and systems operating.
equates to UTC +9 hours. The result is that compensations are made and the
residual errors are posted on a compass deviation
Checkpoint card, placed near the compass in the aircraft.
A point selected during flight planning to pro-
vide a useful fix or check of groundspeed. Conformal Projection
A method of projecting a segment of the earth’s
Civilian Access Code (C/A Code) surface on a flat sheet but in such a way that at any
A redundant level of service available to civilian one point, all angles and distances are correct.
users of the GPS network, aimed at ensuring This results in scale changing with distance from

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

Appendix 1: Glossary of Terms 267

that point. Lambert’s Conic and all Mercator pro- Crab Angle
jections are examples of conformal projections. An alternative term to Wind correction angle,
but used specifically in the use of Jeppesen CR
Conic Projection type computers.
A projection of a segment of the earth’s surface
on a flat sheet envisaged as if the sheet had been Cruising Levels
formed into a cone in contact with and along one The levels at which an aircraft is permitted to
or more small circles on the surface. Lambert’s maintain cruise while on a travel flight, in ac-
Conic projection is one example, employing two cordance with Visual or Instrument Flight
small circles which are its standard parallels. The Rules as appropriate and as laid down by CAR
projection is of the earth from a point source lo- 173 and as tabulated in AIP ENR Section 1.7.
cated at the centre of the cone in the plane of the
small circle (in the case of only one) or mid-way Cylindrical Projection
between them (where there are two). Scale is A projection of a segment of the earth’s surface
only correct along the standard circles. on a flat sheet envisaged by the sheet having
been wrapped around a model of the earth in
Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) such a way as to form a cylinder. The circle in
A time standard adopted worldwide for use in question is a Great circle. This cylinder is in
communications and based on the times kept by contact with the earth either along the equator
a number of atomic clocks and termed “UT1”, (as in Mercator projection) or along a meridian
as agreed by the International Bureau of Weights (as in the transverse Mercator projection). The
and Measures (BIPM). In practice, there are projection is of the earth from a point source at
small differences between the time expressed in the centre of the earth onto the inside of the
UT1 and that resulting from the rotation of the cylinder. Scale is correct along the circle of
earth. These differences are countered by the ad- contact but expands to infinity in both direc-
dition or subtraction of ‘leap seconds’ applied tions from that line.
once or twice a year by international agreement.
By this means, UT1 is co-ordinated, hence the Daylight
term Coordinated Universal Time. The time interval between the beginning of
daylight and the end of daylight, during which
Correction Angle
the sun is providing light and is near or above
See Track Correction Angle
the celestial horizon. In these conditions, it is
Course considered that there is sufficient natural light
The American expression used in place of term to navigate by reference to objects located on
‘Track’. The only context in which the expres- the surface below.
sion Course is used in Australia and having this
meaning is with the VOR, as in Course Devi- Dead Reckoning (DR)
ation Indicator. A method of navigation by which the position
of an aircraft is calculated by the navigator from
Course Bends a previously known position and by applying
An error associated with the transmission of ra- the direction and speed of travel in the inter-
dials by a VOR ground beacon and forming vening period since that position. The correct
part of the Site Effect Errors. The error takes term is “Deduced Reckoning” since the cur-
the form of apparent waves in the radials having rent position of the aircraft is deduced from
an amplitude equivalent to a track error of up previous knowledge.
to about 3.5°. they are thought to be caused by
electrical interference with the VOR transmis- Density Altitude
sions, possibly by power lines. See Density Height

Course Deviation Indicator Density Height

The needle of an omni bearing indicator in- The height in the International Standard At-
strument, designed to show the distance in de- mosphere (ISA) at which the density of the air
grees that an aircraft is displaced from the se- is the same as that which exists at the place be-
lected radial. It is also the indicator of a GPS ing considered. It is normally expressed in feet.
unit which may be used to indicate the distance
in nautical miles that the aircraft is displaced Deviation
from the selected track. See Compass Deviation

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

268 Navigation

Differential GPS (DGPS) Effective True Airspeed

A type of Global Positioning System which has The actual True airspeed corrected for the ef-
a ground based GPS receiver to compare its sur- fect of a strong crosswind and resulting from
veyed position with that provided by the satellite the fact that the aircraft is not actually pointing
constellation. Any differences are then transmit- into the wind. In conditions where the crab
ted to the aircraft equipment by way of a correc- angle is less than 10°, this error is less than
tion transmitter. The overall effect is greatly to about 1.5%. In the use of the Jeppesen CR type
improve the accuracy of the system as a whole. computer to solve any wind triangle problems,
it is used whenever the crab angle exceeds 10°.
Direction
The angular position of one point from another En Route Chart-High (ERC-H)
without specifying the distance between them. A radio navigation chart designed for use in
Direction in air navigation is usually expressed in operations above FL200. It forms part of the
degrees counting from zero, clockwise to 360 AIP. Its primary functions are to provide the
degrees with the reference being north. navigator with information on Classes of air-
space, airways and route data and details of ra-
Distance dio navigation aids. It is thus intended for use
The length of a straight line drawn between by IFR flights.
one point and another. For air navigation pur-
poses, distance is usually assumed to be hori- En Route Chart-Low (ERC-L)
zontal and is expressed in Nautical miles. A radio navigation chart designed for use in
operations below FL200. It forms part of the
Distance-Measuring Equipment (DME) AIP. Its primary functions are to provide the
A radio navigation aid that consists of an airborne navigator with information on Classes of air-
interrogator and a ground based transponder that space, airways and route data and details of ra-
between them provide the navigator with slant dio navigation aids. It is thus intended for use
distance between the aircraft and the ground bea- by IFR flights.
con. Most modern DME airborne devices are
also equipped with a means of computing rate of En Route Supplement Australia (ERSA)
closure (in knots) and time to the beacon. DME A document which forms part of the AIP, de-
operates in the UHF radio frequency band be- signed to provide the pilot or navigator with
tween about 960 and 1215 MHz. timely information about airfields and facilities
and for reference during flight planning as well
Drift as in flight.
The angular difference between an aircraft’s
heading and its track made good. It is expressed End of Daylight (EoD)
in degrees to the left (if track made good is to That time after sunset at which the centre of the
the left of heading) or to the right (if track sun is located 6° below the celestial horizon. This
made good is the right of heading). time marks the end of Evening civil twilight.

DR Position Endurance Flying

A position for the aircraft that has been calcu- A technique of flying which ensures that level
lated using the technique of deduced reckon- flight is maintained but at a fuel consumption
ing (Dead Reckoning). which is maintained at the minimum. It is of
greatest value when the aircraft is required to
East hold at some distance from its destination while
The direction in which the earth rotates about awaiting an improvement in weather or in the
its axis joining the true north and south poles. event that the airfield is closed temporarily for
any other reason.
Eastern Standard Time (EST)
The local standard time kept in the eastern Ephemeris Error
states of Australia primarily between the end of Any error in the data transmitted by a satellite
March and the end of October each year. It is describing its current position. Such an error
the Local Mean Time based on the longitude of can be brought about by changes in the effects
150° East. In the state of Queensland, it is the of gravity, both of the earth and the moon, oc-
time kept throughout the year. It is the equiv- casioned by the actual location of the satellite
alent of UTC plus 10 hours. with respect to each.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

Appendix 1: Glossary of Terms 269

Equator represents the route which the navigator desires

That Great Circle on the earth’s surface which the aircraft to take.
lies at right angles to the earth’s polar axis and
which divides the northern hemisphere from Geometric Dilution of Precision (GDOP)
the southern hemisphere. It forms the datum See Position dilution of precision (PDOP)
for latitude and is assigned a value of 0°.
Global Navigation System (GNS)
Equinox See Global navigation satellite system (GNSS)
The date upon which the angle of the earth’s ro-
tation with respect to the sun is such that the sun Global Navigation Satellite System
appears to travel above and along the equator. (GNSS)
On this day, sunrise and sunset are almost exactly A system consisting of earth satellites, airborne
12 hours apart everywhere on earth. This event navigation systems, earth monitoring stations
occurs twice each year on approximately 21 and timing devices aimed at providing a com-
March and again on 21 September. plete navigation service to the degree of accu-
racy required for any type of operation and at
Estimated Time Interval (ETI) any time. The constellation of satellites which
The time calculated during flight planning as forms the NAVSTAR component of GPS is
being required to complete any leg or stage of but one element of the total GNS system.
a flight.
Global Positioning System (GPS)
Estimated Time of Arrival (ETA) A navigation system comprising a constellation
The time at which it is calculated that the air- of 24 earth satellites, a ground-based system
craft will arrive overhead its destination airfield tracking and adjustment station and airborne re-
(or landing site). For an IFR flight, it is the time ceivers located in each aircraft which uses the sys-
at which the aircraft is expected to arrive over- tem. It is currently approved as a primary means
head the radio navigation aid from which an of navigation and for the conduct of certain types
instrument approach procedure is expected to of non-precision instrument approach in IMC.
commence.
Great Circle (GC)
Evening Civil Twilight
Any circle drawn on the earth’s surface, having
The time interval that exists between sunset
its plane passing through the centre of the
and the End of Daylight.
earth. A great circle thus divides the earth into
First Light two equal halves. An arc of a great circle repre-
See Beginning of Daylight sents the shortest distance between any two
places on the earth’s surface.
Fix
A determination of the aircraft’s actual position Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)
obtained by any means other than a visual ob- See Co-ordinated Universal Time
servation. This may be by means of radio navi-
gation aids, use of GPS or self-contained navi- Grid Convergence
gation system installed in the aircraft. It is not a The angular difference between Grid North
position determined by dead reckoning. and True North.

Flight Level (FL) Grid Magnetic Angle

The height of an aircraft as read from a pressure The angular difference between Grid North
altimeter whose sub-scale is set to 1013.25 hPa and Magnetic North.
and normally expressed to the nearest 500 ft.
See Pressure height. For planning purposes, air- Grid North
craft which cruise above the transition altitude The vertical alignment of the chart grid.
of 10,000 ft, are expected to conduct their ver-
tical navigation by reference to Flight Levels. Grid Reference
The UTM co-ordinates of a point on the sur-
Flight Plan Track (FPT) face expressed in eastings and northings from
The direction as plotted on a chart or map dur- the grid square origin, within a grid zone. e.g.
ing flight planning, which an aircraft is antici- Grid Zone Designation 54H, Grid Reference
pated to fly during the subsequent flight. It TG 809569 gives a position within 100 metres.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

270 Navigation

Groundspeed (GS) Index Line

The speed of an aircraft in flight relative to the See Lubber Line
ground over which it is travelling. It is the true
airspeed corrected for the effect of wind oper- Indicated Airspeed (IAS)
ating at the aircraft’s location. It is also meas- The speed of an aircraft through the air being
ured directly by Doppler, INS and GPS. the Air Speed Indicator Reading (ASIR) cor-
rected for instrument error.
Ground Wave
Electro-magnetic or radio waves which take a Inertial Navigation System (INS)
direct path from a transmitter located at ground A self-contained aircraft navigation system which
level to a receiver, also located at ground level, consists of a platform containing a set of super-
such waves being subject to refraction by the na- accurate gyros and accelerometers coupled to
ture of the air through which they must travel. time-recording devices. The entire system is
aimed at providing the navigator with an accu-
Heading (HDG) rate statement of the aircraft’s position in all three
The angular difference between the longitudi- physical dimensions, commencing at the point at
nal axis of an aircraft (taken to be a line through which the aircraft first moves from its parked lo-
its nose) and the datum of north (usually Mag- cation at the commencement of a flight.
netic or Compass north).
Instrument Landing System
Height
A system of radio navigation aids set up primarily
The vertical distance of a level, point or object
to provide accurate tracking and vertical position
considered as a point, measured from a specified
information to a pilot to enable an approach to
datum. It is also used to describe the vertical di-
land at an airfield in conditions of very poor vis-
mension of an object, such as a tower or obstacle.
ibility and/or very low cloud ceiling. The system
Hemisphere consists of at least a localizer transmitter (for azi-
Either half of the earth which results from the muth guidance), a glideslope transmitter (for ver-
drawing of a great circle on its surface. It usually tical guidance) and two or more marker beacons
refers to the division which results from drawing or DME for information on distance from the
the equator on the earth so that the earth is di- runway threshold. At some places, a Locator
vided into the northern hemisphere and the Beacon may be installed to assist in positioning
southern hemisphere. When considering the the aircraft for the start of the procedure.
great circle which is made up from the prime
meridian and the 180° meridian, that half to the International Civil Aviation Organisation
west of the prime meridian is termed the ‘west- (ICAO)
ern hemisphere’ while that containing eastern An organization created under the auspices of
longitudes is termed the ‘eastern hemisphere’. the United Nations, charged with the respon-
sibility of promoting uniformity of aviation
Homing standards, licensing and airworthiness amongst
The process of causing a mobile radio- its member nations. It has its headquarters at
equipped vehicle tuned to a ground-based ra- Montreal in Canada.
dio beacon to the location of that beacon. It
also refers to guidance which results in a vehicle International Date Line
flying to a source of radio or other radiation. A line on the earths’ surface, across which the
date changes by one day. The line approxi-
Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI) mately follows the 180° meridian but its posi-
An instrument which provides the pilot (or tion is adjusted to maintain the integrity of is-
navigator) with information concerning head- land groups and countries. A traveller across
ing, position in relation to a selected VOR ra- this line must subtract one day from his current
dial, INS or RNAV track, DME or TACAN in- time, while a traveller to the west across the line
formation and possible groundspeed. In light must add one day to his current time.
aircraft, the instrument may only provide part of
this information and the term is often used to International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)
describe a VOR indicator coupled to a remote A set of atmospheric data originally developed
indicating compass. This set-up allows the pilot by the International Convention for Air Navi-
more easily to visualise the location of the air- gation (ICAN) and subsequently adopted by
craft in relation to the tuned VOR beacon. ICAO as the standard by which the perform-

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

Appendix 1: Glossary of Terms 271

ance of aircraft can be measured. Amongst Local Mean Time (LMT)

other items, its states that the mean sea level The time at a given meridian of longitude as
pressure is 1013.25 hPa, sea level temperature is determined by the position of the sun in terms
+15°C, that temperature decreases with height of longitude in relation to that meridian. Noon
at the rate of 6.5°C per kilometre up to 11 km, occurs when the sun is immediately above that
that the air is dry and that air density decreases meridian. At all places situated to the east of
with height at a defined rate. that meridian, the time will be ‘post meridian’
while at all places to the west of that meridian,
Interrogation Pulses the time will be ‘anti meridian’. The time dif-
A group of blocks of electromagnetic energy ference is determined by the arc of longitude
transmitted by the DME interrogator installed in which separates them.
an aircraft to signal a DME ground beacon to
carry out the required calculations and reply with Local QNH
distance information to the aircraft concerned. See QNH
Isogonal Local Time
A line printed on an aeronautical chart joining See Standard Time
places that have equal magnetic variation. In
Australian practice, Isogonals are included on Locator Beacon
the WAC series and on the VNC series of charts. A low-powered non-directional beacon in-
stalled to assist in the positioning of an aircraft
Knot
to commence an instrument approach using
A speed of 1 nautical mile per hour or .514 the Instrument Landing System. At some
metres per second. The term is derived from places, locator beacons may be established in
the practice of measuring the speed of a ship by pairs to permit an instrument approach proce-
using a log line. At the end of the log line was dure called a “Twin Locator Approach” using
tied a weighted log which was then tossed over the aircraft’s ADF alone.
the ships side. Since the log remained almost
stationary while the ship continued to move, Longitude
the speed at which the line was fed out was an The angular distance from one meridian of
index of the ships speed. At intervals of 47 feet longitude to another measured along a parallel
(14.3 metres) a knot was tied in the rope. The of latitude and expressed in degrees and rele-
speed of the ship was then determined by vant subdivisions if appropriate.
counting the number of knots that were fed
over the ships side in a given time (usually 28 Low-Level Navigation
seconds measured by a sandglass). A technique of navigation by visual reference
Last Light to the ground or water, employed when flying
See End of Daylight at 500 ft agl (or lower due to stress of weather).
Essentially it involves an enhanced use of
Lane of Entry ground features close to the intended track as
Airspace established to provide passage to and the consequence of the restricted field of view
from a GAAP control zone without entering resulting from the proximity of the aircraft to
an adjacent civil or military control zone. Its the underlying surface.
vertical limits are designed to provide separa-
tion from overlying control or restricted area. Lowest Safe Altitude (LSALT)
A term which has particular relevance to IFR
Latitude operations during which, it is the altitude calcu-
The angular distance from the equator to a point lated to be 1000 ft above the highest obstacle ly-
in the northern or southern hemisphere meas- ing within prescribed distances of the aircraft’s
ured along a meridian of longitude and expressed position in flight. In VFR flight, it is considered
in degrees and relevant subdivisions if appropriate. to be the lowest altitude at which the pilot deems
it safe to operate the aircraft in cruising flight.
Leap Second
The time interval added or subtracted to ac- Low Jet Route (LJR)
count for the differences in the time registered Training routes flown at irregular intervals by
by UT1 and that resulting from the earth’s rota- tactical military jet aircraft. They are a distinct
tion. See Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). hazard to general aviation aircraft operating un-

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

272 Navigation

der the VFR, and especially if the latter are con- Mask Angle
ducting low level navigation. Activation and The angle above the celestial horizon below
times of activation of any given LJR is promul- which any signal received from a satellite in the
gated by NOTAM. GPS network will be ignored by a GPS receiver
because its signal will be considered as unrelia-
Lubber Line ble. Typically this angle is 7.5° but may be dif-
The fixed datum point inscribed on the face of ferent for different models of receiver.
an aircraft instrument, marking the point from
which data are read. It is usually applied to a Mean Sea Level (MSL)
compass or bearing indicator as the point from The average height of the sea surface, normally
which bearings are read in degrees. It may also taken from long-term records of tide heights at
indicate the direction of the nose of the aircraft, any given place. It is used as the datum for
so that the ‘lubbers line’ represents the direction heights and altitudes in aviation.
of the longitudinal axis of the aircraft.
Mercator Projection
Magnetic Bearing (MB) A cylindrical map projection in which the
The angular difference between the direction of earth’s surface is envisaged as being projected
an object and the direction of the north magnetic from a source at the centre of the earth onto the
pole at a place, expressed in degrees counted inner surface of a cylinder wrapped around the
clockwise from the direction of magnetic north. earth and in contact with it along the equator.
It is the indication provided to the navigator by a This projection is not used for aeronautical
Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI) when coupled charts because the distortions of scale become
to an Automatic Direction Finder (ADF). unacceptable beyond latitudes of a few degrees
north and south of the equator.
Magnetic Direction
The direction in degrees as indicated by a mag- Meridian
netic compass in relation to the direction of the See Longitude
Magnetic North Pole, corrected for any errors
existing in the compass installation. By conven- Morning Civil Twilight
tion, it is the direction used to express an air- The time interval that exists between the be-
craft’s track and heading. ginning of Daylight and sunrise.

Magnetic North Most Probable Position (MPP)

At any given place, it is the actual direction of A DR position calculated for the aircraft after
the magnetic north pole. This differs from the having carried out a series of actions deter-
direction of the true north pole at most places mined as necessary when the position of the
because the physical position of the magnetic aircraft has become uncertain for a time; i.e.
north pole is near Queen Elisabeth Islands in you reckon you have become lost!
northern Canada.
Multi-Path Error
Magnetic Variation An error in the GPS when inaccuracies result
At any given place, it is the angular difference be- in the pseudo-range measurement caused by
tween the direction of the magnetic north pole reflections and refraction of satellite signals by
and the true north pole. It is expressed in degrees objects and the ground in the vicinity of the
east or degrees west. If, at a place, variation is in GPS receiver.
degrees east, it must be subtracted from the true
bearing in order to give the bearing in degrees Nautical Mile (nm)
magnetic and vice versa for west variation. The standard unit of distance used in air naviga-
tion, being equivalent to 6076 feet. The unit is
Map Reading derived from the length of an arc of one minute
An aid to navigation which involves the use of of latitude on the earth’s surface which has been
suitably designed maps or charts in order to determined to be 1852 metres in length.
confirm the position of the aircraft at any time
in flight. This is achieved by comparing features Night Effect
which appear on the ground with those The mixing of the ground wave from a me-
printed on the map. A position confirmed by dium frequency transmitter (such as an NDB)
this method is termed a “Pinpoint”. with the sky wave from the same transmitter.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

Appendix 1: Glossary of Terms 273

This results in an apparent increase in the range Parameters of the Earth 90 (PE90)
at which the transmissions may be received at The shape of the earth as adopted by the Russian
night. The fact however, is that the signal usable GLONASS satellite navigation system. Since
by an automatic direction finder (ADF) is re- this differs slightly from the shape as determined
duced in range because the mixing of signals by the WGS 84 Geodetic standard accepted by
results in confusion in the ADF as to the direc- ICAO for use in the GNSS (GPS) navigation
tion of the source of the transmissions. This is system, reference to PE90 could result in errors
especially true around the times of sunset and of position of some metres using that standard.
sunrise when the ionosphere is particularly un-
stable. Pinpoint
A determination of the aircraft’s position by
North visual observation of the aircraft above a point
The direction 90° to the left of east. on the ground identified by map reading.

North Geographic Pole Planning Chart Australia (PCA)

The point on the earth’s surface which marks A chart designed primarily to provide the pilot
the northern end of the axis about which the with information on the boundaries of areas for
earth rotates. It is the datum from which all di- Area Forecasts (ARFOR) and Area QNH
rections derived from maps and charts are de- Zones (AQZ) as well as coverage of the VHF
termined. It has the latitude of 90° north. radio network and HF radio regions.

Polar Axis
North Magnetic Pole
An imaginary line running from the geographic
The geographic location of one end of the ge-
north pole, through the centre of the earth to the
omagnet which allows a magnetic compass to
geographic south pole. It is the line around which
sense direction. This point is currently located
the earth rotates approximately once each day.
at about latitude 82° 15' north, 12° 30' west, to
the north of the Queen Elisabeth Islands them- Position Dilution of Precision
selves north of Canada. The pole is actually An error on the GPS resulting from the relative
continuously moving to the northwest. positions of the satellites being used to obtain a
fix. If the satellites are relatively close to one
Omni Bearing Indicator (OBI) another, PDOP may be relatively large. If the
The cockpit instrument which is used by the satellites are spaced further apart, PDOP is re-
navigator to indicate on which radial of a VOR duced. PDOP is also reduced by using a larger
ground beacon that an aircraft is located. number of satellites, since this also ensures that
some of the satellites being used are likely to be
Omni Bearing Selector spaced further apart.
The control (knob) on the Omni Bearing In-
dicator (OBI) of a VOR airborne installation, Position Error (PE)
which permits the pilot to select the radial or An error of the airspeed indicating system arising
track of a selected VOR ground beacon which from the location of the pitot and static sources
he/she wishes to use for navigation purposes. in the structure of the aircraft. The result is the
creation of small errors in the airspeed indicator
Orthomorphic Projection reading (ASIR) under certain conditions of flight
A depiction of part of the earth’s surface on a or angles of attack when the airflow is disturbed
flat plane in such a way that all parallels of lati- around one or other of these pressure sources.
tude and all meridians of longitude intersect at
right angles (as they do on the real earth). In Position Line (PL)
addition, all bearings as measured on the depic- An element used in the fixing of the position of
tion must be the same as those on the real earth. an aircraft in flight. Unless the position can be
established as being over the top of a feature, it
Parallel of Latitude must be established by simultaneously making
Any line drawn on the surface of the earth par- two or more lines from its position to known
allel with the equator. With the exception of features. The position of the aircraft is then
the equator itself (which is a great circle), all found to be at the intersection of these lines,
parallels of latitude are small circles. A parallel known as position lines. A position line may be
of latitude joins all places on the surface of the defined as any line along which the aircraft was
earth having the same latitude. known to have been located at a given time.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

274 Navigation

Precise Positioning Service (PPS) Radial Bends

A redundant term used to describe the level of See Course bends
navigation service provided by the GPS, avail-
able only to military users, who had access to Radio Fix
the L2 navigation frequency. In May 2000, se- A determination of the aircraft’s position by use
lective availability which caused a reduced level of radio navigation aids, whether established by
of accuracy for civilian use only was ordered to passage over a radio navigation aid beacon or
be turned off, so currently, everyone has access from position lines received from a combina-
to the L1 frequency. tion of radio navaids.

Pressure Altitude Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI)

See Pressure height A cockpit instrument which receives simulta-
neous inputs from an ADF and a remote indi-
Pressure Height cating compass. The indication given to the pi-
The height indicated by a pressure altimeter lot is therefore, the magnetic bearing from the
when the pressure of 1013.25 hPa is set on its aircraft to the tuned NDB. The device can thus
subscale. Also known as QNE. See QNE fulfil the dual function of a heading indicator
and an ADF indicator.
Prime Meridian
The meridian of longitude which passes Range Flying
through the centre of the transit instrument at A technique of aircraft operation which involves
the old Royal Observatory located in the bor- flying the greatest possible distance for the min-
ough of Greenwich, east of London. It is ac- imum use of fuel. In practical terms, this requires
cepted as the datum from which longitude is the aircraft to be flown at a speed which pro-
measured, having a value of 0°. Longitude is duces the least amount of total drag, at a height
measured in degrees to the east and to the west which produces the highest true airspeed for the
of this meridian, to its antemeridian which has a power used and a power setting which results in
value of 180°. The prime meridian is also the da- the least fuel flow per unit distance flown.
tum from which all standard times are measured.
These are one hour later for every 15° of longi- Rated Coverage
tude to the east and one hour earlier for each 15° The greatest distance at which a given radio
of longitude to the west of the prime meridian. navigation beacon can be used to provide reli-
Pseudorandom Code able navigational information. In the case of ra-
A coded signal consisting of pseudo-random dio navaids which operate in the VHF fre-
binary pulses, transmitted by each of the satel- quency band, rated coverage is largely deter-
lites in the Navstar constellation which gives mined by the height of the aircraft receiver. In
timing and navigational information as well as the case of medium frequency navaids (NDB)
identifying the individual satellite. the rated coverage is determined by a number
of factors, the most important of which is the
QNE power output of the transmitter. For the rated
In the “Q” Code, QNE asks the question coverage of any individual NDB, you should
“What height will be shown by my altimeter if refer to the ERSA entry for that NDB.
I was to land at your airfield with the pressure
of 1013.25 hPa set on its sub-scale?” See also Receiver Autonomous Integrity
Pressure Height. Monitoring (RAIM)
A function of a GPS receiver that compares the
QNH positions of all of the satellites currently in
The pressure which when set on the sub-scale of view, and selects the best five to provide navi-
a pressure altimeter, will cause it to indicate the gation information. For RAIM to operate,
height of the aircraft above mean sea level. In the there must be at least six satellites in view so
“Q” Code, QNH asks the question “What pres- that at least one can be eliminated from the dis-
sure shall I set on the sub-scale of my altimeter cussion. If there are less than five satellites in
to cause the altimeter to indicate height above view suitable for navigation, the receiver
sea level when I land at your airfield?” equipment gives the pilot a “RAIM warning”
which then imposes limitations on the use to
Radial which the equipment may be put for the time
A magnetic bearing from a VOR ground beacon. being. For example, if a RAIM warning occurs

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

Appendix 1: Glossary of Terms 275

during the conduct of an RNAV non precision Roughness

approach in instrument met conditions, the pi- An error of the VOR system which results in a
lot is required to execute a missed approach. series of ragged irregular deviations of the
Course Deviation Indicator in the aircraft instru-
Receiver Clock Error ment. It is caused by interference to the trans-
An error which might occur in a GPS naviga- missions of the VOR ground beacon thought to
tion receivers internal clock. The existence of be emanating from power lines or buildings near
this error significantly degrades the accuracy of the site of the transmitter. See also Scalloping.
the navigation information received from all
satellites currently in view, with the result that SARTIME
position fixing places the aircraft in an area A time, nominated by the pilot to ATS by
rather than at a point. Receiver clock error is which, if he/she has not reported his/her safe
usually only temporary until the receivers com- arrival, he/she wishes Search and Rescue ac-
puter can trim it to an acceptable level. tion to be initiated on the aircraft by the Aus-
SAR organization.
Relative Bearing
The angular difference between the direction SARWATCH
along the aircraft’s longitudinal axis, through A service provided by ATS which ensures that
the nose of the aircraft) and the direction of an Search and Rescue alerting occurs as required
observed object, expressed in degrees counting and provided to aircraft that are operating on full
clockwise from 0° through 360°. position reporting, to scheduled reporting times
(SKEDs) or have nominated a SARTIME.
Relative Bearing Indicator (RBI)
Scale
A cockpit instrument which is coupled to an
Automatic Direction Finder and displays to the The ratio of the length of a line on a chart to
pilot the relative bearing of a non-directional the actual distance represented, e.g., a scale of
beacon to which the ADF is tuned and whose 1,000,000 (one to one million) literally means
transmissions it is receiving. that a line of 1 cm on the chart represents
1,000,000 cm on the surface of the earth.
Reply Pulses WACs and ONCs have a scale of 1,000,000.
The signals transmitted by the ground station So, in this scale, 1 cm on the chart represents
component of Distance Measuring Equipment 10 km over the ground.
(DME) in response to the Interrogation pulses Scalloping
initiated by the aircraft. An error of the VOR system which results in a
series of cyclic deviations of the Course Devia-
Required Navigation Performance (RNP)
tion Indicator, usually of no more than about
A statement of the navigational performance ac- 3.5°, but of short enough duration that it would
curacy required for an aircraft to operate in a not be possible for the aircraft to track on them.
given airspace under stated conditions. The Scalloping is often but not always associated with
statement gives the standards of continuity, avail- Roughness, with whom it should be compared.
ability, accuracy and integrity of the navigation
system required for a given type of operation. Selective Availability (SA)
The process by which military users of the GPS
Rhumb Line system had access to the L2 frequency and
Any line drawn on the earth’s surface which which excluded civilian users from that facility.
crosses all meridians at the same angle. This is
to be distinguished from a Great circle. A Sky Wave
Rhumb line is actually only a great circle if it That part of the transmissions from a medium or
lies along a meridian (its direction being 180° long wave radio transmitter, which is returned to
or 360°) or it lies along the equator (its direc- the earth having been reflected from the lower
tion then being 090° or 270°). A rhumb line is surfaces of the ionosphere more especially at
a straight line on a Mercator chart but is a slight night. It is the prime cause of Night Effect in the
curve on a Lambert Conformal or a Transverse ADF/NDB radio navigation system.
Mercator chart.
Small Circle
RNAV Any circle drawn on the surface of the earth,
See Area navigation whose centre does not pass through the centre of

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

276 Navigation

the earth. Examples of small circles are all Parallels modified by various means so that the statute
Of Latitude with the exception of the Equator. mile is now 5280 ft in length.

Solstice (Summer/Winter) Sunrise

That day in the year when the sun has reached The instant at the beginning of the day when
the limit of its apparent northward or southward the upper limb of the sun lies on the celestial
travel and is located overhead the Tropic of Can- horizon to the east, and is thus first seen.
cer (southern hemisphere Winter Solstice) or
overhead the Tropic of Capricorn (southern Sunset
hemisphere Summer Solstice). The Winter sol- The instant at the end of the day when the up-
stice for the southern hemisphere is the day of per limb of the sun lies on the western celestial
shortest daylight of the year and occurs on or horizon and is thus the last instant at which the
about 21 June. The summer solstice of the sun can be seen at the end of the day.
southern hemisphere occurs on or about 21
December and is the day of longest daylight. Tactical Air Navigation System (TACAN)
The military equivalent of a combined VOR
South and DME beacon for use by appropriately
The direction 90° to the right of east. equipped military aircraft. The bearing compo-
nent of TACAN operated in the UHF band of
South Geographic Pole frequencies and so is not normally available to
The point on the earth’s surface which marks civilian users.
the southern end of the axis about which the
earth rotates. It has the latitude of 90° south. Technical Service Order (TSO)
A set of airworthiness standards laid down by
South Magnetic Pole the Federal Aviation Agency of the United
The geographic location of the opposite end of States to ensure uniformity and efficacy equip-
the geomagnet which has one end located at ment used in aircraft.
the North Magnetic Pole. This point is cur-
rently located at about latitude 66° 00' south, Terrain Effect
139° 06' east, on the Adelie coast of Antarctica. A feature of the ADF/NDB radio navigation
The pole is currently moving to the northwest system under which the ground wave transmis-
at a rate of about 7 nm per year. sions from an NDB are attenuated by the na-
ture of the surface over which they are travel-
Standard Positioning Service (SPS) ling. When travelling over a rocky or sandy sur-
A redundant term used to describe the Civil face, these waves are attenuated more than they
Access Code which was broadcast on the L1 are over water, so the range of an NDB located
frequency of satellites in the GPS NAVSTAR near a coastline will be greater over water than
constellation. By order of the Clinton adminis- over the land.
tration, this service was terminated in May
2000, so that all users derive navigation infor- Track (TR)
mation from the L2 frequency. The path that an aircraft is intended to follow
over the ground as represented by a line joining
Standard Time the departure point with the destination on a
The local time kept by clocks based on the Lo- map. Sometimes called ‘Track Required’.
cal Mean Time of the nearest meridian of lon-
gitude which is a multiple of 15°. This means Track Correction Angle (TCA)
that most standard times are multiples of one The number of degrees by which the heading
hour different from UTC. In a few places, local must be altered in order to regain track at a se-
legislation has resulted in their standard time lected point. It is the sum of the track error and
being set half an hour out of step. the closing angle.

Statute Mile Track Error (TE)

A unit of distance derived from the Roman The angular difference between the Track Re-
‘mille passus’ or one thousand paces. Origi- quired (TR) and the Track Made Good
nally, each pace was considered to be five feet (TMG), expressed in degrees to the left or to
long, so the statute mile was 5000 ft in length. the right. If the TMG is greater than the TR,
Through the middle ages, the distance was Track Error is to the right and vice versa.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

Appendix 1: Glossary of Terms 277

Track Made Good (TMG) True Altitude

The path over the ground that an aircraft actu- The actual height of an aircraft above mean sea
ally achieves in flight. Even though an accurate level being the indicated (or calibrated) altitude
heading may have been flown, the TMG may corrected for the outside air temperature of the
yet differ from the TR because the wind en- environment in which the aircraft is flying. The
countered in flight was different from that used correction is applied by using the navigational
during flight planning. computer.

Transit Bearing True North

A form of position line which has been estab- At any place it is the direction of the True north
lished by the visual observation of two features pole from that location. It is the direction along
on the ground when they have been brought which the meridians of longitude lie and rep-
into alignment. resents the datum from which directions are
measured from a map or chart.
Transition Altitude
The highest altitude at which cruising flight Twilight
may be maintained while using QNH as the al- See Civil twilight
timeter reference datum. In Australia, the tran-
sition altitude is 10000 ft. Universal Time Coordinate
See Coordinated Universal Time
Transition Layer
A layer of air, usually about 1000 ft in depth, Variation
within which cruising flight is not permitted. See Magnetic variation
In Australia, the Transition layer lies between
10000 ft altitude and Flight Level 110. Vector
Transition Level In navigation, a vector is the graphical repre-
The lowest level at which cruising flight may sentation of one of the three elements which
be maintained while using the standard pres- make up the navigation triangle. The wind di-
sure of 1013.25 hPa as the altimeter sub-scale rection and speed constitutes one of these vec-
setting. Nominally, the Transition Level is tors, the track and ground speed form a second
FL110, but this is not available when the QNH and the third is the heading and True airspeed.
at the time is below 1013 hPa. The direction datum for each of these vectors
is by convention, True north while the length
Tropic of Cancer of each is drawn at any convenient scale to rep-
The latitude of 23° 27' north which marks the resent the relevant speed. It is important that all
declination of the sun to the celestial equator at three vector be drawn to the same scale in any
the northern summer solstice and the southern one triangle.
winter solstice. It is so named because, at the
time of naming, the sun was in the constella- Velocity
tion of Cancer. A vector which represents the combination of
direction and speed. In the wind triangle, there
Tropic of Capricorn are three vectors; namely Heading & True Air-
The latitude of 23° 27' south which marks the speed (HDG/TAS), Track & Groundspeed
declination of the sun to the celestial equator at (TR/GS) and the Wind Direction and Speed
the northern winter solstice and the southern (W/V).
summer solstice. It is so named because, at the
time of naming, the sun was in the constella- Velocity Vector
tion of Capricorn. A term for the direction in which an aircraft is
moving as distinct from the direction in which
True Airspeed (TAS) it is pointing. E.g. the aircraft may have a HDG
The actual speed of an aircraft relative to the air of 230°, a pitch attitude of +10° and an air-
through which it is flying. True Airspeed is the speed of 250 KIAS but may actually have a
Calibrated Airspeed (CAS) corrected for the level flight path, be tracking 237° relative to the
density of the environment in which the air- earth and have a groundspeed of 268 kt. This
craft is flying. It is found by applying values of flight path/track/groundspeed vector is also
altitude and outside air temperature to the CAS known as the velocity vector and is used in
by use of a navigational computer. flight path control and weapons aiming.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

278 Navigation

Vertical Navigation mally determined by a VOR radial and a DME

The guidance of an aircraft in the vertical sense. distance, or by use of an RNAV navigation de-
When operating an aircraft, vertical navigation vice such as GPS.
is required to ensure terrain clearance, to main-
tain separation from other aircraft and to permit West
control over the performance of the aircraft. The opposite direction from East.

VHF Omni-Directional Radio Range Western Standard Time (WST)

A radio navigation system consisting of a The local standard time kept in the state of
number of ground-based beacons which trans- Western Australia. It is the Local Mean Time
mit signals in the VHF frequency band and air- based on the longitude of 120° East. It is the
borne receivers which use these signals to pro- equivalent of UTC plus 8 hours.
vide the navigator with a magnetic bearing
from the ground beacon. The ground beacon Wide Area Augmentation System
effectively transmits an infinite number of mag- (WAAS)
netic bearings, called Radials. The airborne re- An enhancement of the GPS integrity achieved
ceiver is equipped with an Omni Bearing Indi- by the use of an additional but geostationary
cator which is used by the navigator to indicate satellite which results in corrections being ap-
on which radial the aircraft is currently located. plied to the position information provided by
the individual satellites in the NAVSTAR con-
Visibility stellation. Currently this system is only availa-
The greatest distance at which a object can be ble in the USA and is being progressively intro-
seen and recognised. Visibility can be considered duced into Europe and Japan.
as ‘horizontal visibility’, as reported in meteorol-
ogy, or ‘slant visibility’, as observed by the pilot Wide Area Differential GPS (WADGPS)
of an aircraft and required for visual navigation. The service provided by the use of WAAS
which has the potential to permit highly accu-
Visual Navigation Chart (VNC) rate three-dimensional navigation and the use
In Australia, a VNC is one of a series of eight of GPS for precision approaches to land. Cur-
charts produced to provide aeronautical and rently such a service is not available in Australia.
topographical information for visual navigation
purposes. They have been produced on the Wind Correction Angle (WCA)
Lambert’s conformal projection to a scale of The angular difference between Track Re-
1:500,000 to provide more detailed informa- quired (TR) and heading as calculated by using
tion than is available using the WAC series a navigational computer during the flight plan-
alone, and avoids the need to use the En Route ning stage of an operation. Sometimes referred
Chart (ERC) series in combination with the to as “Crab Angle”.
WAC in the areas concerned.
World Aeronautical Chart (WAC)
Visual Terminal Chart (VTC) In Australia, a WAC is one of a series of charts
In Australia, a VTC is one of a series of nineteen produced to provide complete topographical
charts produced to provide detailed aeronautical and limited aeronautical information for visual
and topographical information for navigational navigation purposes. They have been produced
purposes in the terminal areas of controlled air- on the Lambert’s conformal projection to a
fields. They have been produced on the Trans- scale of 1:1,000,000 and form the primary nav-
verse Mercator projection to a scale of 1:250,000 igation aid for pilots who navigate solely by vis-
to provide more detailed information than is ual reference.
available on any other combination of charts.
World Geodetic System 84 (WGS84)
VOR The geodetic system which describes the size and
See VHF omni-directional radio range shape of the earth, based on terms of harmonic
coefficients whose datum is the centre of the
Waypoint (WPT) mass of the earth resulting from a survey carried
A position used for navigation (usually as a out in 1984. It represents the shape of the earth
turning point) but not marked by a physical ra- required for the GPS system to determine any
dio navigation beacon. It is sometimes referred position on the surface of the earth to the degree
to as a ‘phantom station’. Its position is nor- of accuracy required for navigation purposes.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

 Appendix 2

Typical Multiple-Choice Questions

Part 1
1. Variation is defined as the difference between:
a. magnetic heading and true north.
b. true north and compass heading.
c. compass heading and true heading.
d. true north and magnetic north.

2. One international nautical mile is defined as being equivalent to:

a. 1 of longitude.
b. 1,852 m.
c. 0.87 statute miles.
d. 5,760 ft.

3. At 1830 EST at Moorabbin, the LMT at Perth (115°54E) will be:

a. 20 hr 46 min 24 s.
b. 00 hr 42 min 24 s.
c. 16 hr 30 min 00 s.
d. 16 hr 13 min 36 s.

4. Which one of the following applies to the VOR?

a. Quadrantal error.
b. Night effect.
c. Site effect.
d. Coastal refraction.

5. The agonic line is best described as:

a. a line along which compass deviation is nil.
b. the magnetic equator.
c. a line of nil magnetic dip.
d. the line of nil magnetic variation.

6. Which of the following statements most correctly explains any variations of scale on
a WAC?
a. Scale is constant throughout any chart sheet.
b. Scale expands between the standard parallels.
c. Scale contracts between the standard parallels.
d. Scale expands towards the north on southern hemisphere chart sheets.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE 279

280 Navigation

7. You have flown 20 nm in the last 9 min, and note that your fuel consumption is
averaging 66 L/hr. Your destination aerodrome is 91 nm away. The fuel you can
expect to use in reaching your destination is:
a. 75.0 L.
b. 27.0 L.
c. 45.0 L.
d. 21.0 L.

8. Your planned ETD Moorabbin is 082340 UTC on a flight of 78 min to Wagga

Wagga (35°10S 147°28E). The ETA will be nearest to:
a. 080058 UTC.
b. 101048 LMT.
c. 091108 LMT.
d. 091058 EST.

9. Which of the following frequency bands does the NDB use?

a. Very high frequency (VHF).
b. Very low frequency (VLF).
c. Medium frequency (MF).
d. Ultra high frequency (UHF).
e. Both VLF and MF.
f. Both VHF and UHF.

10. With a fixed-card ADF equipment, the bearings indicated by the head of the needle are:
a. magnetic bearings of the aircraft from the NDB.
b. relative bearings of the NDB from the aircraft.
c. true bearings of the NDB from the aircraft.
d. relative bearings of the aircraft from the NDB.

11. An aircraft climbs from sea level at a constant IAS in a standard atmosphere. As the
aircraft climbs:
a. TAS and OAT increase.
b. OAT remains constant and TAS decreases.
c. TAS increases and OAT decreases.
d. TAS increases by 1 kt per 5,000 ft of altitude.

12. Wind correction angle is:

a. the angular difference between wind direction and planned track.
b. the difference between TMG and heading.
c. equal and opposite to drift.
d. the difference between planned track and TMG.

13. Isogonals are best described as lines joining all places having:
a. equal magnetic deviation.
b. nil magnetic dip.
c. equal magnetic variation.
d. nil magnetic deviation.

14. The value of variation depends upon:

a. geographic location of compass.
b. magnetic heading of aeroplane.
c. amount of deviation correction to the compass.
d. location of geographic north pole.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

Appendix 2: Typical Multiple-Choice Questions 281

15. 320 USG of AVGAS with a specific gravity of 0.71 is equivalent to:
a. 860 kg.
b. 325 L.
c. 2,272 lb.
d. 384 imp. gal.

16. The date–time group 12090806 when decoded means:

a. 8 min past 6 am on the 12 September.
b. 12 min past 9 am on the 8 June.
c. 6 min past 8 am on the 9 December.
d. 9 min past 12 noon on the 6 August.

17. The correct position at which to measure the direction of a track drawn on a WAC
is:
a. at the beginning of the track.
b. at the mid-meridian on the chart.
c. half-way along the track.
d. at the mid-longitude on the chart.

18. The most appropriate method of testing the serviceability of your ADF equipment,
after having tuned to an NDB beacon, is to:
a. note that the off flag disappears.
b. check the identification of the NDB.
c. use the ADF test button to check that the needle deflects.
d. turn the aeroplane and note the movement of ADF needle.

19. 5,000 ft is equivalent to:

a. 16,400 m.
b. 1,524 m.
c. 0.75 nm.
d. 0.83 stat. miles.

20. A longitude of 152°20, when converted into time, is closest to:

a. 10 hr 07 min.
b. 10 hr 09 min.
c. 11 hr 28 min.
d. 10 hr 08 min.

21. 120 lb, when converted to kilograms, is closest to:

a. 26 kg.
b. 54 kg.
c. 265 kg.
d. 545 kg.

22. Your latest groundspeed is calculated as 137 kt, and you have used 34 L in the last
37 min. With 80 L of flight fuel remaining, how far will you be able to fly?
a. 168 nm.
b. 198 nm.
c. 213 nm.
d. 187 nm.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

282 Navigation

23. Which one of the following indications on a fixed-card ADF equipment will tell you
that you are passing over the top of an NDB?
a. The on/off flag flickers.
b. The bearing needle starts oscillating.
c. The audio tuning signals cease to be heard.
d. The bearing needle swings through 180°.

24. Area QNH has limits of plus or minus:

a. 1 hPa.
b. 2 hPa.
c. 5 hPa.
d. 10 hPa.

25. You are planning a flight of 232 nm at a groundspeed of 155 kt. The fuel flow
extracted from your pilot’s operating handbook is 13.3 USG/hr, and you are
required to carry a 45-minute fixed reserve of 9.0 USG. What minimum fuel are
you required to carry?
a. 29 imp. gal.
b. 78 lb.
c. 110 L.
d. 172 kg.

26. The date–time group 100630 WST is expressed in UTC as:

a. 092230
b. 102230
c. 101430
d. 091430

27. When converted to kilograms, 120 lb is closest to:

a. 264 kg.
b. 55 kg.
c. 26 kg.
d. 545 kg.

28. A longitude of 87°30 when converted to time is nearest to:

a. 5 hr 50 min.
b. 5 hr 48 min.
c. 5 hr 55 min.
d. 6 hr 00 min.

29. The date–time group 190230 EST is expressed in UTC as:

a. 191630.
b. 201230.
c. 181230.
d. 181630.

30. A fix is best described as the position of the aircraft determined by:
a. track and groundspeed measured from a previous pinpoint.
b. a position line obtained from an NDB.
c. the intersection of two position lines.
d. dead-reckoning calculations.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

Appendix 2: Typical Multiple-Choice Questions 283

31. During daylight saving time, clocks in South Australia are advanced by 1 hr. This
means that in South Australia at a time of 0750 UTC would be expressed in daylight
saving time as:
a. 1620.
b. 1820.
c. 2120.
d. 2330.

32. You plan to fly a distance of 168 nm at a flight plan groundspeed of 144 kt. Your
planned fuel consumption rate is 47 L/hr, and you are required to carry 45 min fixed
reserve at this rate. The minimum fuel you must carry at departure is:
a. 61 L.
b. 90 L.
c. 83 L.
d. 78 L.

33. At 1027 UTC, you are cruising at 6,000 ft on QNH, with a groundspeed of 137 kt
and have 86 nm to your destination. The descent to join the circuit is to be made at
600 fpm and a groundspeed of 150 kt. You are to commence descent so as to arrive
over your destination at 1,000 ft AGL. Assuming the aerodrome to be at 200 ft ele-
vation, your ETA at top of descent will be:
a. 1051 UTC
b. 1053 UTC
c. 1056 UTC
d. 1059 UTC.

34. The most appropriate method of testing the serviceability of your ADF, after having
tuned to a station, is to:
a. check the Morse code identification signal.
b. note that the warning flags disappear.
c. turn the aircraft and note the movement of the ADF bearing needle.
d. press the ADF test button and check the needle deflection.

35. VOR station passage is indicated by:

a. the first full-scale deflection of the CDI.
b. the first movement of the CDI as the aircraft enters the cone of confusion.
c. the moment the to/from indicator becomes blank.
d. the first positive, complete reversal of the to/from indicator.

36. The area QNH is 996 hPa. What is the lowest cruising flight level you could select?
a. FL 100
b. FL 110
c. FL 115
d. FL 120

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

284 Navigation

Part 2
1. You are cruising at 9,500 ft on an area QNH of 997 hPa. The actual pressure height
is nearest to:
a. 5,900 ft
b. 9,000 ft
c. 9,500 ft
d. 10,000 ft
e. FL 130

2. You are cruising at 6,000 ft on an area QNH of 1,020 hPa. The actual pressure height
is nearest to:
a. 5,200 ft
b. 5,800 ft
c. 6,000 ft
d. 6,200 ft
e. 6,800 ft

A D
a d
Figure A2-1 Part 2, questions 3 to 5.

3. In figure A2-1, determine the alteration of heading required at G to regain track at D.

a = 34 nm; g = 4 nm; d = 48 nm. Alteration of heading is nearest to:
a. 2° left.
b. 5° right.
c. 7° left.
d. 12° right.

4. In figure A2-1, determine the alteration of heading required at G to regain track at D.

a = 28 nm; g = 6 nm; d = 51 nm. Alteration of heading is nearest to:
a. 13° left.
b. 7° right.
c. 20° right.
d. 26° left.

5. In figure A2-1, determine the alteration of heading required at G to regain track at D.

a = 46 nm; g = 3 nm; d = 23 nm. Alteration of heading is nearest to:
a. 12° right.
b. 4° right.
c. 16° left.
d. 8° left.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

Appendix 2: Typical Multiple-Choice Questions 285

H
G

g h

D
a d
Figure A2-2 Part 2,questions 6 to 8.

6. In figure A2-2, determine the alteration of heading required at H to regain track at D.

g = 3 nm; a = 27 nm; h = 7 nm; d = 53 nm. Alteration of heading is nearest to:
a. 9° left.
b. 17° right.
c. 1° left.
d. 8° right.

7. In figure A2-2, determine the alteration of heading required at H to regain track at D.

g = 7 nm; a = 24 nm; h = 5 nm; d = 43 nm. Alteration of heading is nearest to:
a. 5° right.
b. 7° left.
c. 2° left.
d. 2° right.

8. In figure A2-2, determine the alteration of heading required at H to regain track at D.

g = 5 nm; a = 38 nm; h = 5 nm; d = 38 nm. Alteration of heading is nearest to:
a. maintain heading.
b. 8° right.
c. 16° right.
d. 4° right.

g
d
D
a
h

H
Figure A2-3 Part 2, questions 9 to 11.

9. In figure A2-3, determine the alteration of heading required at H to regain track at

D. g = 3 nm; a = 38 nm; h = 4 nm; d = 22 nm. Alteration of heading is nearest to:
a. 11° left.
b. maintain heading.
c. 11° right.
d. 22° left.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

286 Navigation

10. In figure A2-3, determine the alteration of heading required at H to regain track at D.
g = 4 nm; a = 25 nm; h = 1 nm; d = 60 nm. Alteration of heading is nearest to:
a. 13° left.
b. 1° left.
c. 12° right.
d. 11° right.

11. In figure A2-3, determine the alteration of heading required at H to regain track at D.
g = 2 nm; a = 34 nm; h = 6 nm; d = 72 nm. Alteration of heading is nearest to:
a. 9° right.
b. 19° left
c. 5° left
d. 14° right

12. You are on a flight from Oodnadatta (OOD) to Ayers Rock (AYE), a total distance
of 281 nm. After flying a steady heading of 293°M from OOD, you fix your position
over Granite Downs, a distance of 95 nm from OOD, and 18 nm left of the direct
track. You decide to alter heading to regain track by D Sentinal, a distance of 93 nm
from AYE. Your new heading will be nearest to:
a. 282°M.
b. 304°M.
c. 310°M.
d. 316°M.

13. You are en route from Hughenden (HUG) to Mt. Isa (MA), a total distance of
267 nm. At 2100 UTC you fix your position over Richmond (RMD), 7 nm right
of track, and alter heading onto 265°M to track direct to MA. After a further period
of time, you fix your position over Julia Creek (JLC), 3 nm right of track and a dis-
tance of 79 nm since your 2100 UTC fix. You decide to alter heading for Cloncurry
(CCY), which is on track, 60 nm from JLC. Your new heading will be nearest to:
a. 259°M.
b. 262°M.
c. 265°M.
d. 271°M.

14. You are maintaining a heading of 287°M, and obtain a relative bearing from an NDB
of 270°. What is the magnetic bearing from the NDB ground station to your aircraft?
a. 017°M.
b. 090°M.
c. 197°M
d. 270°M.

15. You are maintaining a heading of 007°M, and obtain a relative bearing from an NDB
of 349. If the variation in the area is 4°E, what is the direction in °T of the position
line that you would plot from the NDB?
a. 176°T.
b. 180°T.
c. 356°T.
d. 360°T.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

 Appendix 3

Answers to Review Questions

Review 1 48. Increase.

1. Nautical mile. 49. Increase.
2. Metre. 50. 133 kt TAS.
3. Foot. 51. HDG/TAS, TR/GS; TR/GS is the result-
4. Great circle. ant.
5. Longitude. 52. Heading and track, track and track made
6. Latitude and longitude. good.
7. Do. 53. Terrain clearance, traffic separation, aircraft
8. One. performance.
9. 1,852. 54. 30 ft, 5,000 ft.
10. True airspeed. 55. 17°C.
11. Heading, true airspeed. 56. 1,013 hPa.
12. Single-headed arrow. 57. Over-read.
13. Wind. 58. ±150 ft.
14. From. 59. Terrain clearance, traffic separation.
15. Track made good (TMG). 60. 11 nm.
16. Groundspeed. 61. Refer to table 1.
17. Heading.
18. Drift. Altitude QNH Pressure
19. Track error. (ft) (hPa) height (ft)
20. AB is HDG/TAS; AC is TR/GS; angle A 2,000 1013 2,000
is drift. 1,100 1000 1,490
21. 360. 5,000 998 5,450
22. East.
3,500 1007 3,680
23. South.
3,760 1005 4,000
24. West.
25. North, south, true north, true south. 6,710 1020 6,500
26. True north–south. 3,150 1018 3,000
27. Passes. 1,520 997 2,000
28. Is.
29. Does not pass. Table 1 Review 1, question 61.
30. Equator.
31. Is. Review 2
32. Small circle. 1. (a) 29 10 15;
33. Pole. (b) 19 15 17;
34. Are parallel. (c) 01 17 00.
35. Prime. 2. (a) 11 29 10 15;
36. Meridians of longitude are all great circles. (b) 07 19 15 17;
37. East or west. (c) 04 01 17 00.
38. Sphere. 3. (a) 15°;
39. Arc. (b) 45°;
40. Meridians, the equator, horizontal path of (c) 150°;
radio waves. (d) 142°30
41. 37°0830S, 147°3306E. 4. (a) 10 hr;
42. Meridian. (b) 9 hr;
43. 270°, 135°, 010°. (c) 8 hr.
44. Variation. 5. Subtract, gain.
45. 276°T. 6. Earlier.
46. 080°M. 7. Earlier.
47. Airspeed, groundspeed. 8. Earlier.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE 287

288 Navigation

9. Latitude and date. 14. Constant angle.

10. Advanced by 1 hr. 15. Smaller.
11. (a) 08 19 30; 16. Contours and colour tinting (hypsometric
(b) 20 10 15; tints).
(c) 03 23 37. 17. Lambert.
12. (a) 03 08 19 30; 18. Transverse Mercator.
(b) 12 20 10 15; 19. AIP Supplement.
(c) 04 03 23 37. 20. Middle.
13. (a) 02 27 00; 21. 1 min of latitude.
(b) 06 32 52; 22. Bearings and shapes are correct; meridians
(c) 05 07 52; are straight lines, and parallels are concentric
(d) 01 13 48. circles concave to the nearer pole; great cir-
14. (a) 28 09 30 UTC; cles can be assumed to be straight lines;
(b) 28 17 44 UTC; rhumb lines are curved lines concave to the
(c) 14 18 27 UTC; nearer pole; scale is effectively constant.
(d) 22 07 52 UTC. 23. A straight line.
15. Start of morning civil twilight, end of 24. Two.
evening civil twilight. 25. Is not.
16. (a) 0621 LMT; 26. Expands.
(b) 1817 LMT; 27. Bearings.
(c) 0435 LMT;
(d) 1843 LMT. Review 4
17. (a) 11 hr 13 min; 1. (a) 168;
(b) 13 hr 5 min; (b) 1.02;
(c) 15 hr 3 min; (c) 52.5.
(d) 13 hr 5 min. 2. Heading to track.
18. 18 09 28 LMT; 3. Heading and groundspeed.
18 00 05 UTC; 4. 134 kt TAS.
18 09 35 CST. 5. 150 kt TAS.
19. 23 16 10 EST; 23 06 10 UTC. 6. 144 kt IAS.
20. 6-figure: 20 16 45; 7. Refer to table 2.
8-figure: 05 20 16 45.
Pressure Tempera- IAS TAS
21. 3 hr, 1 hr. height (ft) ture (°C) (kt) (kt)
22. 1426 LMT. 4,000 +10 135 144
23. 1044 UTC; 2114 CSuT.
6,500 –01 160 175
24. 2104 CSuT.
1,500 +25 125 131
10,000 –10 140 161
Review 3
1. Representative fraction; graduated scale 8,000 zero 170 192
line; words (e.g. 1 cm = 5 nm). 7,000 +05 150 168
2. WAC, ERC-L, VTC.
3. VTC (transverse Mercator). Table 2 Review 4, question 7.
4. Use the latitude scale; measure at mid-lat- 8. 16.6 nm.
itude. 9. 50 minutes.
5. Permanently established, without passen- 10. 187 kt.
ger facilities (see legend page 80). 11. Refer to the table 3 (page 289).
6. Three mines (and to the north-east, a 12. 322°M, GS 75 kt.
power transmission line). 13. 261°M, GS 66 kt.
7. 130°M, 54 nm. 14. 100°M, GS 133 kt.
8. Great circle. 15. 062°M, GS 127 kt.
9. 29 km, 302°T. 16. Refer to table 4 (page 289).
10. The aerodrome has an aeronautical beacon. 17. TR 031, GS 108 kt.
11. The height is a calculated maximum. 18. TR 103°M, GS 130 kt.
12. Retaining wall or weir, and a pipeline run- 19. Refer to table 5 (page 289).
ning SW from the lake. 20. 27 nm.
13. Approved operations for arrival/departure 21. 52 nm.
only (see ERSA for GAAP procedures). 22. 20 nm.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

Appendix 3: Answers to Review Questions 289

23. 153 kt. 28. GS 132 kt, 33 minutes.

24. 93 kt. 29. 15 minutes.
25. 180 kt. 30. 12 minutes.
26. 180 kt. 31. 13 minutes.
27. 150 kt, 12 minutes. 32. 67 min.

Distance Groundspeed Time Distance Groundspeed Time

46 124 22.2 27 153 10.6
52 136 22.9 11 122 5.4
24 160 9.0 100 207 29.0
57 180 19.0 17 111 9.3
30 164 11.0 280 187 90.0
45 129 21.0 249 174 86.0
18 154 7.0 54 105 31.0
31 186 10.0 79 176 27.0
26 157 10.0 192 240 48.0
28 187 9.0 12 237 3.0
35 117 18.0 190 200 57.0
36 135 16.0 37 159 14.0
23 197 7.0 27 135 12.0
63 151 25.0 28 187 9.0
12 87 8.3 129 189 41.0
32 240 8.0 41 88 28.0

Table 3 Review 4, question 11.

Track TAS W/V HDG GS Dist Time

135 160 240/20 142 164 87 32
089 135 310/15 085 146 56 23
345 150 030/45 357 115 63 33
235 125 150/20 226 122 45 22
170 175 050/30 161 188 90 29
215 145 280/25 224 132 48 22
305 175 150/20 302 193 60 19
355 135 120/15 360 143 78 33
020 180 080/40 031 157 73 28
157 145 335/30 157 175 27 9

Table 4 Review 4, question 16.

HDG TAS W/V TMG GS

145 160 080/30 155 150
060 145 145/25 050 145
316 135 270/35 328 113
230 130 320/20 221 132
175 150 230/15 170 142
080 140 220/30 073 164
280 170 140/20 284 186
030 155 360/45 041 118
330 125 300/20 335 108
190 200 040/30 194 227

Table 5 Review 4, question 19.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

290 Navigation

33. 1306 UTC. 7. Track error plus closing angle. Note that in
34. 3.4 gallons. certain cases this may be (TE – CA).
35. 1.3 gallons. 8. 12° right (TE 8° + CA 4°).
36. 7 gallons/hour. 9. 16° right.
37. 8 gallons/hour. 10. 3 minutes.
38. 12 gallons/hour, 40 minutes. 11. Intersection of two position lines.
39. 9 nm. 12. Drift.
40. 15 nm. 13. Track error.
41. 8 nm, 8°TE. 14. Drift.
42. 12 nm, 12 °TE. 15. Directional gyro with magnetic compass.
43. HDG 061°M, TAS 90 kt. 16. Area QNH.
44. HDG 166°M, TAS 82 kt, IAS 75 kt. 17. Circle.
45. Headwind 11 kt, crosswind 28 kt. 18. Square.
46. 7 minutes. 19. Headings and airspeeds, landmarks.
47. 410 fpm. 20. 108 kt.
48. Refer to table 6 (below). 21. 9° right.
49. Refer to table 7 (below). 22. 10° right.
23. 3° left.
Review 5 24. (a) TE 8° left;
1. Planned track and track made good; head- (b) CA 8°;
ing and track. (c) CA 4°.
2. Refer to figure 5-5, page 132. 25. (a) alter HDG 13° left;
3. Check that area QNH is set; set cruise (b) alter HDG 16° left;
power and trim the aeroplane; carry out a (c) alter HDG 14° left.
CLEAROF check. 26. 18° left.
4. For normal en route navigation, read from 27. Alter HDG 18° right (onto 098°M).
chart to ground; when lost or uncertain of 28. (a) TE 9°;
position, read from ground to chart. (b) CA 8°;
5. Confirm proper tracking; carry out a (c) alter HDG 17° right.
CLEAROF check; make a departure call if 29. (a) TE 12°;
required; enter ETAs in your flight plan. (b) CA 12°;
6. Good flight planning; flying accurate (c) alter HDG 086°M (24° left).
headings and airspeeds.
Pressure Height Temperature Deviation IAS TAS
8,000 ISA+05 150 170
5,000 ISA 130 140
4,000 ISA–03 185 195
12,500 ISA–10 160 190
2,500 ISA+15 140 149
6,000 ISA+02 175 192

Table 6 Review 4, question 48.

IAS Alt Temp TAS Tr (M) W/V (M) HDG (M) GS Dist ETI
123 080 +16 143 345 040/20 351 131 55 25
150 100 zero 176 155 270/30 164 188 90 29
145 075 +10 165 044 270/40 034 190 60 19
140 020 –05 140 340 135/30 345 166 77 28
170 100 –15 194 235 045/20 236 214 132 37
160 060 +08 176 058 310/35 047 183 55 18
145 100 –10 167 345 250/50 328 164 88 32
150 070 +15 171 195 080/35 184 182 66 22
130 100 +05 154 271 010/25 280 156 10 4
208 095 zero 242 326 270/30 320 224 56 15

Table 7 Review 4, question 49.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

Appendix 3: Answers to Review Questions 291

30. (a) TE 8°; 31. (a) MB 330-TO;

(b) CA 4°; (b) MB 150-FROM;
(c) alter HDG 332°M; (c) true bearing 146-FROM.
(d) alter HDG 328°M. 32. Refer to table 8.
31. (a) TE 7°;
(b) CA 5°; MH RB MB TO Variation Plot TB
(c) HDG 281°M; FROM
(d) HDG 286°M. 345 090 075 10 E 265
32. 7 min. 124 328 092 8W 264
33. 9 min. 278 135 053 8E 241
34. 365 fpm.
056 245 301 11 W 110
35. (a) TE 12°;
248 265 153 9E 342
(b) CA 2°;
(c) alter HDG 14° right; 209 085 294 10 E 124
(d) alter 2° left. 156 270 066 8W 238
36. (a) TE 12°;
(b) CA 1°; Table 8 Review 6, question 32.
(c) alter HDG 13° left;
(d) alter 1° right. 33. Right turn to MH 130, RB 270.
34. Right turn to MH 100, RB 300.
Review 6 35. Right.
1. Non-directional beacon. 36. Left.
2. Ground-based transmitter. 37. Right.
3. Low-frequency or medium-frequency band. 38. MH 360, RB 090.
4. Automatic direction finder. 39. MH 030, RB 090.
5. Airborne receiver. 40. MH 030, RB 270.
6. Its Morse code ident. 41. MH 345, RB 355.
7. Select the NDB frequency, identify the 42. MH 128, RB 172.
NDB, and check that the needle is ‘ADFing’. 43. MH 010, RB 080.
8. Relative bearing indicator. 44. MH 037, RB 263.
9. (a) MB 280-TO; 45. RB 096.
(b) MB 100-FROM. 46. RB 084.
10. (a) MB 240-TO; 47. RB 095.
(b) MB 060-FROM. 48. Refer to table 9.
11. May.
12. May. Inbound TR (M) Drift MH RB
13. Are not, are not. 060 8 left 068 352
14. An oblique angle, closer to the coast. 135 5 right 130 005
15. Greater.
315 9 right 306 009
16. Coastal refraction, night effect, terrain ef-
183 11 left 194 349
fect, mountain effect, thunderstorm effect.
17. MB 030 to NDB. 268 3 right 265 003
18. MB 025 to NDB.
Table 9 Review 6, question 48.
19. MB 020 to NDB.
20. MB 015 to NDB.
21. RB 060. 49. Refer to table 10.
22. RB 105.
Outbound TR (M) Drift MH RB
23. MB 350 to NDB, MB 170 from NDB.
24. MB 140 to NDB, MB 320 from NDB. 098 9 right 089 189
25. MB 160 to NDB, MB 340 from NDB. 234 8 left 242 172
26. MB 170 to NDB, MB 350 from NDB. 357 4 left 001 176
27. RB 030. 158 zero 158 180
28. RB 210.
209 3 right 206 183
29. RB 315.
30. (a) MB 075-TO; Table 10 Review 6, question 49.
(b) MB 255-FROM;
(c) true bearing 265-FROM.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

292 Navigation

Review 7 8. Keeping a mental plot of position, time

1. VHF. and fuel – like making an approximation of
2. DME. mathematical calculations when using an
3. Magnetic bearing, from. electronic calculator.
4. MH 070. 9. The accuracy of the system depends on the
5. MH 230. accuracy of the data that is input. It can only
6. Morse code ident. calculate on the basis of the information it is
7. ±2° accuracy. given – coordinates, waypoints etc.
8. ±5°. 10. Situational awareness. Situational aware-
9. VHF-NAV. ness could be described as the total appre-
10. Course deviation indicator. ciation of position, time, traffic, aircraft
11. Omni bearing selector. state, fuel, weather and self-limitations on
12. A displacement of 2° from the selected the operation of the aircraft and the suc-
course. cessful completion of the flight. In the case
13. A displacement of 4°. of complex systems such as autopilots,
14. a. 090 radial. GPS, and FMS, SA requires the pilot to use
b. 270 radial. an independent source of information to
c. 274 radial (i.e. 094-TO). crosscheck the logic and general orienta-
d. 092 radial. tion and performance of the systems –
15. Planned track is out to the right. rather than to confirm the precise accuracy
16. No, the VOR cockpit display is not head- of its output. This is sometimes called keep-
ing sensitive. ing the system honest.
17. Morse code.
11. RNAV.
18. 10.
12. Waypoints.
19. 5°.
13. ±2 nm.
20. (i) Aircraft B; (ii) Aircraft B; (iii) Aircraft D.
14. 24, 12, 20,000.
15. 4.
16. A primary means of navigation system is one
Review 8
that satisfies accuracy and integrity perform-
1. Slant.
ance requirements, but not necessarily avail-
2. UHF, 252, selecting a paired VOR or ILS
ability and continuity requirements.
frequency on the VHF-NAV set.
17. Coarse acquisition (C/A), standard posi-
3. 10 nm in 5 min = GS 120 kt.
tioning.
4. 10 nm in 7 min = GS 86 kt.
18. Selective availability.
5. Circular.
19. Receiver, reception.
20. Five.
Review 9 21. Barometric aiding.
1. The computer is programmed to sense dis-
22. Navigation with RAIM, navigation with-
crepancies and to arrive at a trimmed posi- out RAIM, and loss of navigation or dead
tion (an averaged position that meets all reckoning (DR).
the signal criteria). 23. Masking.
2. RAIM selects the best four or more satel- 24. 7.5°.
lite signals and therefore reduces the error 25. ATC must be advised if RAIM is lost for
of the total system by deleting the least ac- more than ten minutes, if RAIM is not
curate or least consistent signal. available when ATC requests a GPS dis-
3. The masking function rejects signals from tance or some requirement based on GPS
satellites below a fixed angle (typically 7.5°) is imposed, if the GPS loses navigation
as these signals may be subject to error. function for more than one minute, or if
4. Ground station. the indicated displacement from track cen-
5. The accuracy of GPS tracking may in- treline is more than 2 nm.
crease the probability of conflicting traffic. 26. Cross-checked.
Accepted procedure is to deliberately track 27. Oblate spheroid.
1-2 nm right of planned route to provide 28. WGS 84.
lateral separation. 29. The route is a two-way route.
6. Unreliable. (Notify ATS if you are in con- 30. True; however, area LSALTs are shown.
trolled airspace and RAIM is lost for more 31. The RNAV system keeps the aircraft
than 10 minutes.) within tracking tolerances for the aids con-
7. Operator. cerned.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

 Appendix 4

Typical Multiple-Choice Questions:

Answers and Explanations

Answers

Part 1
1. d. 10. b. 19. b. 28. a.
2. b. 11. c. 20. b. 29. d.
3. d. 12. c. 21. b. 30. c.
4. c. 13. c. 22. b. 31. b.
5. d. 14. a. 23. d. 32. b.
6. c. 15. a. 24. c. 33. c.
7. c. 16. c. 25. c. 34. d.
8. d. 17. c. 26. a. 35. d.
9. c. 18. c. 27. b. 36. d.

Part 2
1. d. 10. a.
2. b. 11. b.
3. d. 12. d.
4. c. 13. c.
5. a. 14. a.
6. b. 15. b.
7. d.
8. b.
9. d.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE 293

294 Navigation

Part 1 Explanations
1. Variation is defined as the angle between true north and magnetic north; hence
answer D. Deviation is a correction applied to the compass and is defined as the angle
between magnetic heading and compass heading. (Refer to page 11.)

2. The international nautical mile is defined as a fixed distance of 1,852 m; hence

answer B. (Refer to page 14.)

3.
Time at Moorabbin 1830 EST
EST to UTC –10 hours
Time at Moorabbin 0830 UTC
Arc to time (115°54E) +744
Time at Perth 1614 LMT

The closest answer is D. Answer C is the time at Perth in WST, UTC + 8 hr. (Refer
to pages 37–38.)

4. Quadrantal error, night effect and coastal refraction are errors of the ADF–NDB sys-
tem. Site effect error results when the propagation path of VOR signals are affected
by physical obstacles, or irregular terrain features lying in close proximity to the
transmitter site; hence answer C. (Refer to page 228–229.)

5. A line representing zero magnetic variation, such as the isogonal through Kalgoorlie
(see figure 1-17, page 12), is referred to as an agonic line; hence answer D. The mag-
netic equator is not related to variation. It refers to a line, close to the geographic
equator, where the earth’s magnetic field is entirely horizontal, with no magnetic
dip. Compass deviation depends upon the magnetic anomalies in the aircraft, and its
location, and is independent of variation. (Refer to page 11.)

6. A high-latitude WAC would look like this:

Expands

LSP
Contracts
Scale
correct
USP
Expands

Figure A4-1 Part 1, question 6.

Scale is correct at the standard parallels, contracts between and expands outside. The
scale error for each sheet in the WAC series is very small, and a scale rule can therefore
be used to measure distance. Answer C is correct. (Refer to page 63 and following.)

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

Appendix 4: Typical Multiple-Choice Questions: Answers and Explanations 295

7. Groundspeed 20 nm in 9 min = 133 kt

ETI 91 nm @ 133 kt = 41 min
Fuel 41 min @ 66 L/hr = 45 L (Answer C)
(Refer to page 98.)
GS = 133 kt
LITRE
DIS S 66
T 28 T I ME
nm TIM litr
91 60 E nm 45 es
n /h
m in 9m mi 60
r
41 in 41

Figure A4-2 Part 1, question 7.

8.
ETD Moorabbin 082340 UTC
Flight time (78 min = 1 hr 18 min) + 118
ETA Wagga (147°28E = UTC + 10) 090058 UTC
UTC to EST +10
ETA Wagga 091058 EST

Answer D is correct. (Refer to pages 35 and 41.)

9. NDBs operate in the frequency range 200–400 kHz. The low frequency (LF) band
is between 30–300 kHz and the medium frequency band is between 300 kHz and
3 MHz. Therefore, NDBs operate in both the LF and MF bands, hence answer C is
correct (refer to page 174).

10. With the fixed card set to zero, the head of the ADF needle gives bearings relative
to the longitudinal axis of the aeroplane from the aeroplane to the NDB, hence
answer B (refer to page 180).

11. In the standard atmosphere, both outside air temperature (OAT) and air density ()
decrease with height. IAS equals TAS only under MSL ISA conditions. When air is
less dense than MSL, TAS will increase in the following way:

TAS = IAS ----0-

where  0 = MSL ISA air density, and
 = ambient air density (which decreases with height)
Answer C is correct. (Refer to page 16.)

12. Wind correction is equal but opposite in sense to drift; hence answer C. Drift is the
angle between heading and track made good. Track error is the angle between the
planned track and the track made good. (Refer to page 111.)

13. Isogonals are defined as lines on a chart joining places having the same magnetic var-
iation; hence answer C. Deviation is a correction applied to a compass heading. Mag-
netic dip refers to the vertical component of the earth’s magnetic field; a line joining
placed of zero magnetic dip is termed the magnetic equator. (Refer to page 12.)

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

296 Navigation

14. Variation is the term used to describe the angle between true north and magnetic
north. Its value varies widely over the earth (see page 11) but is constant at a partic-
ular location; hence answer A is correct.

15.
1 US gallon = 3.785 litres
1 litre of AVGAS (SG 0.71) = 0.71 kg
320 US gallons of AVGAS = 320  3.785  0.71
= 860 kg
Answer A is correct. (Refer to page 108.)

16. Date–time groups are expressed in the format MMDDHHmm (month day hour
minute). A group of 12090806 refers to 6 min past 8 am on 9 December; hence
answer C. (Refer to pages 35.)

17. Because of the convergency of the meridians on a WAC, a straight line track
(approximating a great circle) will not have a constant true direction (that is, it is not
a rhumb line). By measuring the track at the mid meridian (half-way along track)
the approximate rhumb-line track can be determined. By applying variation, also
taken half-way along track, a constant magnetic direction can be established. Over
short distances (across a WAC, for instance) the error is negligible for practical pur-
poses; hence answer C is correct. (Refer to pages 68–69 and figure A4-3.)

Mid meridian

Initial
track

Rh u m
b
lin
e
Ap Final
pro
gre xim track
at
circ ate
le

Figure A4-3 Part 1, question 17.

18. After tuning and identifying an NDB (the ground station), the serviceability of the
ADF (the airborne equipment) can be checked by placing the mode selector in the
test position. This will deflect the ADF needle left or right of its present position and,
when switched back to ADF, the needle will point to the selected NDB again; hence
answer C. The next best procedure is to turn the aeroplane left or right and noting
that the ADF reading is increasing or decreasing. Note that only the VOR indicator
has an off flag. (Refer to page 179.)

19. 1 ft = 0.3048 m
5,000 ft = 5,000  0.3048
= 1,524 m
Answer B is correct. (Refer to pages 103–104.)

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

Appendix 4: Typical Multiple-Choice Questions: Answers and Explanations 297

20. 15° of longitude = 1 hr of time

1° of longitude = 4 min of time
15 of longitude = 1 min of time

First consider the degrees: 151°  15 °/hr = 10 hr and 2° remaining

Remaining 2°  4 min   = 8 min

Then the minutes of longitude: 2° longitude  1 min

Add the results together: 10 hr + 8 min + 1 min = 10 hr 9 min

Answer B is correct. (Alternatively, you can refer to the table extracted from the AIP,
reproduced on page 37.)

21. 1 kg = 2.2 lb
1 lb = 0.455 kg
120 lb = 120  0.455 kg
= 54.6 kg
Answer B is correct. (Refer to page 105.)

22.
FF 34 L in 37 min = 55 L/hr
ETI 80 L @ 55 L/hr = 87 min
Distance 87 min @ 137 kt = 199 nm
Answer B is correct. (Refer to pages 95 and 98–99.)

23. Station passage over an NDB is indicated by the ADF needle moving from a forward
indication, through about 180, to a rearward indication; hence answer D. Station pas-
sage over a VOR would be indicated by the to/from flag changing from to to from, and
the course deviation indicator needle (CDI) moving to full-scale deflection (perhaps
oscillating as well) and then returning to an on-scale reading. (Refer to page 196.)

24. Area QNH is a forecast value which is valid for a period of 3 hr and normally applies
throughout an area QNH zone (AQZ). AQZs may be subdivided to ensure that area
QNH is within 5 hPa of any local QNH or adjacent area QNH; hence answer C is
correct. (Refer to page 27.)

25. ETI 232 nm @ 155 kt = 90 min

Flight fuel 90 min @ 13.3 USG/hr = 19.9 USG
Fixed reserve 45 min @ 13.3 USG/hr = 9.0 USG
Fuel required to be carried = 28.9 USG
@ 5.9 lb/USG = 171 lb
@ 2.69 kg/USG = 78 kg
@ 3.79 L/USG = 110 L

Answer C is correct. (Refer to pages 95 and 98–99.)

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

298 Navigation

26. WST = UTC + 8 hr

Time = 100630 WST
= 093030 (i.e. the 30th hour of the 9th day)
– 8 (UTC = WST – 8 hr)
= 092230 UTC
Answer A is correct. (Refer to page 42.)
27.
1 kg = 2.2 lb
1 lb = 0·455 kg
120 lb  0.545 = 55 kg
Answer B is correct. (Refer to page 105.)
28. 15° of longitude = 1 hr of time
1° of longitude = 4 min of time
15 of longitude = 1 min of time
87°  15 °/hr = 5 hr and 12° remaining
First consider the degrees:
12°  4 min/° = 48 min

Then consider the minutes of longitude: 30  15 /min = 2 min

Add the results together: 5 hr + 48 min + 2 min = 5 hr 50 min
Answer A is correct. (Alternatively, you can refer to the table extracted from the AIP,
reproduced on page 37.)

29. UTC = EST – 10 hr

Date–time group = 190230 EST
= 182630 (26th hour of the previous day)
EST to UTC –10
= 181630 UTC
Answer D is correct. (Refer to pages 35 and 41.)
30. There are a number of ways of obtaining a positive fix. The intersection of two posi-
tion lines is one method. These position lines can be either visual (such as transit
bearings, or based on physical features such as roads, railway lines, coastlines etc), or
based on radio navigation aids; hence answer C is correct. Note that a fix is not pos-
sible from a single position line, nor from a dead reckoning position (such as a track
and groundspeed measured from a previous fix). (Refer to page 130.)
31. CST = UTC + 9 hr 30 min
During daylight saving time, CSuT = UTC + 1030
Time = 0750 UTC
UTC to CSuT +1030
= 1820 CSuT
Answer B is correct. (Refer to page 42.)

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

Appendix 4: Typical Multiple-Choice Questions: Answers and Explanations 299

32. ETI 168 nm @ 144 kt = 70 min

Flight Fuel 70 min @ 47 L/hr = 55 L
Fixed reserve 45 min @ 47 L/hr = 35 L
Minimum fuel on board at take-off = 90 L

Answer B is correct. (Refer to pages 95–97 and 98.)

33. Elevation of destination = 200 feet

(Descent is to 1,000 ft AGL/1,200 ft altitude)
Descent through = 6,000 – 1,200
= 4,800 ft
ETI on descent = 4,800 ft @ 600 fpm
= 8 min
Distance run on descent = 8 min @ GS 150 kt
= 20 nm
Distance to run at cruise = 86 – 20
= 66 nm
ETI to TOPD = 66 nm @ 137 kt
= 29 min
ETA at TOPD = 1027 + 29
= 1056 UTC
Answer C is correct. (Refer to page 133–138.)

34. After tuning and identifying an NDB (the ground station), the serviceability of the
ADF (the airborne equipment) can be checked by pressing the ADF test button. This
will deflect the ADF needle left or right of its present position and, when the button
is released, the needle will point to the selected NDB again; hence answer D. The next
best procedure is to turn the aeroplane left or right and noting that the ADF reading
is increasing or decreasing. Note that only the VOR indicator has warning flags. The
presence of the Morse identification has no bearing on the serviceability of the ADF,
although its absence may be due to a defect in the equipment. (Refer to page 179.)

35. Passage of an aeroplane over a VOR station is indicated by:

■ the needle becoming more and more sensitive and oscillating as you approach the
station;
■ the red NAV (or off) flag showing, indicating an unusable signal;
■ the to/from flag swinging over to indicate from; and
■ the needle becoming more stable as the aircraft moves away from the station.

Station passage is indicated by the first positive, complete reversal of the to/from flag;
hence answer D. (Refer to pages 222-222.)

36. When the QNH is below 997 hPa, FL 115 is not available; therefore the lowest
cruising flight level (ignoring track direction) is FL 120; hence answer D. (Refer to
page 28 and figure 1-41, page 28.)

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

300 Navigation

Part 2 Explanations
1. See figure A4-4. Nearest pressure height is 10,000 ft; answer D. (See figure 1-39,
page 26.)

9,500 ft on area QNH

Altitude
Pressure height
= (9,500 + 480)
= 9,980 ft

Area
997 hPa
QNH
16 × 30 ft/hPa = 480 ft 16 hPa difference

ISA 1013 hPa

Figure A4-4 Part 2, question 1.

2. See figure A4-5. Nearest pressure height is 5,800 ft; answer B. (See figure 1-39, page
26.)

6,000 ft on area QNH

Pressure height
= (6,000 – 210)
= 5,790 ft
Altitude

ISA 1013 hPa

7 × 30 ft/hPa = 210 ft 7 hPa difference

Area 1020 hPa
QNH

Figure A4-5 Part 2, question 2.

For questions 3 to 14 inclusive, refer to pages 145–153.

3. Answer D.
TE 4
------- = ----- G
60 34
TE = 7° 4 nm

CA 4 TE CA
-------- = ----- A
34 nm 48 nm
D
60 48
Figure A4-6 Part 2, question 3.
CA = 5°
Alteration of heading = TE + CA
= 7+5
= 12°R

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

Appendix 4: Typical Multiple-Choice Questions: Answers and Explanations 301

4. Answer C.
TE 6
------- = ----- G
60 28
TE = 13° 6 nm
CA 6
-------- = ----- TE CA
60 51 A
28 nm 51 nm
D

CA = 7° Figure A4-7 Part 2, question 4.

Alteration of HDG = TE + CA
= 13 + 7
= 20°R
5. Answer A.
TE 3
------- = ----- G
60 46
TE = 4°
CA 3 3 nm
-------- = -----
60 23 TE CA
A D
CA = 8° 46 nm 23 nm

Alteration of HDG = TE + CA Figure A4-8 Part 2, question 5.

= 4+8
= 12°R

6. Answer B.
TE 4
------- = ----- H
60 27
TE = 9°
4 nm
CA 7
-------- = ----- G
TE
60 53 27 nm
3 nm 7 nm
CA = 8°
CA D
Alteration of HDG = TE + CA 53 nm
= 9+8 Figure A4-9 Part 2, question 6.
= 17°R

7. Answer D.
TE –5
------- = 7----------- G TE
60 28 H
TE = 5° 24 nm
CA 5 7 nm
-------- = ----- 5 nm
60 43
CA = 7° CA
D
43 nm
Alteration of HDG = CA – TE
Figure A4-10 Part 2, question 7.
= 7–5
= 2°R

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

302 Navigation

8. Answer B.
Aircraft is paralleling TR, so TE = 0 G H
CA 5
-------- = -----
60 38 5 nm 5 nm
CA = 8°
CA D
Alteration of HDG = TE + CA
Figure A4-11 Part 2, question 8.
= 0+8
= 8°R

9. Answer D.
TE + 4-
------- = 3----------- G
60 38 TE
TE = 11° 3 nm
CA 4 22 nm
-------- = ----- CA
D
60 22
4 nm 4 nm
CA = 11° TE
Alteration of HDG = TE + CA 38 nm H

= 11 + 1 Figure A4-12 Part 2, question 9.

= 22°L

10. Answer A.
TE + 1-
------- = 4----------- G
60 25 TE
4 nm
TE = 12°
CA 1 60 nm
-------- = ----- D
CA
60 60 1 nm 1 nm
CA = 1° TE
25 nm H
Alteration of HDG = TE + CA
Figure A4-13 Part 2, question 10.
= 12 + 1
= 13°L

11. Answer B.
TE + 2-
------- = 6----------- G
60 34 TE
TE = 14° 2 nm

CA 6 72 nm
-------- = ----- D
CA
60 72
CA = 5° 6 nm 6 nm

Alteration of HDG = TE + CA
TE
= 14 + 5 34 nm H

= 19°L Figure A4-14 Part 2, question 11.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

Appendix 4: Typical Multiple-Choice Questions: Answers and Explanations 303

12. Answer D.
TE
------- = 18
-----
60 95
TE = 11°L
CA
-------- = 18
-----
60 93
CA = 12°
Alteration of HDG = TE + CA
= 11 + 12
= 23°R + 293°M
= 316°M

AYE

93 nm

STL

CA
93 nm

18 nm
95 nm

Granite
Downs TE

OOD

Figure A4-15 Part 2, question 12.

13. Answer C.
TE 4
-------
= -----
60 79
TE = 3°
CA 3
--------
= -----
60 60
CA = 3°
Alteration of HDG = TE – CA
= 3–3
= 0
maintain present HDG of 265°M

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

304 Navigation

MA

CA
JLC TE 2100UTC
RMD
CCY
60 nm 3 nm
7 nm
79 nm

HUG

Figure A4-16 Part 2, question 13.

14. Answer A. (Refer to pages 181–183 and 186– MN

187.)
MH 270 + RB 270 = MB 557 T
–360
= MB 197 TO HDG 287°M REL BRG
270°
+180
377
–360
= MB 017 FROM

NDB

Figure A4-17 Part 2, question 14.

15. Answer B. (Refer to page 189.) MN

MH 007 + RB 349 = MB 356 TO

NDB HDG 007°M
–180
= MB 176 FROM REL BRG
349°
+ 4 E Varn
Plot TB 180 FROM

Figure A4-18 Part 2, question 15.

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

 Index

A See Australian Surveying and Land

actual time of arrival 4, 265 Information Group
actual time of departure 133, 265 Australian Surveying and Land Information
ADF Group 63, 265
See automatic direction finder automatic direction finder 177–179, 266
aerodrome QNH 22 radio magnetic indicator 184–185, 189
aerodrome reference point 214 relative bearing indicator 180–183, 186–189
aggregate error 229, 265 rotatable-card ADF 183, 189
agonic line 12, 265 two-needle display 185
aircraft position AVGAS 107
See position azimuth card 180
airfield elevation 265
airfield reference point 265
Airservices Australia 79 B
airspeed 14 barometric aiding 243, 266
See also calibrated airspeed, indicated airspeed, bearing 266
true airspeed beginning of daylight 46, 266
airspeed indicator 14 calculating 47, 50–51
Airtour CRP-1 navigation computer 89 BoD
altimeter (preflight check) 29 See beginning of daylight
altimeter setting 21, 22
and pressure variation 23–24
regulations for 27–28 C
See also QFE altimeter setting, QNH altimeter
C/A code
setting
See coarse/acquisition code
altimetry 21, 265
CA
altitude 21, 265
See closing angle
AQZ
calibrated airspeed 15, 266
See area QNH zone
calibration table 15
arc 5
cardinal heading 266
units for 8
cardinal point 9
arc of longitude 36, 265
carrier signal 174
conversion to time 37, 38
CAS
area forecast 25
See calibrated airspeed
area navigation 260–261, 265
CDI
area QNH 25, 27, 265
See course deviation indicator
accuracy of 25
Celsius, conversion to degrees Fahrenheit 101
availability of 25
Central Standard Time 42, 266
area QNH zone 25, 265
cesium standard 33
ARFOR
chart 55, 138
See area forecast
acquisition 79
ARP
amendments to 78
See aerodrome reference point
cockpit orientation 140
ASA E6-B navigation computer 89
for visual navigation 78
ASI
See also En Route chart – High, En Route
See airspeed indicator
chart – Low, flight planning, map reading,
ATA
Planning Chart Australia, projection,
See actual time of arrival
Visual Navigation Chart, Visual Terminal
ATD
Chart, World Aeronautical Chart
See actual time of departure
chart scale 57–58
atomic clock 33
formula for 57
atomic time 33, 265
graduated scale line for 58, 72
AUSLIG

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE 305

306 Navigation

as representative fraction 57 measuring with plotter 71

worded expression for 58 measuring with protractor 70
checkpoint 138, 139, 266 reference for 9
circular slide rule 92–93 See also bearing, magnetic direction, true
division on 93–95 direction
multiplication on 93, 94–95 directional gyro 133
civil twilight 266 distance 13, 268
civil year 34 conversion on navigation computer 101–104
civilian access code 266 measuring 13, 72
CLEAROF check 132, 135 distance-measuring equipment 231–237, 268
closing angle 144, 151, 266 accuracy of 234
coarse/acquisition code 240, 266 finding groundspeed with 236–237
coastal refraction 206, 266 position fixing with 235–236
compass deviation 266 published data 232
compass swing 266 range 233
computer rated coverage 233
See navigation computer and slant error 234
conformal projection 266 tracking with 237
conic projection 267 and VOR 231
conical orthomorphic projection diverting 154–157
See Lambert conformal conic projection DME
contour 65 See distance-measuring equipment
Coordinated Universal Time 33, 40–41, 43, 267 Doppler VOR 229
conversion to standard time 41 DR
course 215, 267 See dead reckoning
course bending 228, 267 DR position 268
course deviation indicator 215, 267 drift 19, 20, 130, 144, 193, 268
crab angle 267 drift angle 111
crosswind component table 124 DRing ahead 130, 157
cruise 135 dynamic pressure 15, 16
cruising level 267
CST
See Central Standard Time E
cylindrical projection 267 earth, the 4
equatorial diameter of 4
polar diameter of 4
D position reference 6, 8–9
date line rotation of 5
See International Date Line shape of 4, 55
day 33 and time 33
daylight 45, 267 See also great circle, latitude, longitude, rhumb
at altitude 47 line, small circle
duration of 46–47 east 268
effect of terrain on 47 Eastern Standard Time 41–42, 268
dead reckoning 3, 267 effective true airspeed 268
degrees magnetic, working in 113 ELT
density height 267 See emergency locator transmitter
departure 133–135 emergency locator transmitter 166
and circuit direction 133 En Route chart – High 62, 268
logging 134 En Route chart – Low 62, 77, 214, 232, 268
descent 136–138 aeronautical information on 77–78
descent point 136 scale for 62
DGPS En Route Supplement Australia 79, 175, 214,
See differential GPS 232, 268
differential GPS 268 end of daylight 46, 268
direction 9, 268 calculating 47, 50–51
air navigation datum 9 endurance flying 162, 268

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

Index 307

EoD coarse/acquisition code 240

See end of daylight differential GPS 244–246
ephemeris error 246, 268 ephemeris error 246
equator 6, 269 ephemeris information 240
equinox 269 geometric dilution of precision 243
ERC-H human factor considerations 248–253
See En Route chart – High interference to 246–247
ERC-L and ionospheric propagation 246
See En Route chart – Low masking function 243–244
ERSA multi-path error 246
See En Route Supplement Australia position dilution of precision 243
EST position fixing 241–242
See Eastern Standard Time precise positioning service 240
estimated time interval 131, 269 pseudorandom code 240
estimated time of arrival 4, 132, 134, 269 pseudoranging 241
ETA receiver autonomous integrity monitoring
See estimated time of arrival 242, 243, 247–248
ETI receiver clock error 242
See estimated time interval receiver error 246
evening civil twilight 45, 46, 269 requirements for operation 253
segments 239, 240–241
standard positioning service 240, 241
F and tropospheric propagation 246
Fahrenheit, conversion to Celsius 101 waypoints 254
fix 3, 129, 142, 269 wide area differential GPS 245
See also radio fix, visual fix GNSS
fixed-card ADF See global navigation satellite system
See relative bearing indicator GPS
flight level 21, 25, 269 See global positioning system
selection of 28 graticule 67
flight log 141, 158 great circle 5, 20, 68, 269
flight plan track 144, 269 on aeronautical charts 58
flight planning 135, 163–165 great-circle track 68, 69
use of navigation computer in 112–113, 114– Greenwich Mean Time 40
117 See also Coordinated Universal Time
flux valve 184 Greenwich meridian 40
FPT Greenwich Royal Observatory 7, 33
See flight plan track grid convergence 269
fuel 107 grid magnetic angle 269
calculation on navigation computer 98–99 grid north 269
conversion on navigation computer 106–107 grid reference 269
specific gravity of 107 ground velocity 17
weight conversion on navigation computer ground wave 204, 270
108–109 groundspeed 14, 18, 20, 270
calculating on navigation computer 119–120

G
GC H
See great circle hachuring 66
GDOP heading 20, 145, 270
See geometric dilution of precision heading/true airspeed vector 17, 18, 20, 112
geometric dilution of precision 243 height 21, 25, 270
global navigation satellite system 239, 269 units for 103
global positioning system 239–260, 269 hemisphere 270
airborne GPS 253–260 high-altitude en route chart
almanac information 240 See En Route chart – High
barometric aiding 243 homing 192, 270

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

308 Navigation

horizontal situation indicator 218–219, 270 latitude–longitude intersect on 61

HSI rhumb lines on 61
See horizontal situation indicator standard parallels on 61
hypsometric tint 66 lane of entry 166–167, 271
latitude 6, 8, 20, 271
leap day 34
I leap second 271
IAS leap year 34
See indicated airspeed LJR
ICAO See low jet route
See International Civil Aviation Organisation LMT
ident 174 See local mean time
indicated airspeed 14, 20, 270 local mean time 40, 271
calculating on navigation computer 91 local QNH 25, 27
in the climb 16 local time
correcting 15 See standard time
effect of air pressure on 15, 16 locator beacon 174, 271
and instrument error 14 longitude 7, 8, 20, 271
and position error 14 lost procedure 160–162
and temperature 15, 16 low jet route 158, 271
inertial navigation system 260, 270 low-level navigation 158, 271
INS low-altitude en route chart
See inertial navigation system See En Route chart – Low
instrument error 14 lowest safe altitude 271
instrument landing system 270 lubber line 218, 272
International Civil Aviation Organisation 63, 270
International Date Line 43–44, 270
International Standard Atmosphere 15, 26, 270 M
interrogation pulse 233, 271 magnetic bearing 183, 272
ionosphere 204, 246 conversion to relative bearing 13
ISA magnetic compass 10, 133
See International Standard Atmosphere accuracy of 89
isogonal 12, 67, 71, 271 magnetic direction 11, 272
isogonic line 12 datum for 11
and true direction 12
magnetic north 11, 20, 272
J magnetic variation 11–12, 272
Jeppesen CR series circular computer 89 map reading 3, 138–140, 272
Jeppesen Flight Computer 89 mask angle 243, 272
MB
See magnetic bearing
mean sea level 21, 272
K
mean sea level pressure 22
KIAS
Mercator map projection 56, 272
See knots indicated airspeed
oblique projection 56
kilometre, conversion on navigation computer
transverse projection 56, 75
101–103
meridian of longitude 7, 20, 39, 61, 67
knot 20, 271
minute 8
knots indicated airspeed 14
morning civil twilight 45, 46, 272
most probable position 160, 272
mountain effect 206–207
L MPP
Lambert conformal conic projection 56, 59–60 See most probable position
and latitude scale 61 MSL
conformality of 61 See mean sea level
distance on 61 multi-path error 272
great circles on 61

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

Index 309

N night effect 204–205, 272

nautical mile 13, 14, 20, 272 nm
conversion on navigation computer 101–103 See nautical mile
nav bag 3 non-directional beacon 174–177
navigation 129–132, 135 broadcasting stations 176–177
accuracy tolerances 154 locations of 175–176
and airmanship 131–132 See also NDB–ADF system
area navigation 260–261 north 273
charts for 78 north geographic pole 5, 273
diversion procedures 154–157 north magnetic pole 11, 273
flight log 141, 158
in flight navigation 133–138, 165–166
and lanes of entry 166–167 O
lost procedure 160–162 OBI
low-level navigation 158 See omni bearing indicator
planning considerations 3–4 oblate spheroid 4
and position uncertainty 158, 159 omni
remote area navigation 163–166 See VOR
time specification for 35–36 omni bearing indicator 215–218, 273
types of 3 omni bearing selector 273
in reduced visibility 158–159 1-in-60 rule 145–154
and wind effect 130–131 orthomorphic projection 273
See also map reading
navigation computer 89
calculator side 89, 90 P
distance calculation on 96
parallel of latitude 6, 61, 67, 273
distance conversion on 101–104
Parameters of the Earth 90 248, 273
use in flight planning 112–113, 114–117
PCA
fuel calculation on 98–99
See Planning Chart Australia
fuel weight conversion on 108–109
PDOP
groundspeed calculation on 119–120
See position dilution of precision
indicated airspeed calculation on 91
PE
off-track calculation on 100
See position error
speed calculation on 95–98
PE 90
temperature conversion on 101
See Parameters of the Earth 90
time calculation on 96
phase signal 211
track calculation on 119–120
pinpoint 273
true airspeed calculation on 90–91
PL
volume conversion on 104–106
See position line
weight conversion on 104–106
Planning Chart Australia 25, 62, 273
wind component calculation on 120–123
plotter 71, 72
wind side 89, 110
polar axis 5, 273
wind velocity calculation on 118–119
polarisation error 205, 229
See also circular slide rule
position 6
Navstar Global Positioning System
latitude/longitude reference 8
See global positioning system
stating in-flight 8–9
NDB
See also direction
See non-directional beacon
position dilution of precision 243, 273
NDB–ADF system 173, 181, 186–190
position error 14, 273
accuracy of 207
position line 142–144, 186, 273
and coastal refraction 206
position uncertainty 158, 159
and co-channel interference 207
PPS
and mountain effect 206–207
See precise positioning service
and night effect 204–205
precise positioning service 240, 274
and terrain effect 206
pressure altitude 25, 90
and thunderstorms 207
pressure height 25–26, 90, 274
tracking with 191–204
calculating 26–27

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

310 Navigation

pressure system 22 runway direction 9

prime meridian 7, 20, 40, 274
projection 55
and aviation charts 55–56, 58 S
conformality in 58, 59 SA
conic 56, 59–60 See selective availability
cylindrical 56 safety check 132
orthomorphic 58 SARTIME 275
See also Lambert conformal conic projection, SARWATCH 275
Mercator map projection scale 275
pseudorandom code 240, 274 scale line 58
pseudoranging 241 scale rule 72
scalloping 228, 275
second 35
Q seconds of arc 8
QFE altimeter setting 21 selective availability 241, 275
QNE 274 SG
QNH 274 See specific gravity
QNH altimeter setting 21 sky wave 204, 275
integrity of 24 slaving 184
and mean sea level pressure 22–23 slide rule 92
updating en route 27 See also circular side rule
See also area QNH, local QNH slide-graphic navigation computer 110
small circle 6, 275
solstice 276
R south 276
radial 211, 274 south geographic pole 5, 276
radio compass south magnetic pole 11, 276
See automatic direction finder specific gravity 107
radio fix 129, 274 formula for 107
radio magnetic indicator 184–185, 189, 218, 274 speed 14, 95
radio position line 189 See also airspeed, groundspeed
RAIM spot height 66
See receiver autonomous integrity monitoring SPS
range flying 162, 274 See standard positioning service
rated coverage 174, 274 standard parallel 60
RBI standard positioning service 240, 241, 276
See relative bearing indicator standard time 41–43, 276
receiver autonomous integrity monitoring 242, time-zone conversion 42
243, 274 See also Central Standard Time, Eastern
receiver clock error 275 Standard Time, summer time, Western
relative bearing 13, 187, 275 Standard Time
conversion to magnetic bearing 13 static pressure 14
relative bearing indicator 180–183, 186–189, 275 station passage 196
relief 65 statute mile 101, 276
remote area flying 163–166 conversion on navigation computer 101–103
reply pulse 275 summer time 43
required navigation performance 239, 275 sun 39
resultant 18 apparent passage of 33, 36
rhumb line 10, 68, 275 limb of 45
rhumb line track 68, 69 sunrise 45, 276
RMI sunset 45, 276
See radio magnetic indicator synoptic chart 22
RNP
See required navigation performance
rotatable-card ADF 183, 189 T
roughness 275 TACAN

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

Index 311

See tactical air navigation system true altitude 277

tactical air navigation system 231, 276 true direction 10
TAS and magnetic direction 12
See true airspeed true north 5, 10, 20, 277
TE true south 5
See track error 24-hour clock 35
technical service order 276 twilight 45
temperature, conversion on navigation computer duration of 46
101 See also evening civil twilight, morning civil
terminator 47 twilight
terrain clearance 22, 23, 24
terrain effect 206, 228, 276
thunderstorms 132 U
diversion around 154 United States Naval Observatory 33
effect on NDB–ADF system 207 UTC
time 33, 39 See Coordinated Universal Time
and arc (of longitude) 37
conversion to arc 37, 38
specification of in NOTAM 36
V
specifying 35–36
variation
24-hour clock 35
See magnetic variation
See also atomic time, Coordinated Universal
vector 17, 277
Time, local mean time, standard time
HDG/TAS 17, 18, 20, 112
TMG
symbols for 17–18
See track made good
TR/GS 18, 20, 112
TOC
W/V 17–18, 20, 112
See top of climb
vector addition 18, 19
TOD
velocity 16, 17, 277
See top of descent
See also ground velocity, wind velocity, triangle
top of climb 135
of velocities
top of descent 136
velocity vector 277
total pressure 14
vertical navigation 20, 21, 22, 278
TR
VHF omni-directional radio range
See track
See VOR
track 3, 18, 20, 130, 145, 276
visibility 278
calculating on navigation computer 119–120
and navigation 158–159
track correction angle 276
visual fix 129, 131
track crawling 130
visual navigation
track error 19, 130, 134, 144, 276
See navigation
track guide 145
Visual Navigation Chart 62, 74, 176, 214, 278
track made good 19, 130, 144, 277
aeronautical information on 74–75
track/groundspeed vector 18, 20, 112
scale for 57, 62, 74
traffic separation 24
Visual Terminal Chart 56, 62, 75, 176, 214, 232,
transit bearing 142, 277
278
transition altitude 25, 27, 277
aeronautical information on 75–76
transition layer 27, 277
projection for 62
transition level 27, 277
scale for 57, 62, 75
triangle of velocities 18–19, 110, 111
and transverse Mercator projection 75
on navigation computer 113
VNC
See also vector
See Visual Navigation Chart
tropic of capricorn 277
volume, conversion on navigation computer
tropical year 33, 34
104–106
troposphere 246
VOR 211–229, 278
true airspeed 15, 20, 277
airborne equipment 215–219
and air pressure 15, 16
and distance-measuring equipment 231
calculating on navigation computer 90–91
Doppler VOR 229
effect of temperature on 15, 16
ground station 211–212

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

312 Navigation

and ground station error 228 scale line on 72

and horizontal situation indicator 218–219 topographic information on 65
and omni bearing indicator 215–218 World Geodetic System 84 248, 278
orientation with 219–220 WPT
and polarisation error 229 See waypoint
published data 214 WST
and radio magnetic indicator 218 See Western Standard Time
range of 212–213
rated coverage 213
and site effect error 228 Y
and terrain effect 228 year 33
tracking with 220–228
VTC
See Visual Terminal Chart

W
WAC
See World Aeronautical Chart
WADGPS
See wide area differential GPS
waypoint 254, 278
WCA
See wind correction angle
weight, conversion on navigation computer 104–
106
west 278
Western Standard Time 42, 278
WGS 84
See World Geodetic System 84
wide area augmentation system 278
wide area differential GPS 245, 278
wind component, calculating on navigation
computer 120–123
wind correction angle 111, 130, 278
wind effect 130–131
wind velocity 16, 18
calculating on navigation computer 118–119
expression for 16
wind velocity vector 17–18, 20, 112
World Aeronautical Chart 56, 62, 63–64, 278
aeronautical information on 66
amendments to 73
and bearing 70
cultural features on 66
and direction measuring 70–71
finding latitude on 69
finding longitude on 69
identification numbers for 64
isogonals on 67, 71
and magnetic variation 71
meridians of longitude on 67
parallels of latitude on 67
plotting position on 69
position information on 67
relief on 65–66
scale for 57, 62, 63, 72

© AVIATION THEORY CENTRE

Other ATC titles for the PPL/CPL Syllabus
AV I AT I O N T H E O R Y AV I AT I O N T H E O R Y

Aerodynamics Aircraft General

for the CASA PPL/CPL Knowledge
Day VFR Syllabus for the CASA PPL/CPL
Day VFR Syllabus

Aviation
Theory Aviation
Centre Theory
Centre

David Robson
David Robson

AV I AT I O N T H E O R Y AV I AT I O N T H E O R Y

Aircraft Operation,
Performance Meteorology
& Planning for the CASA PPL/CPL
Day VFR Syllabus
for the CASA PPL/CPL
Day VFR Syllabus

Aviation
Theory
Aviation Centre
Theory
Centre

David Robson
David Robson

AV I AT I O N T H E O R Y AV I AT I O N T H E O R Y

Human Factors Flight Rules

for the CASA PPL/CPL & Air Law
Day VFR Syllabus for the CASA PPL/CPL
Day VFR Syllabus

Aviation
Theory Aviation
Centre Theory
Centre

David Robson
David Robson

Aviation
Theory
Centre

Aviation Theory Centre Pty Ltd

Email: aviationtheory@msn.com.au
Website: www.aviationtheory.net.au