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PHYS
ICSNOTES
FORM3TUTORI
AL
TOPI
C1.:LI
NEARMOTI
ON
1.
1:I
ntr
oducti
on

Thestudyofmoti
onisdi
videdi
ntot
woare
asname
lyki
nemati
csanddynami
cs.
Kinema
tic
sde
alswi
tht
hemot
ion
aspe
ctonlywhil
edynamicsdea
lswi
tht
hemoti
onandt
hefor
cesa
s s
oci
ate
dwithit
.

The
rea
ret
hre
ecommont
ype
sofmot
ion:

 Li
nea
rort
rans
lat
iona
lmot
ion.

 Ci
rcul
arorr
ota
tiona
lmot
ion.

 Os
cil
lat
oryorvi
bra
tiona
lmot
ion.

I
nthi
stopi
c,wec
onc
ent
rat
eonl
ine
armot
ion.

Not
ethatal
lmotioni
sre
lat
ivei
.
ethes
tat
eofabody;
atr
estori
nmot
ion,
isONLYt
ruewi
thr
espe
ctt
othe
obs
erve
r’spos
iti
on.

1.
2:Te
rmsa
ssoc
iat
edwi
thl
ine
armot
ion

 Dis
tance-i
stheleng
thoft
hepa
thc
ove
redbyabody.
Itonl
ygi
vest
hema
gni
tudebutnodi
rec
tioni
.
eiti
sa
sc
alarquant
ity.

 Di
spl
ace
ment
-ist
hedi
sta
ncet
hroug
hwhi
chabodyt
rave
lsi
nas
pec
ifi
eddi
rec
tion.
Iti
save
ctorqua
nti
ty.

Bot
hdi
sta
ncea
nddi
spl
ace
menta
reme
asur
edi
nme
tre
s.

 S
pee
d-i
sthedi
sta
ncec
ove
redpe
runi
tti
me.

S
pee
d=di
sta
nce
/ti
me.

 Ve
loc
ity-i
sther
ateofc
hang
eofdi
spl
ace
ment
.

Ve
loc
ity=di
spl
ace
ment
/ti
me.

I
tisave
ctorqua
nti
ty.

Whe
nther
ateofc
hang
eofdi
spl
ace
menti
snon-
uni
for
m,wet
alka
bouta
ver
ageve
loc
ity;

Ave
rag
eve
loc
ity=t
ota
ldi
spl
ace
ment
/tot
alt
ime
.

Bot
hspe
eda
ndve
loc
itya
ree
xpr
ess
edi
nme
trepe
rse
cond(
m/s
).

 Ac
cel
era
tion-i
sther
ateofc
hang
eofve
loc
ity.

Thus
,Ac
cel
era
tion=c
hang
einve
loc
ity/
timei
nte
rva
l=(
fi
nal
vel
oci
tyv-i
nit
ial
veol
ic
ityu)
/ti
me.
2
Ac
cel
era
tioni
sme
asur
edi
nme
trepe
rsqua
res
econd(
m/s).
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I
fthevel
oci
tyofabodydecr
easeswi
tht
ime
,it
sac
cel
era
tionbe
come
sne
gat
ive
.Ane
gat
ivea
cce
ler
ati
oni
sre
fer
red
t
oa sde
cele
rat
ionorret
ardat
ion.

Ex
ampl
e1.
1

1.
Abodyc oversadi
sta
nceof2min4se
conds
,re
stsf
or2s
econdsa
ndf
ina
llyc
ove
rsadi
sta
nceof90mi
n
6s
econds
.Ca l
cula
tei
tsave
rages
peed.

Ave
rag
espe
ed=t
ota
ldi
sta
nce
/ti
me=(
2m+90m)
/(4s
+2s
+6s
)

=20m/
20s=5m/
s.

5.
Abodymove
s30mduee
asti
n2s
econds
,the
n40mduenor
thi
n4s
econds
.De
ter
minei
ts:

a
)Ave
rag
espe
ed.

di
spl
ace
ment 40m

30m

Averages pe ed=t otaldis

ta nce/ti
me =(30m+40m)/
( 2s+4s)
=70m/ 6s=11. 67m/ s.
a) Ave rageve l
ocit
y.
b)Ave rageve l
ocit
y=t otaldis
placement
/ti
me=50m/ 6s
=6.
33m/ s.
3.Abodyi sma det ochang eitsvel
ocit
yfrom20m/st o36m/ si
n0.1s
.Whati
stheacce
lerat
ionproduc
ed?
a=(v-u)/t=( 36m/ s–20m/ s
)/0.1s
5.
=30m/ s
1.Apa rti
clemovi ngwi thave locit
yof200m/ si
sbroug htt
ores
tin0.
02s
.Wha ti
stheacc
elerat
ionoft
hepar
tic
le?
a=(v-u)/t=( 0m/ s-200m/s )/0.02
5.
=-200/ 0.02=- 2,000m/ s
1.
3:Mot i
ong ra phs .

The
rea
ret
woc
ate
gor
ies
;di
spl
ace
ment
-ti
meg
raphsa
ndve
loc
ityt
imeg
raphs
.

1.
3.
1:Di
spl
ace
ment
-ti
meg
raphs

Thes
lopeofadi
spl
ace
ment
-ti
meg
raphg
ive
stheve
loc
ityoft
hebody.

Theva
riousdi
spl
ace
ment
-ti
meg
raphsa
rea
sil
lus
tra
tedbe
low:
D B

Di
spl
ace
ment A

(
m) C

Ti
me(
s)

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GraphA:t
hebodyisa
tre
sti
.
ethe
rei
snoc
hang
eindi
spl
ace
menta
sti
mec
hang
es.
Thes
lopeoft
heg
rapha
ndhe
nce
thevel
oci
tyi
szer
o.

Gr
aphB:
thebodymove
swi
thauni
for
morc
ons
tantve
loc
ity.

GraphC:thegra
phbecomesst
eeperwi
tht
ime.Thest
eeperthes
lope
,thehi
ghe
rtheve
loc
ity.
Thusve
loc
ityoft
he
bodyinc
re a
seswit
hti
me .
Thebodyist
her
efor
eacce
lera
ting
.

Gr
aphD:thegra
phbec
ome sl
essandles
ss t
eepwit
hti
mei .
ethebodyha
sahi
ghe
rve
loc
itya
tthebe
ginni
nga
nd
de
cre
ase
swi t
htime
.Ther
efor
e,thebodyissai
dtobedec
elerat
ing
.

1.
3.
2:Ve
loc
ity-
ti
meg
raphs

Thesl
opeofave
loc
ity-
ti
meg r
a phgi
vest
hea
cce
ler
ati
onoft
hebody.
Not
etha
tthea
reaunde
rave
loc
ity-
ti
meg
raph
gi
vest
hedist
anc
ecoveredbythebody.

Thedi
agr
ambe
lows
howst
hepos
sibl
eve
loc
ity-
ti
meg
raphs
:
D B

Ve
loc
ity(
m/s
) A

Ti
me(
s)

GraphA:thevel
oci
tyre
ma i
nscons
tant
/uni
for
mast
imei
ncr
eas
es.
Thes
lopeoft
heg
rapha
ndhe
ncet
he
ac
ce l
era
tionoft
hebodyisz
ero.

Gr
aphB:
theve
loc
ityc
hang
esuni
for
mlywi
tht
ime
.Thebodymove
swi
thauni
for
m/c
ons
tanta
cce
ler
ati
on.

GraphC:theacc
ele
rat
ionisl
owerwherethegra
phi
sge
ntl
eandhi
ghe
rwhe
ret
heg
raphi
sst
eepe
r.He
ncet
he
ac
ce l
era
tionoft
hebodyincr
eas
eswit
ht i
me .

GraphD:int
hisc
ase
,thegra
phiss
tee
pera
tthebe
ginni
nga
ndbe
come
sge
ntl
ewi
tht
ime
.He
ncet
hea
cce
ler
ati
onof
thebodydec
reas
eswitht
ime.

1.
4:De
ter
mina
tionofve
loc
itya
nda
cce
ler
ati
on

Twome
thodsa
rea
ppl
ic
abl
ehe
re:

Method1:
Usi
ngappropri
ateins
trument
se.
gat
apeme
asur
eandas
topwa
tcht
ome
asur
ethedi
spl
ace
mentofa
bodyandt
hedur
ati
ont he
na ppl
yingt
hefor
mul
a;

Ve
loc
ity=t
ota
ldi
spl
ace
ment
/ti
met
ake
n.

Method2:Us i
ngatic
ke r
-ti
me r
.Iti
susedtome asurevel
ocit
yofabodys pecif
ical
lyovershortdi
s t
ances
.Itcons
ist
s
ofa
ne l
ectronicvi
brat
orwhi c
hma kesdotsonamovi ngpapertapea t
tac
he dtotheobjec
twhos eveloc
ityisbei
ng
measure
d.Thedot saremadea tacer
tai
ns etf
requency.
Forinst
a nce,at
icker-
ti
me rwhos ef
requencyis50Hz
makesdotsatinte
rval
sof0.02s.Theti
mei nte
rvalbetweensuc
ce ss
ivedotsisref
erredtoasatick.

Thes
pac
ingbe
twe
ent
hedot
sde
pendsont
hema
nne
rinwhi
cht
hebodyi
smovi
ngi
.
emovi
nga
tcons
tantve
loc
ity
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orwithinc
rea
s i
ngvel
ocit
yordecr
eas
ingvel
ocit
y.Ge
neral
ly,
thedotsareclosetog
e t
herwhentheve
loci
tyi
slow
andwideapartwhenthevel
oci
tyi
shigh.
Therearet
hre
epos si
blepat
ternsthatcanbeobt
aine
dbyat i
cker
-ti
mera
s
il
lus
trat
edbel
ow:

a
)Movi
nga
tcons
tantve
loc
ity.

Thedot
sar
eequa
llyore
venl
yspa
ced.

Di
rec
tionofmot
ionoft
hebody

b)Movi
ngwi
thi
ncr
eas
ingve
loc
ity(
acc
ele
rat
ing
).

Thes
pac
ingbe
twe
ent
hedot
sisi
nit
ial
lys
mal
lbuti
ncr
eas
esa
way.

Di
rec
tionofmot
ionoft
hebody

c
)Movi
ngwi
thde
cre
asi
ngve
loc
ity(
dec
ele
rat
ing
).

Thes
pac
ingbe
twe
ent
hedot
sisi
nit
ial
lyl
arg
ebutde
cre
ase
sawa
y.

Di
rec
tionofmot
ionoft
hebody

Ex
ampl
e1.
2

1.
Apa perta
pewa sat
tac
hedt
oamovi
ngt
rol
leya
nda
llowe
dtor
unt
hroug
hat
icke
r-t
ime
r.Thef
igur
ebe
lows
hows
asec
tionofthet
ape.
A 15c
m B C 30c
m D

I
fthef
reque
ncyoft
het
icke
r-t
ime
ris20Hz
,de
ter
mine
:

a
)Theve
loc
itybe
twe
enABa
ndCD.

1t
ick=1/
20=0.
01s

VAB=15c
m/(
5ti
cks
*0.
01s
)=15c
m/0.
05s

=300c
m/s

VCD=30c
m/(
5ti
cks
*0.
01s
)=30c
m/0.
05s

=600c
m/s

b)Thea
cce
ler
ati
onoft
het
rol
ley.

Notethatthevel
oci
ti
esc
alc
ula
tedin(a)aboveareave
ra g
eve l
ocit
iesa
nda ssuc
ha r
etakent
obetheve
loc
iti
esa
tthe
midpointsofABandCDres
pect
ive
ly.Hence,t
hetimetakenforthechang
ei nve
loci
tyi
sthet
imebetwe
enthe
midpointsofABandCD.
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A 15c
m B C 30c
m D

VABΔt
=2t
icks
*0.
01=0.
2s VCD

-1 -
5.
The
ref
ore
,ac
cel
era
tion=(
VCD-VAB)
/Δt
=(600-
300)
cms /0.
2s=3000c
ms

5.
Thefig
urebelowrepr
esent
spartofat
apepull
edthroughati
cker
-ti
merbyatrol
leymovingdowna
ninc
li
ned
pl
ane
.Ifthef
requenc
yofthet
icke
r-ti
meris50Hz
,ca
lculat
etheacc
eler
ati
onoft
hetroll
ey.
0.
5cm 5.
5cm

Δt
=5t
icks
*0.
02s
=0.
2s

Not
etha
t1t
ick=1/
50=0.
02s
.
-
1
I
nit
ial
vel
oci
tyu=0.
5cm/
0.02s
=25c
ms
-
1
Fi
nal
vel
oci
tyv=5.
5cm/
0.02s
=125c
ms
-1
He
nce
,ac
cel
era
tion=(
v-u)
/Δt
=(125-
25)
cms /0.
2s
-
2
=200c
ms

1.
5:Equa
tionsofl
ine
armot
ion

Ther
earethr
eeequati
onsgove
rningl
inearmot
ion.Cons
ide
rabodymovinginast
rai
ghtl
inef
roma
nini
ti
alve
loc
ity
utoafi
nal
veloc
ityv(
u,v≠0)wit
hinatimetasr
e pr
esent
edont
hegraphbelow:

v
-
1
Ve
loc
ity(
ms ) v-
u

0 t t t
ime(
s)

Thes
lopeoft
heg
raphr
epr
ese
ntst
hea
cce
ler
ati
onoft
hebody;

Ac
cel
era
tion,
a=(
v-u)
/t.

The
ref
ore
,v=u+a
t………………………………….
i.

Thi
sist
hef
ir
ste
qua
tionofl
ine
armot
ion.
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Thea
reaunde
rtheg
raph(
are
aofat
rape
zium)g
ive
sthedi
spl
ace
mentoft
hebody.

He
nce
,di
spl
ace
ments
=½(
sumof/
/si
des
)*pe
rpe
ndi
cul
arhe
ightbe
twe
ent
hem.

s
=½(
u+v)
t.

Butv=u+a
t,

The
ref
ore
,s=½{
u+(
u+a
t)}
t

s
=½(
2u+a
t)t
2
He
nce
,s=ut
+½a
t ……………………………….
ii
.

Thi
sist
hes
econde
qua
tionofl
ine
armot
ion.

Al
so,
rea
rra
ngi
nge
qua
tioni
,weha
vet
=(v-
u)/
a.s
ubs
tit
uti
ngt
hisi
nequa
tioni
i,
weobt
ain;
2 5.
s
=ut
+½a
t =u{
(v-
u)/
a}+½a
{(v-
u)/
a}
2 2 2
s
=u(
v-u)
/a+a
(v-
u) /2a=u(
v-u)
/a+(
v-u)/2a
2
s
={2u(
v-u)+(
v-u)}/
2a={ 2u2+v2+u2-
2uv- 2uv}
/2a

s
={v2-
u2}
/2a

2a
s=v2-
u2

He
nce
,v2=u2+2a
s……………………………….
.i
ii
.

Thi
sist
het
hir
dequa
tionofl
ine
armot
ion.

Thet
hre
eequa
tionshol
dfora
nybodymovi
ngwi
thuni
for
mac
cel
era
tion.

Not
etha
tforabodywhi
chi
sre
tar
ding
,thea
cce
ler
ati
onai
sgi
venane
gat
ives
ign.

Ex
ampl
e1.
3
2
1.
Apa r
tic
let
ravel
li
ngi
nas t
rai
ghtl
inea
t2m/
sisuni
for
mlya
cce
ler
ate
dat5m/
s for8s
econds
.Ca
lcul
atet
he
di
spl
acementoft
hepar
tic
le.
2
s
=ut
+½a
t =(
2*8)
+(½*
5*82)

=176m.
-5.
5.
Anobj
ecta
cce
ler
ate
suni
for
mlya
t3ms Ita
tta
insave
loc
ityof4m/
sin5s
econds
.

a
)Wha
twa
sit
sini
ti
alve
loc
ity?

v=u+a
t

u=4-
(3*
5)=4-
15=4m/
s.

b)Howf
ardoe
sitt
rave
ldur
ingt
hispe
riod?
2
s
=ut
+½a
t =(4*
5)+(
½*3*52)
=53.
5m
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5.
3.
Aca
rtr
ave
lli
nga
t20m/
sde
cel
era
tesuni
for
mlya
t4m/
s Inwha
tti
mewi
lli
tcomet
ore
st?

v=u-
at,
(ai
sne
gat
ives
inc
ethebodyi
sde
cel
era
ting
).

0=20-
4t

t
=20/
4=5s
econds
.

1.
6:Mot
ionsunde
rthei
nfl
uenc
eofg
ravi
ty

The
seincl
udefr
eef
all
,ve
rti
calpr
oje
cti
ona
ndhor
izont
alpr
oje
cti
on.
Thet
hre
eequa
tionsofl
ine
armot
ionhol
dfor
moti
onsundert
hei
nfl
uenceofgr
avi
ty.

1.
5.
1:Fr
eef
all
-2
Abodyfa
lli
ngfre
elyinavacuums tart
sfroma ni
nit
ialve
loc
ityz
eroanda c
cel
erat
esata
pproxi
mately9.8ms
t
owardsthecent
reoftheeart
h.Thisiscall
edtheacc
eler
ati
onduetogravi
tyg.I
nthi
scase
,theai
rr e
sis
tancei s
as
sumedtobene gl
igi
ble
.Notethatinava c
uum, af
eathe
randas t
onere
lease
dfromthesameheightwill
taket he
sa
mea mountofti
met orea
chthes urf
aceoftheear
th.

The
ref
ore
,int
het
hre
eequa
tionsofl
ine
armot
ionu=0m/
s,s
=ha
nda
=g.
thust
het
hre
eequa
tionsbe
come
:

 v=g
t,(
fromv=u+a
t)
2 2
 h=½g
t ,(
froms
=ut
+½g
t )

 v2=2g
h,(
fromv2=u2+2a
s)

Fr
omt
hea
bovee
qua
tions
:
½
- v=(
2gh),whe
revi
stheve
loc
ityoft
hebodyj
ustbe
for
eithi
tst
heg
round.
2 2
- h=½g
t =v/2g
,whe
rehi
sthehe
ightt
hroug
hwhi
cht
hebodyf
all
s.
½
- t
=v/
g=(
2h/
g) ,whe
reti
sthet
imeoff
li
ght
.

Ex
ampl
e1.
4

1.
Aha
mme
rfa
llsf
romt
het
opofabui
ldi
ng5mhi
gh.
-5.
a
)Howl
ongdoe
sitt
aket
ore
acht
heg
round?Ta
keg
=2ms
2
h=½g
t
2
5=½*
2t

=1½=1s
t

b)Wi
thwha
tve
loc
itydoe
sits
tri
ket
heg
round?
½ ½
v=(
2gh)=(
2*2*
5) =2m/
s.

1.
5.
2:Ve
rti
cal
proj
ect
ion

Whe
nabodyi
spr
oje
cte
dve
rti
cal
lyupwa
rds
,itde
cel
era
tesuni
for
mlyduet
ogr
avi
tyunt
ili
tsve
loc
ityr
educ
est
o
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zer
oatma xi
mumhe ig
ht.Af
teratt
ainingthema xi
mumhe ig
ht ,
thebodyt
henfal
lsbac
kwi t
ha nincr
eas
ingvel
ocit
y.
Thebodymus tbegivenanini
ti
alvelocit
ya ndatt
ainsaf
inalvel
oci
tyofz
eroati
tsma x
imumhe ight
.Notet
hatthe
si
gnof‘g
’isnegati
veforaverti
calproje
ction.Thi
sisbec
ausethebodymovesagai
nstgra
vity.

He
ncet
het
hre
eequa
tionsofl
ine
armot
ionbe
come
:

 v=u-
gt,
(fr
omv=u+a
t)
2 2
 h=ut
-½g
t ,(
froms
=ut
+½g
t )

 v2=u2-
2gh,
(fomv2=u2-
r 2as
)

Buta
tma
ximumhe
ighthmax,
v=0.
Thus
,thet
hre
eequa
tionsr
educ
eto:

i
.gt
=u,
2
i
i.
h=ut
-½g
t

i
ii
.u2=2g
h.

Fr
ome
qua
tion(
i),
thet
imet
ake
ntoa
tta
int
hema
ximumhe
ighti
sgi
venby;

t
=u/
g.

S
imi
lar
ly,
thei
nit
ial
vel
oci
tyua
ndt
hema
ximumhe
ighta
tta
ine
dbyt
hebodyhmaxc
anbee
xpr
ess
eda
s:
½
u=g
t=(
2ghmax)
2 2
Andhmax=ut
-½g
t =u/2g
.

Whenthebodyfi
nall
yfal
lsbackt
oit
spoi
ntofpr
oje
cti
on,
thedi
spl
ace
mentoft
hebodywi
llbez
ero.
Subs
tit
uti
ng
t
hisi
ne qua
tion(
ii
),weobtai
n;
2
0=ut
-½g
t

The
ref
ore
,0=t
(2u-
gt)

Andt
=0ort
=2u/
g,whe
ret
=0i
sthet
imea
tthes
tar
toft
hepr
oje
cti
ona
nd,

tist
hisi
sthet
otal
timeoffl
ighti
.
eforbot
hupwardpr
oje
cti
ona
ndf
all
bac
k.Not
etha
tthet
ota
lti
meoff
li
ghti
s
twic
etheti
metakentoat
tai
nma ximumheig
ht.

al
so,t
heveloc
ityoft
hebodyjustbef
orehit
ti
ngi
tspoi
ntofpr
oje
cti
ona
sitf
all
sba
cki
sthes
amei
nma
gni
tudebuti
n
oppos
itedi
rect
iontoit
sini
ti
alvel
oci
ty;v=-
u.

Ex
ampl
e1.
5

1.
Abul
leti
sshotve
rti
cal
lyupwa
rdsa
ndr
ise
stoama
ximumhe
ightof200m.
Cal
cul
ate
:

a
)thei
nit
ial
vel
oci
tyoft
hebul
let
,
½ ½
u=(
2ghmax)=(
2*2*
200)=

b)t
het
ota
lti
meoff
li
ght
.

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t
=2u/
g=2*

5.
Anobjecti
sre
lea
sedtofa
llve
rti
cal
lyf
romahe
ightof20m.
Att
hes
amet
ime
,anot
herobj
ecti
spr
oje
cte
d
ve
rti
cal
lyupwar
dswithavel
oci
tyof40m/s
.

a
)Ca
lcul
atet
het
imet
ake
nbe
for
ethet
woobj
ect
sme
et.

Letthetimetake
ntomee
tbet
.the
n,a
fte
rat
imett
hedi
sta
ncec
ove
redbyt
heobj
ectmovi
ngdownwa
rdswi
llbe
;
2
sd=½gt ,(s
inc
eu=0).
2 2
=½*
2t =5t

Thedi
sta
ncec
ove
redbyt
heobj
ectpr
oje
cte
dupwa
rdsa
fte
rat
imetwi
llbe
;
2 2
s
u=ut
-½g
t =40t
-5t

Buts
d+s
u=20m
2 2
The
ref
ore
,5t+40t
-5t=20

t
=20/
40=5.
5s

b)Atwha
the
ighta
bovet
hepoi
ntofpr
oje
cti
ondot
heyme
et?
2
s
u=ut
-½g
t =(
40*
5.5)
-(½*
2* 52)
5.

=66.
75m

1.
5.
3:Hor
izont
alpr
oje
cti
on

IftwoobjectsAa ndBa tapoi ntsomehe i

ghta bovet heg r
ounda res uc
ht hatAisa ll
owedt ofal
lfr
eely(verti
cal
ly
downwa rds)whi l
eisBg i
venahor i
zontalprojec t
ionwitha niniti
alvelocityu, t
he nbothobject
stakethes ame
durati
ont oreachtheground. Thisisbe ca
usebot ha r
ea ct
e donbyt hes ameg ravit
ati
onalforc
e.Theobj ec
tonthe
horiz
ontalprojecti
onmove swithac onstantve locit
yu.he nce,t
hehor izont a
la c
c el
erat
ionoftheobjectiszero.
For
theobjectfa
lli
ngf r
eel
y,t heaccel
e rati
onisequi valentto‘g’andthei ni
tial ve
locityuiszero.However,theobject
underhor i
zontalproj
ectionwi l
lstrikethegrounds omedi stanceawa yfr omt hepointtheotherobjectstr
ikesthe
ground.Thishorizont
al dist
ancec overedbyt heobj ectisreferr
edt oast he‘rang eR’.

Not
etha
tbot
hAa
ndBwi
lls
tri
ket
heg
roundwi
tht
hes
ameve
loc
ity.
u

u=0 u

a
=g

Pa
thofA Pa
thofB(
a=0)

S
inc
ea=0f
ort
hehor
izont
alpr
oje
cti
on,
s=R=ut
.

Al
so,
thet
imet
ake
ntor
eac
htheg
roundi
nbot
hca
sesi
sex
pre
sse
das
;

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t
=u/
g.

Ex
ampl
e1.
6

1.
As t
oneist
hrowna
tave
loc
ityof30m/
stot
hehor
izont
albyag
irl
att
het
opofat
reewhos
ehe
ighti
s30m.
Ca
lcul
ate
:

a
)thet
imet
ake
nfort
hes
tonet
ost
riket
heg
round.

S
inc
ebot
hfr
eef
all
andhor
izont
alpr
oje
cti
ont
aket
hes
amedur
ati
on;
2
h=½g
t
2
30=½*
2*t

=6½ =
t

b)t
heve
loc
itya
twhi
cht
hes
tones
tri
kest
heg
round.

u=0(
forf
reef
all
).
½ ½
The
ref
ore
,v=(
2gh) =(
2*2*
30)

5.
Aj etf
ight
eronpra
cti
cemovi
nga
tave
loc
ityof20m/
sre
lea
sedabomba
bovet
heg
roundwhi
chhi
tst
heg
round
af
ter3s.Cal
cul
ate
:

a
)thedi
sta
ncef
romt
heg
roundt
othej
et,
2
h=½g
t =½*
2*32

=45m

b)t
hehor
izont
aldi
sta
ncef
romt
het
arg
etwhe
nthebombi
sre
lea
sed.

R=ut
=20*
3

=300m.

1.
7:Ex
per
ime
nta
lde
ter
mina
tionofa
cce
ler
ati
onduet
ogr
avi
ty.

Thi
sca
nbedonea
sfol
lows
:

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L Me
trer
ule

-S
ettheappar
atusa
ss howni
nthedi
agr
ama
bove
.Se
tthel
eng
thoft
hes
tri
nga
t30c
m.not
etha
tthel
eng
thl
is
meas
uredfromthecentr
eoft
hebob.

-Di
spl
acet
hebobs
ide
wayst
hroug
has
mal
lang
l bout20a
eofa ndr
ele
asei
tsoa
stoos
cil
lat
e.

-Withthehel
pofastopwatch,
measur
eandr
ecordt
hetimefort
enosci
ll
ati
ons(a
llowsomeli
tt
leos
cil
lat
ions
af
terre
leasebef
oret
iming
).Repea
tthi
sst
ept
wiceorthr
icea
ndde t
ermi
netheaveraget
ime.

He
ncec
alc
ula
tet
hepe
riodT(
ti
mef
oroneos
cil
lat
ion)
.

-Re
pea
tthea
boves
tepsf
orl
=40c
m,50c
m,60c
m,70c
mand80c
m.c
ompl
etet
het
abl
ebe
low:
T2(2
Le
ngt
h,l
(cm) Ti
mef
or2os
cil
lat
ions
,t(
s) Pe
riod,
T(s
) s )

t
1 t
2 t
3t=(
t1+t
2+t
3)/
3

-pl
otag
raphofT2a
gai
nstl
eng
thl
inme
tre
s.

Obs
erva
tionsa
ndc
onc
lus
ion

Thef
requenc
yofosci
lla
tioni
ncrea
seswi
thde
cre
asei
nle
ngt
hoft
hes
tri
ng.
Agr
aphofT2a
gai
nstl
eng
thl
isa
st
rai
ghtl
inethr
oug
ht heorig
in.

Ge
ner
all
y,ag
raphofT2a
gai
nstl
eng
thf
oras
impl
epe
ndul
ums
ati
sfi
est
hee
qua
tionT2=4π2l
/g.

He
nce
,thes
lopeoft
heg
rapha
bovei
sequa
l o4π2/
st g.

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T2(2
s )

S
l =4π2/
ope g

0 Le
ngt
h(m)

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TOPI
C2.
:NEWTON’
SLAWSOFMOTI
ON

2.
1:I
ntr
oduc
tion

Thel
awsgove
rningt
hemotionofabodyareg
roupe
dint
othr
ee.
The
yar
eba
sedont
hee
ffe
ctsoff
orc
eonabody.
Someoft
heef
fec
tsoffor
ceonabodyincl
ude:

 For
cec
anma
keas
tat
iona
rybodyt
ost
artmovi
ng.

 Ca
nma
keamovi
ngt
ost
op.

 Ca
nde
for
mabodyi
.
e.c
hang
eit
ssha
pe.

 Ca
ncha
nget
hedi
rec
tionofamovi
ngbody.

 Ca
ncha
nget
hes
pee
dofamovi
ngbody.

3.
2:Ne
wton’
sfi
rstl
awofmot
ion

Thelawsta
tes:abodyrema i
nsinit
ss t
ateofre
storuni
formmotioni
nas
tra
ightl
ineunl
essa
cte
duponbya
n
ext
ernal
force
.Thisexpl
ainsthefol
lowingcommonobservat
ions
:

- Pass
eng
ersinabusarepus
hedforwardwhenbrake
sareappl
ieds
udde
nlyorba
ckwa
rdswhe
nabusa
tre
st
ta
kesof
fsuddenl
y.He
ncethef
it
tingofse
atbe
ltsi
nvehi
cle
s.

- Acoi
nplace
donac
ardboa
rdont
opofag
las
stumbl
erdr
opsi
ntot
het
umbl
erwhe
nthec
ardboa
rdi
spul
led
si
deways
.

- At
hle
tesr
unpa
stt
hef
ini
shl
ineofar
acebe
for
ethe
yfi
nal
lys
top.

Theseobserva
tionsshowt ha
tbodie
shaveanin-bui
ltr
eluc
tancetochang
esi
nt hei
rstat
eofmot
ionorres
t.The
te
nde nc
yofabodyt ores
istc
hangeini
tsst
ateofres
tormotionisca
lle
diner
tia
. Henc
eNe wt
on’
sfi
rstl
awofmotion
i
sa l
sorefe
rredtoa sthel
awofinert
ia.

4.
3:Ne
wton’
sse
condl
aw

Thi
slawst
ate
s:ther
ateofcha
ngeofmomentumofabodyisdi
rec
tlypr
opor
tiona
ltot
her
esul
tante
xte
rna
lfor
ce
act
ingont
hebodyandtake
splac
einthedi
rect
ionoft
hef
orce.

Momentofabodyisdef
ine
da sthepr
oductofi
tsmassandve
loc
ity.
Sinc
eve
loc
ityi
save
ctorqua
nti
ty,
mome
ntum
i
sal
soavectorqua
ntit
yhavingbothmagni
tude(s
ize
)anddir
ect
ion.

Mome
ntumP=ma
ssm*
vel
oci
tyv

Henc
etheuni
tofmomentumist
heki
log
ram-met
reperse
cond(kg
m/s
).Thedi
rec
tionofmome
ntumi
sthes
amea
s
t
hatoft
hevel
oci
ty.
Thechang
eofmomentumist
here
for
ec a
use
dbyachangei
nvel
ocit
y.

S
uppos
etheve
loc
ityofabodyofma
ssmc
hang
esf
roma
nini
ti
alva
lueut
oava
lueva
fte
rat
imet
,the
n:

Thei
nit
ial
mome
ntumPi=mu

Thef
ina
lmome
ntumPf=mv

Thec
hang
einmome
ntum=f
ina
lmome
ntum-i
nit
ial
mome
ntum

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ThusΔP=Pf-Pi=mv-mu=m(
v-u)

The
ref
ore
,ther
ateofc
hang
eofmome
ntum=ΔP/
t=m(
v-u)
/t.

Fr
omt
hee
qua
tionsofl
ine
armot
ion,
(v-
u)/
t=a
cce
ler
ati
ona

He
nceΔP/
t=ma
.

Fr
omt
hes
econdl
awofmot
ion,
Fαma
.

Ands
othef
orc
eF=ma
ssm*
acc
ele
rat
iona(
F=ma
).

The
ref
ore
,F=ma
=m(
v-u)
/t

AndFt
=m(
v-u)
.

Thepr
oductoft
hefor
ceandti
meisca
lle
di mpuls
e.I
tisave
c t
orquanti
tys
inc
eforc
eisavec
torquanti
ty.
Theuni
tof
i
mpulsei
sthenewt
on-se
cond(
Ns)
.Impulseisal
soequal
tothechangei
nmome nt
um(mv-mu).Henc
eimpuls
ecan
al
sobeexpr
esse
dinkgm/s.

Ex
ampl
e2.
1

1.Twos
tonesofma
ss8kga
nd4kgmovewi
thve
loc
iti
es3m/
sand6m/
sre
spe
cti
vel
y.Compa
ret
hei
r
moment
um.

P8kg=mv=8*
3=24kg
m/s

P4kg=mv=4*
6=24kg
m/s

He
ncet
heyha
vet
hes
amemome
ntum.

2.Aba
llofmass35gt
ravel
li
nghor
izont
all
yat20m/
sst
rike
saba
rri
ernor
mal
lya
ndr
eboundswi
thas
pee
dof
3m/
s.Findt
heimpuls
eexert
edontheball
.

I
mpul
se=Ft
=m(
v-u)
=(0.
035*
20)–(
0.035*
-3)

=1.
26Ns

Not
etha
tthet
wos
pee
dsa
rei
noppos
itedi
rec
tions
.

3.Aki
ckt
hatl
ast
s0.
03ss
endsaba
llofma
ss0.
65kgwi
thave
loc
ityof15m/
snor
thwa
rds
.Fi
nd:

a
) Thec
hang
einmome
ntumoft
heba
ll.

Not
etha
ttheba
lli
sini
ti
all
yatr
est
,i.
e.u=0m/
s.

ΔP=mv-
mu=(
0.65*
15)
-(0.
65*
0)=9.
75kg
m/s

b)Thea
ver
agef
orc
eex
ert
edont
heba
ll.

F=m(
v-u)
/t=(
9.75kg
m/s
)/0.
03s
)=325N

c
) Thedi
spl
ace
mentoft
heba
lli
n2s
econds
.
5.
Theupwa
rda
cce
ler
ati
onoft
heba
lli
sne
gat
ive2m/
s

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2
S
=ut
+1/
2at=(
15*
0.03)
+(1/
2*-
2* 032)
0. =2m/
s.

2.
4:Ne
wton’
sthi
rdl
aw

Thelawst
ate
s:f
ore
veryact
iont
hereisanequa
landoppos
iter
eac
tion.
Wel
ooka
tthewor
kingofal
if
tinr
ela
tiont
o
thet
hirdl
awofmot
ionint
hrees
ituat
ions
:

a
) Whe
nthel
if
tisa
tre
st.

Thisi
mpl i
est
hatt
heresul
tantfor
ceonthel
if
tisz
eroi.
e.ac
tionandrea
cti
ona
reequali
ns i
ze.
Thefor
cea
cti
ngon
theli
fti
sthewei
ghtoft
hepe rs
ons t
andi
ngi
ntheli
ft
.Thisi
sba l
ance
dbyther
eac
tionbythefl
ooroft
hel
if
t.

The
ref
ore
,we
ightmg
=-r
eac
tionR,

Ors
impl
y;mg
+R=0.

b)Whe
nthel
if
tde
sce
ndswi
tha
nac
cel
era
tiona

Fortheli
ftt
omovedownwards
,theweig
htoftheoc
cupantmus
tbeg r
eat
erthanther
eac
tionbyt
hefl
ooroft
heli
ft
.
Therefor
e,t
her
esul
tantf
orc
epull
ingt
helif
tdownwardsise
qualt
othedi
ffe
rencebet
weenthewei
ghtmgandthe
reac
tionR;

Re
sul
tantf
orc
eF=mg
-R.

Fr
omt
hes
econdl
awofmot
ion,
ther
esul
tantf
orc
eF=ma
.

The
ref
ore
,ma
=mg
-R.

AndR=mg
-ma=m(
g-a
).

c
) Whe
nthel
if
tas
cendswi
tha
nac
cel
era
tiona

I
nthisc
ase
, t
hereac
tionbyt
hef
looroft
hel
if
tmus
tbeg
rea
tert
hant
hewe
ightoft
heoc
cupa
nt.
Henc
e,t
her
esul
tant
f
orc
eF=ma =R-mg
.

AndR=ma
+mg
=m(
a+g
).

Thef
oll
owi
nga
res
omec
ase
swhe
ret
het
hir
dla
wofmot
ionha
sbe
ena
ppl
iedi
neve
ryda
yli
fe:

- Aba
lloonmove
sina
noppos
itedi
rec
tionwhe
nai
rini
tisr
ele
ase
d.
Re
act
ion

Ai
rout

- Whe
nag
uni
sfi
red,
thebul
letl
eave
stheg
unwhi
let
heg
unr
ecoi
lsba
ckwa
rds
.

- Foraper
sonrunningorwa l
king,
oneexer
tsabac
kwardf
orc
eonthegroundwitht
heg
rounde
xer
tinga
for
wardpushonthefootofthepers
on.
Thismakesr
unni
ngorwa
lkingpossi
ble
.

Ex
ample2.
2
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1.Amanofmass75kgs
tandsonawe
ighi
ngma
chi
nei
nal
if
t.De
ter
minet
her
eadi
ngont
hewe
ighi
ngma
chi
ne
whe
ntheli
ft
:
5.
a
) As
cendswi
tha
nac
cel
era
tionof2m/
s

F=ma
=R-
mg

(
75*
2)=R-
(75*
2)

R=150+750=900N

b)De
sce
ndsa
tac
ons
tantve
loc
ityof1.
5m/
s.

F=ma
=mg
-R

Buta
=0s
inc
etheve
loc
ityi
scons
tant
.

The
ref
ore
,75*
0=75*
2–R

R=750N
5.
c
) De
sce
ndswi
tha
nac
cel
era
tionof5.
5m/
s

75*
5.5=75*
2–R

R=750-183.
5=565.
5N

2.Aca
rofmas
s1500kgi
sbr
oughttorestf
romavel
oci
tyof25m/sbyacons
tantf
orc
eof3000N.De
ter
mine
t
hecha
ngei
nmome nt
umproduc
e dbythef
orc
eandtheti
meittake
stheca
rtocometores
t.

ΔP=mv-
mu=1500(
0-25)
=-37500kg
m/s
.

Ft
=ΔP

Wei
gnor
ethene
gat
ives
igni
nthi
spa
rtbe
caus
eti
mei
sas
cal
arqua
nti
ty.

3000*
t=37500

t
=37500/
3000=15.
5se
conds
.

2.
5:Col
li
si
ona
ndt
hel
awofc
ons
erva
tionofmome
ntum

Thisbodyst
atesthatwhent
woormorebodi
escol
li
de,t
hei
rtot
all
ine
armome
ntumbe
for
eanda
fte
rcol
li
si
on
remaincons
tantprovi
dednoex
ter
nal
forcea
ctsonthe
m;

i
.
e.mome
ntumbe
for
ecol
li
si
on=mome
ntuma
fte
rcol
li
si
on.

The
rea
reba
sic
all
ytwot
ype
sofc
oll
is
ionsna
mel
yel
ast
ica
ndi
nel
ast
icc
oll
is
ion.

a
) El
ast
icc
oll
is
ion

Thisi
swher
ethebodie
smovesepa
rat
ewa
ysa
fte
rcol
li
si
on.
Int
hisc
oll
is
ion,
notonl
yli
nea
rmome
ntumi
s
conse
rve
dbutal
sokinet
ice
ner
gy;

- Tot
all
ine
armome
ntumbe
for
ecol
li
si
on=t
ota
lli
nea
rmome
ntuma
fte
rmome
ntum.

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- Tot
alki
net
ice
ner
gybe
for
ecol
li
si
on=t
ota
lki
net
ice
ner
gya
fte
rcol
li
si
on.

b)I
nel
ast
icc
oll
is
ion

Thisi
swherethecoll
idingbodi
esst
ickt
ogethe
ra ndmovea sonebodyaf
terc
oll
isi
on.I
nt hi
stypeofcoll
is
ion,i
t
isonl
yli
nearmome ntumwhi chi
sconse
rvedbutnotkinet
icenerg
y.Thi
sisbeca
useduringthi
scoll
is
ion,some
defor
mati
ontakesplacewhicheat
suppa r
toftheene
rg ywhil
esomeisconve
rtedtoheat,s
oundorlightener
gy.

- Tot
all
ine
armome
ntumbe
for
ecol
li
si
on=t
ota
lli
nea
rmome
ntuma
fte
rcol
li
si
on.

Ex
ampl
e2.
3

1.Abul
letofmas
s20gi
sshotf
romag
unofma
ss20kgwi
thamuz
zleve
loc
ityof200m/
s.i
fthebul
leti
s30c
m
l
ong,
de t
ermi
ne:

a
) Thea
cce
ler
ati
onoft
hebul
let
.

Fort
hebul
let
:u=0,
v=200m/
s,s
=0.
3m

v2=u2+2a
s

2002=0+(
2)(
0.3a
)

24m/2
a
=40000/
0.6=5.
667* s

b)Ther
ecoi
lve
loc
ityoft
heg
un.

Tot
all
ine
armome
ntumbe
for
ecol
li
si
on=t
ota
lli
nea
rmome
ntuma
fte
rcol
li
si
on

(
20*
0)+(
0.02*
0)=(
20*
v)+(
0.02*
200)

v=-
4/20=-
0.2m/
s.

2.A5kgmas
smovi
ngwithavel
oci
tyof2m/scoll
ideswit
ha2kgmassmovinga
t7m/ sa
longt
hes
amel
ine
.If
t
hetwomass
esj
oint
oget
heronimpact
,fi
ndtheircommonvel
oci
tyi
fthe
ywe removi
ng:

a
)Inoppos
itedi
rec
tions
.

Tot
all
ine
armome
ntumbe
for
ecol
li
si
on=t
ota
lli
nea
rmome
ntuma
fte
rcol
li
si
on

(
5*2)+(
2*-
7)=(
5+2)
v

15v=-
20

v=-
20/
15=-
1.33m/
s

t
hebodi
esmovei
nthei
nit
ial
dir
ect
ionoft
he2kgma
ss.

b)I
nthes
amedi
rec
tion.

Tot
all
ine
armome
ntumbe
for
ecol
li
si
on=t
ota
lli
nea
rmome
ntuma
fte
rcol
li
si
on

(
5*2)
+(2*
7)=(
5+2)
v

15v=120

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v=120/
15=8m/
s

3.Abull
etofmass2gt
rave
lli
nghor
izont
allya
t20m/sembedsi
tse
lfinabloc
kofwoodofma
ss990g
sus
pendedfr
omal i
ghti
nexte
nsi
blest
ringsot
hati
tcans
wingfree
ly.Fi
nd:

1000g

2g
h
990g

a
) Theve
loc
ityoft
hebul
leta
ndbl
ocki
mme
dia
tel
yaf
terc
oll
is
ion.

(
0.01*
20)
+(0.
99*
0)=(
0.01+0.
99)
v

v=1/
1=1m/
s

b)Thehe
ightt
hroug
hwhi
cht
hebl
ockr
ise
s.

Att
hema
ximumhe
ight
,al
ltheki
net
ice
ner
gyi
sconve
rte
dint
opot
ent
ial
ene
rgy.

k.
e=p.
e

mv2)
½( =mg
h

½(
0.01+0. 12=(
99) 0.01+0.
99)
(2)
h

h=0.
05m

2.
6:Fr
ict
ion

Thisi
saforceact
ingbet
weent
wos urf
ace
sinc
ont
acta
ndt
endst
ooppos
ethei
nte
nde
dmot
ion.
Fri
cti
onma
ybe
benef
ici
albutc
ana l
sobeanui
sanc
e .

2.
6.
1:Adva
nta
gesoff
ri
cti
on

 Ma
keswa
lki
ng,
wri
ti
ngpos
sibl
e.

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 Re
qui
redf
orbr
aki
ngi
nca
rs,
bic
ycl
ese
tc.

 Ma
kesr
ota
tionoft
hec
onve
yorbe
ltsi
nfa
ctor
iespos
sibl
e.

 Ne
ces
sar
yforl
ight
ingma
tchs
tic
ks.

 Us
eful
whe
nus
ingnut
s,bol
ts,
scr
ewj
acks
,vi
cese
tc.

2.
6.
2:Li
mit
ati
onsoff
ri
cti
on

-Al
otofe
ner
gyi
slos
tint
hef
ormofhe
at.

-Ca
use
swe
ara
ndt
earont
hepa
rsofma
chi
nes
.

-Ma
yle
adt
onoi
sepol
lut
ion.

I
tist
her
efor
eimpor
tantt
omi
nimi
zef
ri
cti
ona
tal
lcos
t.Thi
sca
nbedonet
hroug
hthef
oll
owi
ngwa
ys:

 Us
ingr
oll
ers
.

 Us
ingba
llbe
ari
ngs
.

 Lubr
ica
tion

 Ai
rcus
hioni
ng.

2.
6.
3:Fa
ctor
saf
fec
tingf
ri
cti
on

Fr
ict
iona
lfor
cei
sdi
rec
tlypr
opor
tiona
ltot
henor
mal
rea
cti
onR;

FαR

Ors
impl
yF/
R=ac
ons
tant
.

Thec
ons
tanti
sca
lle
dcoe
ffi
ci
entoff
ri
cti
onµ.
Iti
same
asur
eoft
hena
tur
eoft
hes
urf
ace
sinc
ont
act
.

He
nce
,fr
ict
iona
lfor
ceF=nor
mal
rea
cti
onR*c
oef
fi
ci
entoff
ri
cti
onµ.

Whent
hetwobodie
sareatrest
,thent
hecoeff
ici
entoff
rict
ionisre
fer
redtoascoeff
icie
ntofst
ati
cfr
ict
ionwhi
lei
f
t
heyar
einre
lat
ivemot
ion,i
tiscall
edcoe
ffi
ci
entofkine
ticf
r i
cti
on.
Coeff
ici
entoff
ri
ctionhasnounit
s.

He
nce
,fr
ict
ionde
pendsont
wof
act
ors
:

1.Thenor
mal
rea
cti
onR.

2.Thena
tur
eoft
hes
urf
ace
.Fr
ict
iona
lfor
cei
sgr
eat
erbe
twe
enr
oug
hsur
fac
est
hanbe
twe
ens
moot
hsur
fac
es.

Not
etha
tfr
ict
iona
lfor
cei
sinde
pende
ntoft
hea
reaofc
ont
actoft
het
wos
urf
ace
sandr
ela
tiveve
loc
ityoft
hebodi
es.

2.
7:Vi
scos
ity

Fri
cti
onexert
edbyflui
dsiscall
edvisc
osi
tyorvi
scousdra
g.Iti
sthefor
cewhi
chopposesr
elat
ivemoti
onbetween
la
yersoft
heflui
d.Vi
scosit
yiscausedbyt
heforc
esofatt
ract
ionbetweent
hemol
ecule
softheflui
d.Whenabodyis
puti
naf l
uid,
threef
orcesactonit
,namel
y:

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- We
ightoft
hebodywhi
cha
ctsdownwa
rds
.

- Upt
hrus
tduet
othef
lui
dwhi
cha
ctsupwa
rds
.

- Vi
scousdr
agduet
othef
lui
dwhi
cha
ctsupwa
rds
.

Upt
hrus
tU Vi
scousdr
agF

We
ightW

Whenthebodyentersthefluid,i
tswe i
ghtisi
nit
ial
lyhigherthanthetot
alupwardforce
si.
e.upthr
ustpl
usvi
scous
dra
g.There
sulta
ntforcea ct
ingont hebodyaccel
erat
e sittowardst
hebottomoftheconta
iner.
Asthebodysi
nks
down,t
hevisc
ousdr a
gi ncreasesunti
lthethr
eeforcesba l
ancei.
e.W=U+F. att
hispoi
nt,t
hebodya t
tai
nsi
ts
maximumconstantvel
oc i
tyca l
ledter
mi na
lvel
ocit
y.Ther esul
tantf
orceonthebodyisthe
refor
ezero.

Theg
raphofve
loc
itya
gai
nstt
imef
orabodyf
all
ingt
hroug
haf
lui
dappe
arsa
sshownbe
low:

Te
rmi
nal
vel
oci
ty

Ve
loc
ity(
m/s
)

Ti
me(
s)

Not
etha
tvi
scos
ityde
cre
ase
swi
thi
ncr
eas
eint
empe
rat
ure
.

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TOPI
C3.
:WORK,
ENERGY,
POWERANDMACHI
NES

3.
1:Wor
kandEne
rgy

Whenafor
ceacti
ngonabodydi
spl
acest
hebodyint
hedire
cti
onoft
hef
orc
ewor
kiss
aidt
oha
vebe
endone
.Wor
k
i
sthepr
oductoff
orc
eanddis
pla
cementi
nthedir
ect
ionoft
hefor
ce;

Wor
kdone
=for
ceF*
dis
pla
ceme
nts
.

TheS
IUni
tofwor
kisne
wton-
met
re(
Nm)
.

1Nm=1j
oul
e(1J
).

Ajoul
eisde
fine
dast
hewor
kdonebyaf
orc
eofonene
wtont
odi
spl
aceabodyt
hroug
honeme
trei
nthedi
rec
tionof
t
heforce
.

Ot
hermul
ti
ple
soft
hej
oul
einc
ludeki
loj
oul
e(kJ
)andme
gaj
oul
e(MJ
).

Ener
gyonthehandistheabil
it
yorcapac
ityt
odowor k.
Anythi
ngtha
tposses
sese
ner
gyi
sca
pabl
eofdoi
ngwor
k.
TheSIUni
tofener
gyisthejoul
e.Ene
rgyhasthef
oll
owingchar
act
eri
sti
cs:

- I
tisnotvi
si
ble
.

- Oc
cupi
esnos
pac
e.

- Ha
snoma
ssnora
nyot
herphys
ica
lpr
ope
rty.

Themos
tcommons
our
cesofe
ner
gyi
ncl
udet
hes
un,
wind,
geot
her
mal
,wa
ter
fal
ls
,nuc
lea
rora
tomi
cene
rgy,
fue
ls
et
c.

Ene
rgyr
esour
cesma
ybeg
roupe
dint
otwo:

 Re
newabl
eener
gy-c
anber
eus
eda
gai
nanda
gai
n.The
irs
uppl
iesa
rei
nex
haus
tibl
ee.
gsol
ar,
geot
her
mal
,
wi
ndener
gy.

 Non-
rene
wa bl
eene
rgy-t
hei
rsuppl
iesa
ree
xha
ust
ibl
ei.
e.c
annotber
eus
edonc
eex
haus
tede
.g.
wood,
coa
l
bi
ogas
,petr
ole
umetc.

Ene
rgyexis
tsinmanyformssuchasme
cha
nic
al,
che
mic
al,
hea
tande
lec
tri
cal
ene
rgya
mong
stot
her
s.I
nthi
stopi
c,
wewil
llookatmec
ha ni
cale
ne r
gy.

3.
1.
1:Me
cha
nic
ale
ner
gy

I
tisdi
vide
dint
otwoa
rea
sna
mel
yki
net
ice
ner
gya
ndpot
ent
ial
ene
rgy.

Ki
neti
cenerg
yistheenerg
yposse
sse
dbyabodyi
nmot
ion.
Suppos
eabodyofma
ssmi
smovi
ngwi
thac
ons
tant
ve
loc
ityv,
theni
tskinet
icene
rgyi
sgive
nby;

Ki
net
ice
ner
g mv2)
y=½( .

Pote
ntia
lenerg
yontheothe
rha ndi
saformofst
ore
denergyi
nabodywhe
niti
sinapa
rti
cul
ars
tat
eorpos
iti
on.
A
bodyinarai
sedpos
iti
onposse
ssesgr
avit
ati
ona
lpot
ent
ial
energyg
ive
nby;

P.
Eg=mg
h,whe
rem-ma
ssoft
hebody,
g-g
ravi
tat
iona
lfi
elds
tre
ngt
handh-he
ighta
bovet
heg
round.

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Als
o,astre
tchedorcompress
edmateri
ali
sabletoreg
ainit
sorigi
nalshapewhe
nrel
eas
e d.
Thi
sisbe
ca us
eit
posse
ssesatypeofpote
nti
alene
rgyknownase l
ast
icpote
ntia
lenerg
y. Asca
nbere
cal
ledfr
omHooke’slaw,
the
workdoneinstr
etchi
ngorcompres
singanel
asti
cma t
eri
alisgi
venby;
2
W=½(
Fe)=½(
ke ).

He
ncet
hee
las
ticpot
ent
ial
ene
rgyi
sgi
venby;
2
P.
Ee=½(
Fe)=½(
ke ).

3.
1.
2:Thel
awofc
ons
erva
tionofe
ner
gy

Thel
aws
tat
es:
ene
rgyc
anne
ithe
rbec
rea
tednorde
str
oye
dbutc
anbet
rans
for
medf
romonef
ormt
oanot
her
.

Al
ter
nat
ives
tat
eme
nt:
thes
umofki
net
ice
ner
gya
ndpot
ent
ial
ene
rgyofas
yst
emi
sac
ons
tant
.

Be
lowi
sthee
ner
gyt
rans
for
mat
ioni
nahydr
oel
ect
ricpowe
rst
ati
on:

P.
Eofwateri
na K.Eener
gyof K.Eofrotat
ing Elect
ri
cal
wat
erf
all fal
li
ngwater tur
bines energy

Heatand
sound

Ex
ampl
e3.
1

1.Afor
ceof40Ni
sappl
iedonabody.
Thebodymove
sahor
izont
aldi
sta
nceof7m.
Cal
cul
atet
hewor
kdoneon
t
hebody.

W=F*
s=40N*
7m

=280Nmor280J

2.Aboxofma
ss30kgi
spus
hedupa
ninc
li
nedpl
aneofl
eng
th14mus
ingaf
orc
eof130Na
sshownbe
low:

130N

14m h

30kg
0
20

I
fthet
rac
kisi
ncl
ine
data
nang
leof200,
cal
cul
ate
:

a
) Thehe
ightoft
hepl
atf
orm.

S
in200=h/
14

h=14s
in200=

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b)Wor
kdonebyt
hef
orc
eof130N.

W=F*
s=130*
14=1820J

c
) Wor
kdone
,ift
heboxi
sli
ft
edve
rti
cal
lyupwa
rds
.Compa
reyoura
nswe
rin(
b)a
nd(
c)a
bove
.

W=mg
h=300s
in200=

Workdonei
npushi
ngthebodyal
ongt
heincl
inedplaneisg
reat
ert
hantheworkdonewhenl
if
ti
ngthebody
ve
rti
call
yupwa
rds.Thi
sisbec
aus
eofthef
ri
ctiona
lforcebet
weent
hebodyandtheinc
li
nedpl
ane.

d)Thef
ri
cti
ona
lfor
cebe
twe
ent
heboxa
ndt
hei
ncl
ine
dpl
ane
.

Fr=1820-
300s
in200=

3.Ac
ranei
sus
edt
oli
ftabodyofma
ss30kgt
hroug
have
rti
cal
dis
tanc
eof5.
0m.

a
) Howmuc
hwor
kisdoneont
hebody?

W=F*
s=(
mg)
s=300*
6=1800J

b)Wha
tist
hepot
ent
ial
ene
rgys
tor
edi
nthebody?

P.
E=mg
h=30*
2*6=1800J

c
) Comme
ntont
het
woa
nswe
rsa
bove
.

Workdoneonthebodyise
qualt
othepot
ent
ial
ene
rgys
tor
edi
nthebody.
Henc
ethewor
kdonea
gai
nst
gr
avit
yisst
ore
da sthepot
ent
ial
energ
y.

4.Aspr
ingofs
pri
ngcons
tant25N/misst
retc
hedsucht
hati
tsl
eng
thi
ncr
eas
esf
rom2c
mto20c
m.c
alc
ula
te
t
heamountofwor
kdoneonstre
tchi
ngthespr
ing.
2
W=½(
ke )=½(
25)
( 12)
0. .

=0.
125J

5.Abodyofma
ss12kgi
spul
ledf
romt
her
estwi
thac
ons
tantf
orc
eof25N.
Thef
orc
eisa
ppl
iedf
or5.
0s.
Ca
lcul
ate
:

a
) Thedi
sta
ncet
rave
lle
d.

F=ma
2
a
=25N/
12kg=5.
1m/
s ,u=0,
t=6
2
s
=ut
+1/
2at=(
0*6)
+1/
2(5.
1)62)
( =33.
8m

b)Wor
kdoneont
hebody.

W=F*
s=25*
33.
8=945J

c
) Thef
ina
lki
net
ice
ner
gyoft
hebody.

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K.
E=wor
kdone
=945J

d)Thef
ina
lve
loc
ityoft
hebody.

K.
E=1/
2(mv2)
=945J
1/2
v={
(2*
945)
/12} =15.
6m/
s.

3.
2:Powe
r

Powe
risde
fine
dast
her
ateofdoi
ngwor
k;

Powe
r=wor
kdone
/ti
me.

TheS
IUni
tofpowe
rist
hewa
tt(
W).

1W=1J
/s.

Ot
hermul
ti
ple
soft
hewa
tti
ncl
udet
heki
lowa
tt(
kW)a
ndme
gawa
tt(
MW)
;

1W=2-3kW

1W=2-6MW

Thepowerofadevi
ceist
heme a
sureofhowfastt
hedevi
cecanper
formag i
ventaskorconvertag
ive
namount
ofene
rgy.
Forexa
mpl e
,adevi
cerat
ed1kW convert
s200Jofe
nerg
yt oanot
herfor
mi nones e
cond.

Powe
r=wor
kdone
/ti
me=Fd/
t.

Butd/
t=ve
loc
ityv.

The
ref
ore
,powe
r=f
orc
eF*
vel
oci
tyv.

Ex
ampl
e3.
2

1.Ape
rsonofma
ss60kgc
li
mbs3mupar
opei
n20s
econds
.Fi
ndt
hea
ver
agepowe
rde
vel
ope
dbyt
hepe
rson.

Powe
r=wor
kdone
/ti
me=(
600*
3)/
20=480W

2.Ape
rsonofma
ss40kgr
unsupaf
li
ghtof50s
tai
rse
achofhe
ight20c
min5s
econds
.Ca
lcul
ate
:

a
) Thewor
kdone
.

W=mg
h=40*
2*(
50*
0.2)
=4000J

b)Thea
ver
agepowe
roft
hepe
rson.

Powe
r=4000J
/5s=800W

c
) Ex
pla
inwhyt
hee
ner
gyt
hepe
rsona
ctua
llyus
est
ocl
imbupi
sgr
eat
ert
hant
hec
alc
ula
tedwor
kdone
.

3.
3:Ma
chi
nes

Ama c
hineisadevic
et ha
tma keswor keas
ier
.Inama chi
ne,af
orcea
pplie
da tonepointofasyst
emisus
edto
ge
nerateanot
herforceatadiff
erentpoi
ntofthesyst
emt oove
rcomeaload.Thefol
lowingte
r msar
eusedi
n
machi
ne s
:
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a
) Ef
for
t-t
hef
orc
eappl
iedt
othema
chi
ne.

b)Loa
d-t
hef
orc
eex
ert
edbyt
hema
chi
ne.

c
) Me
cha
nic
ala
dva
nta
ge(
M.A)
-ther
ati
ooft
hel
oadt
oef
for
t.

M.
A=Loa
d/Ef
for
t.

I
tha
snouni
ts.

Iti
sdepe
nde
ntonfri
cti
onbet
weenthemovi
ngpar
tsa
ndthewe i
ghtoft
hepart
soft
hemachi
netha
thavet
o
beli
ft
edwhenope
rat
ingthemac
hine;
thegr
eat
ert
hefr
ict
iont
hesma l
lert
hemecha
nic
ala
dvant
age.

d)Ve
loc
ityr
ati
o(V.
R)-i
tisde
fine
dast
her
ati
ooft
heve
loc
ityoft
hee
ffor
ttot
heve
loc
ityoft
hel
oad;

V.
R=ve
loc
ityofe
ffor
t/ve
loc
ityofl
oad= Ef
for
tdi
sta
nce
/ti
me

Loa
ddi
sta
nce
/ti
me

ThusV.
R=e
ffor
tdi
sta
nce
/loa
ddi
sta
nce
.

Ve
loc
ityr
ati
oal
soha
snouni
ts.

e
) Ef
fi
ci
enc
yη

I
tist
herati
ooft
hewor
kdoneont
hel
oad(
wor
kout
put
)tot
hewor
kdonebyt
hee
ffor
t(wor
kinput
)ex
pre
sse
d
a
sape r
cent
age;

Ef
fi
ci
enc
yη=(
wor
kout
put
/wor
kinput
)*5.

Eff
ici
encyal
sodepe
ndsonthef
ric
tionbet
weenthemovi
ngpa
rtsa
ndt
hewe
ightoft
hemove
abl
epa
rts
.He
nce
theef
fic
ienc
yofama c
hinei
sal
wayslesst
han20%.

Ef
fi
ci
enc
y=wor
kout
put
/wor
kinput
=(l
oad*
loa
ddi
sta
nce
)/(
eff
ort
*ef
for
tdi
sta
nce
)

=(
loa
d/e
ffor
t)*
(loa
ddi
sta
nce
/ef
for
tdi
sta
nce
)

Butl
oad/
eff
ort=me
cha
nic
ala
dva
nta
ge(
M.A)
,

And,
loa
ddi
sta
nce
/ef
for
tdi
sta
nce=1/
vel
oci
tyr
ati
o

The
ref
ore
,ef
fi
ci
enc
yη=(
M.A/
V.R)
*5.

Ex
ampl
e3.
3

1.Ama c
hinere
qui
res6000Jofe
ner
gyt
oli
ftama
ssof55kgt
hroug
have
rti
cal
dis
tanc
eof8m.
Cal
cul
atei
ts
ef
fi
ci
ency.

Wor
kinput
=6000J

Wor
kout
put
=F*
s=55*
2*8=4400J

Ef
fi
ci
enc
y=(
wor
kout
put
/wor
kinput
)*20=(
4400/
6000)
*20=73.
33%

2.Ane
ffor
tof250Nr
ais
esal
oadof900Nt
hroug
h5mi
nama
chi
ne.
Ift
hee
ffor
tmove
sthr
oug
h25m,
find:

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a
) Theus
eful
wor
kdonei
nra
isi
ngt
hel
oad.

Us
eful
wor
kdone
=loa
d*l
oaddi
sta
nce=900*
5=4500J

b)Thewor
kdonebyt
hee
ffor
t.

Wor
kdonebyt
hee
ffor
t=e
ffor
t*e
ffor
tdi
sta
nce
=250*
25=6250J

c
) Thee
ffi
ci
enc
yoft
hema
chi
ne.

Ef
fi
ci
enc
y=(
wor
kouput
/wor
kinput
)*20=(
4500/
6250)
*20=72%.

3.Ama
chi
newhos
eve
loc
ityr
ati
ois8i
sus
edt
oli
ftal
oadof300N.
Thee
ffor
tre
qui
redi
s60N.
cal
cul
ate
:

a
) Theme
cha
nic
ala
dva
nta
geoft
hema
chi
ne.

M.
A=l
oad/
eff
ort=300/
60=5

b)Thee
ffi
ci
enc
yoft
hema
chi
ne.

Ef
fi
ci
enc
y=(
M.A/
V.R)
*20=(
5/8)
*20=65.
5%

3.
4:Type
sofma
chi
nes

Be
lowa
res
omeoft
hec
ommonma
chi
nes
:

3.
1.
1:I
ncl
ine
dpl
ane

Thedi
sta
ncemove
dbyt
hee
ffor
tisLwhi
let
heve
rti
cal
hei
ghtmove
dbyt
hel
oadi
sh.

Al
so,
sinθ=h/
L

Ors
impl
yh=Ls
inθ

The
ref
ore
,ve
loc
ityr
ati
o(V.
R)=e
ffor
tdi
sta
nce
/loa
ddi
sta
nce=L/
Lsi
nθ.

He
nceV.
R=1/
sinθ.

Ex
ampl
e3.
4

1.Ama nusesa
ni nc
li
nedplanet
olif
ta81kgmassthroug
havert
ica
lhe
ightof1.
0m.
Give
ntha
tthea
ngl
eof
i
ncl
inat
ionofthepla
neis300andit
sef
fi
cie
ncyis75%,det
ermi
ne:

a
) Thee
ffor
tne
ede
dtomovet
hel
oadupt
hei
ncl
ine
dpl
anea
tac
ons
tantve
loc
ity.

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V.
R=1/
sin30=2

The
ref
ore
,(M.
A/2)
*20=75

M.
A=(
2*75)
/20=3/
2

3/
2=82N/
eff
ort

Ef
for
t=(
82*
2)/
3=540N

b)Thewor
kdonea
gai
nstf
ri
cti
oni
nra
isi
ngt
hema
sst
hroug
hthehe
ightof1.
0m.

Wor
kinput
=ef
for
t*e
ffor
tdi
sta
nce=(
540*
4)/
sin30=4320J

Wor
kout
put
=loa
d*l
oaddi
sta
nce
=81*
2*4=3240J

The
ref
ore
,wor
kdonea
gai
nstf
ri
cti
on=4320-
3240=1180J

3.
1.
2:As
cre
wandbol
t

Forascre
w, whentheef
for
tappl
iedonthehea
dmove st
hroug
hacompl
eterevol
uti
on,
thes
cre
wadva
nce
sbya
dis
tanc
ee qui
val
enttoonepit
ch.
Apitc
hi st
hedis
tanc
ebetwee
ntwosuc
cess
ivethre
ads
.
d

Pi
tch

Di
sta
ncemove
dbyt
hee
ffor
t=c
irc
umf
ere
nce=πd

Di
sta
ncemove
dbyt
hel
oad=onepi
tch

He
nce
,ve
loc
ityr
ati
o(V.
R)=c
irc
umf
ere
nce
/pi
tch=πd/
pit
ch.

Fort
hebol
t,e
ffor
tisa
ppl
ieda
tthef
reee
ndoft
hes
panne
r.
Ra
diusR

Pi
tch

The
ref
ore
,thedi
sta
ncemove
dbyt
hee
ffor
tinoner
evol
uti
on=c
irc
umf
ere
nce
=2πR.

He
nce
,V.
R=c
irc
umf
ere
nce
/pi
tch=2πR/
pit
ch.

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Not
ethatacombinat
ionofas
cre
wa ndleve
rcanbeuse
dasajac
kf orf
it
tingheavyloadse.gc
arjack.
Whe ntwoor
moresys
temsarecombinedt
oget
her,
theover
all
vel
oci
tyr
ati
oistheproductoftheindi
vidualve
loci
tyr
atios
;

Combi
nedV.
R=V.
R1*
V.R2*
……….
.
*V.
Rk

Ex
ampl
e3.
5

1. Thef
igur
ebe
lows
howsas
cre
wja
ckwhos
esc
rewha
sapi
tchof1mma
ndha
saha
ndl
eof25c
mlong
.
25c
m

1mm

De
ter
minet
heve
loc
ityr
ati
ooft
hej
ack.

V.
R=2πr
/pi
tch=2π(
25c
m)/
0.1c
m=1571

3.
1.
3:Le
vers
yst
em
Loa
dar
m

Ef
for
tar
m
L
Ef
for
t

Theve
loc
ityr
ati
oofal
eve
rsys
temi
sther
ati
ooft
hee
ffor
tar
mtot
hel
oada
rm;

V.
R=Ef
for
tar
m/Loa
dar
m.

3.
1.
4:Ge
ars

Agea risawheelwit
hequall
yspacedtee
thorcogsaroundit
.Thewhe e
l onwhichtheeffortisappli
edisc
a l
ledt
he
dri
ving( i
nput
)gearwhi
letheloadgeari
sref
e r
redt
oa sthedri
ven(output)ge
ar.Suppos ethedrivi
nggearhasn
te
etha ndthedri
vengear
Nt eet
h,the
nwhe nthedri
vinggearmakesonec omplet
erevolutionthedrive
nge a
rma ke
s
n/Nr evol
uti
ons.

V.
Roft
hes
yst
em= Numbe
rofr
evol
uti
onsma
debyt
hee
ffor
t(dr
ivi
ng)g
ear

Numbe
rofr
evol
uti
onsma
debyt
hel
oad(
dri
ven)g
ear
.

V.
R= 1r
evol
uti
on =N/
n

n/
Nre
vol
uti
ons
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Henc
e,veloc
ityrat
ioofag
ears
yst
emi
sther
ati
ooft
henumbe
roft
eet
hoft
hedr
ive
nge
art
othenumbe
roft
eet
hof
t
hedrivi
ngg ear
;

V.
R= Numbe
roft
eet
hoft
hedr
ive
nge
ar

Numbe
roft
eet
hoft
hedr
ivi
ngg
ear

Ex
ampl
e3.
6

1.Adri
vinggearhavi
ng25teet
he ng
ageswi
thasec
ondgea
rwit
h20teet
h.Athir
dge
arwi
th30t
eet
hont
he
sa
mes haf
tasthesecondoneengage
swit
hafourt
hge
arhavi
ng60t
eeth.
Find:

a
) Thet
ota
lve
loc
ityr
ati
ooft
hes
yst
em.

30
100
60
25

Combi
nedV.
R=V.
R1*
V.R2

V.
R1=No.
oft
eet
hofdr
ive
nge
ar/No.
oft
eet
hofdr
ivi
ngg
ear

=20/
25=4

V.
R2=60/
30=2

He
nce
,V.
R=4*
2=8

b)Theme
cha
nic
ala
dva
nta
geoft
hes
yst
emi
fit
sef
fi
ci
enc
yis85%.

Ef
fi
ci
enc
y=(
M.A/
8)*
20=85

M.
A=(
85*
8)/
20=5.
8

3.
1.
5:Pul
leys

Apul
leyi
sawheelwit
hag r
oovetoac
commoda
teast
ringorrope
.The
rea
ret
hre
epos
sibl
esys
temsofpul
leys
na
melysi
ngl
efi
xed,s
ingl
emoveablea
ndabl
ockandt
ackle.

a
)Si
ngl
efi
xedpul
ley

E
L

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I
nthi
sar
rangeme
nt,
bot
hthee
ffor
tandl
oadmovet
hroug
hthes
amedi
sta
nce
.He
ncet
heve
loc
ityr
ati
ooft
he
s
yst
emisone
.

b)S
ing
lemove
abl
epul
ley
E

Theloadissupport
edbytwosec
tionsoft
hes
tri
ng.I
ftheloa
dispul
ledupwar
dsthroughadis
tanc
eof1m,
eac
h
sec
tionofthestr
ingal
somove
sthr oug
h1m.Hencet
hee f
for
tmovesthr
oughatot
aldis
tanc
eof2m.

The
ref
ore
,theve
loc
ityr
ati
ooft
hes
yst
em=e
ffor
tdi
sta
nce
/loa
ddi
sta
nce=2m/
1m=5.

c
) Abl
ocka
ndt
ackl
e

Thi
ssyst
emcompri
sest
wos e
ts;
onesetf
ixe
dandtheothermove
a bl
e.As
ingl
est
ringist
henpas
sedaround
eac
hpull
eyi
nturn.
Thearr
angementc
antakes
eve
r a
lformsdependi
ngonthede
siredvel
oci
tyr
ati
o.Bel
owis
anexa
mple:

I
nt hisca
se,
ther
earef
oursect
ionsofthest
rings
upport
ingthel
oad.
He nc
e,whentheloa
dmovesupwar
dst
hr oug
h
adistanc
eof1m,ea
chsec
tionofthest
ringal
soshor
tensby1m.Ther
efore,
thet
ota
l di
sta
ncemovedbyt
hee
ffort
(s
tring)i
s4m.

Thus,
V.Roft
hesys
tem=eff
ortdi
sta
nce/l
oaddis
tance=4m/1m=1.Coi
nci
dent
all
y,t
heve
loc
ityr
ati
ooft
hes
yst
emi
s
thes
amea st
henumberofs
ecti
onsoft
hestri
ngsupport
ingt
hel
oad.

Gener
all
y,t
heve
loc
ityr
ati
oofabl
ocka
ndt
ackl
esys
temi
sgi
venbyt
henumbe
rofs
ect
ionsoft
hes
tri
ngs
uppor
ting
thel
oad.

Pr
act
ica
lly,
thee
ffi
ci
enc
yofa
nypul
leys
yst
emi
sle
sst
han20%.
Thi
sisa
sar
esul
toft
wor
eas
ons
:

- Thef
ri
cti
onbe
twe
ent
hemove
abl
epa
rts
.

- Thewe
ightoft
hepa
rtst
hatha
vet
obel
if
tedwhe
nope
rat
ingt
hes
yst
em.

Ex
ampl
e3.
7

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1.Thef
igur
ebe
lows
howsapul
leys
yst
emus
edt
ora
iseal
oad.

a
)St
atet
heve
loc
ityr
ati
ooft
hes
yst
em.

V.
R=numbe
rofs
tri
ngss
uppor
tingt
hel
oad=6

b)I
fane
ffor
tof200Ni
sne
ede
dtor
ais
eal
oadof4500N,
det
ermi
net
hee
ffi
ci
enc
yoft
hes
yst
em.

M.
A=l
oad/
eff
ort
=4500N/
200N=1.
5

Ef
fi
ci
enc
y=(
M.A/
V.R)
*20=(
1.5/
6)*
20=75%

c
) Cal
cul
atethewa
ste
dene
rgyi
fama
ssof500kgi
sli
ft
edupt
hroug
hahe
ightof2mus
ingt
he
sa
mes yst
em.

L
Wor
kouput
=loa
d*l
oaddi
sta
nce
=500*
2*2=2000J

Ef
fi
ci
enc
y=(
wor
kout
put
/wor
kinput
)*20

The
ref
ore
,(2000J
/wor
kinput
)*20=75

Wor
kinput
=(2000*
20)
/75=13333.
33J

Wa
ste
dene
rgy=13333.
33-
2000=3333.
33J

Al
ter
nat
ive
ly,
was
tede
ner
gy=25% ofwor
kinput
=(25/
20)
*13333.
33J
=3333.
33

3.
6:Hydr
aul
icma
chi
ne

Cons
ide
rthedi
agr
ambe
low:

L
Ef
for
t,EEf
for
tpi
stona
rea
,a. Loa
dpi
stona
rea
,A

dl

de

Whentheeff
ortisa
pplie
da ss
hown,
thevol
umeoft
hel
iqui
dle
avi
ngt
hee
ffor
tar
mist
hes
amea
sthevol
umeoft
he
l
iqui
dente
ringtheloa
da rm;

i
.
e.a
*de=A*
dl,

de/
dl=A/
a

Theref
ore,t
heveloc
ityra
tioofahydra
uli
csys
temi
sther
ati
ooft
hea
reaoft
hel
oadpi
stont
othea
reaoft
hee
ffor
t
pi
ston.I
fthepi
stonsareci
rcul
arthen;

on=πR2/ 2
V.
R=a
reaofl
oadpi
ston/
are
aofe
ffor
tpi
st πr

=R2/2
V. r ,whe
reR-i
sther
adi
usoft
hel
oadpi
stona
ndr
-ist
her
adi
usoft
hee
ffor
tpi
ston.

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Ex
ampl
e3.
8

1.I
nthef
igur
ebe
lowx
=30c
m,y=6c
m,e
ffor
tE=60N, m2a
A1=4c m5.
ndA2=12c
x

Loa
d

Ey

A1A2

Ca
lcul
ate
:

a
)Thef
orc
eFe
xer
tedont
hel
iqui
datA1.

Byt
hepr
inc
ipl
eofmome
nts
;

60N*
30c
m=F*
6cm

F=(
60*
30)
/6=300N

b)Theve
loc
ityr
ati
ooft
hes
yst
em.

V.
Roft
hel
eve
rsys
tem=e
ffor
tar
m/l
oada
rm=30c
m/6c
m=5

V.
Roft
hehydr
aul
ics
yst
em=a
reaofl
oadpi
ston/
are
aofe
ffor
tpi
st m2/
on=12c 4cm2=3

The
ref
ore
,thec
ombi
nedV.
R=5*
3=15

c
)Thema
ximuml
oadt
hatc
anber
ais
edbyt
hes
yst
em.

Pr
ess
urea
tA1=Pr
ess
urea
tA2

300N/
4cm2=L/ m2
12c

L=(
300*
12)
/4=900N.

3.
7:Whe
ela
nda
xle

I
tcons
ist
sofal
arg
ewhe
elofr
adi
usRa
tta
che
dtoa
nax
leofr
adi
usr
.

Whe
el Ax
le

E
L
E

Not
etha
tinthi
scase
,botht
hewhee
l andaxlemaket
hes amenumberofrevol
uti
onsatanyti
me;
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Thus
,inoner
evol
uti
ont
hedi
sta
ncemove
dbyt
hee
ffor
t=2πR,

Andt
hedi
sta
ncemove
dbyt
hel
oad=2πr
.

He
nce
,theve
loc
ityr
ati
ooft
hes
yst
em=2πR/
2πr=R/
r.

Thust
heve
loc
ityr
ati
oofawhe
ela
nda
xlei
sther
ati
ooft
her
adi
usoft
hewhe
elt
other
adi
usoft
hea
xle
.

Ex
ampl
e3.
9

1.Awheel
andaxl
eisuse
dtor ai
seal
oadof140Nbyaforceof20Nappli
edt
othebr
imoft
hewheel
.Ift
he
r
adi
ioft
hewheelandaxl
ea r
e70cmand5cmr e
spe
ctive
ly,ca
lcul
atet
hemecha
nic
ala
dvant
age
,ve
loci
ty
r
ati
oandef
fi
ci
encyoft
hes ys
tem.

M.
A=l
oad/
eff
ort=140N/
20N=7

V.
R=r
adi
usoft
hewhe
el/
radi
usoft
hea
xle
=70c
m/5c
m=14

Ef
fi
ci
enc
y=(
M.A/
V.R)
*20

=(
7/14)
*20=50%

3.
8:Pul
leybe
lt

Thi
siswhe
reonewhe
eli
sus
edt
odr
ivea
not
herwhe
elbyme
ansofabe
lt.

Dr
ive
nwhe
elr
adi
usr Dr
ivi
ngwhe
elr
adi
usR

Loa
d E

Thedrivingwheelc
oversadi
sta
nce2πRinonerevolut
ionwhi
let
hedri
venwhee
lcove
rsadi
sta
nc e2πrinone
revol
ution.I
fthedr
ivi
ngwheelmakesoner
evol
ution,t
hedri
venwhee
lma ke
s2πR/2πr(
R/r)revol
uti
ons.

V.
Roft
hes
yst
em= Numbe
rofr
evol
uti
onsma
debyt
hee
ffor
t(dr
ivi
ng)whe
el

Numbe
rofr
evol
uti
onsma
debyt
hel
oad(
dri
ven)whe
el

V.
R=1/
(R/
r)=r
/R

Theref
ore,t
hevel
oci
tyra
tioofapul
leybe
lti
sther
ati
ooft
her
adi
usoft
hedr
ive
n(l
oad)whe
elt
other
adi
usoft
he
dri
ving(e
ffort
)whee
l.

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4.
LECTROS
TATI
CSI
I

4.
0Cha rgedist
ribut
iononthesurfa
ceofac onduct
or
Thequa nti
tyofchargeperuni
tareaofthesurfac
eofac onductorisc
all
edcha
rgedensi
ty.Thec
hargedis
tri
but
ion
onac onductordependsontheshapeoftheconductor
.Ge ner
ally,
thechar
geconc
entr
ationonaspher
ical
conductorisunif
ormwhi l
ethatonas ha
rppointishig
h.

Thehig
hc harg
econc
e nt
rati
onats
har
ppoi
ntsmake
siteas
iertog
ainorl
osec
har
ges
.Thee
ffe
ctsofhi
ghc
har
ge
conc
entra
tionats
harppointsc
anbes
eeni
nthef
oll
owingcase
s:

El
ect
ricwi
nd

Whenahighl
ychargedshar
ppointi
sbr oughtcl
osetoac
a ndlef
lame,t
hef l
amei sobs
ervedtodri
fta
wa yasi
fther
e
waswind.
Thehighchar
g econc
entr
ationattheshar
ppointioni
zest
hes urroundingai
rproduci
ngbothposi
ti
veand
ne
gati
vechar
ges.Oppos
itechar
gesareattr
actedtot
hepointwhiles
imilarchargesar
er e
pell
edawayfromthepoi
nt
bl
owingawaythefl
ame.

I
fthepointi
sbroughtveryclos
e,thefl
amespl
it
sint
otwo;onepartmovestowardst
hepoi
ntandtheot
herpar
t
a
wa yfromthepoint
.Thisisbecauseafl
amehasbot
hposi
tiveandnegat
iveions
.Thene
gat
iveionsa
reat
tra
cte
d
t
owa r
dsthepointwhil
ethepos i
tivei
onsar
erepel
leda
wayf romthepoi
nt.

Li
ght
ninga
rre
stor
s

Whe nc l
oudsmovei nt
heatmospher e
, theyruba gai
nstthea i
rpart
icl
esandproduceala
rgea mountofst
a ti
c
chargesbyf ri
cti
on.Thesec
hargesinduc elar
g eamount softheopposi
techargeontheear
th.Henceahighpot e
ntial
dif
ferenceiscreate
dbe t
weenthee artha ndcloud.Thisma kesai
rtobeac ha
rgeconduct
or.Theopposit
ec harges
attr
actea c
hot herandneut
ral
ize,c
a usingthunde randlightni
ng.Li
ghtni
ngcanbeve r
ydestruct
ivet
obuildingsand
otherstructures
.

Light
ninga r
rest
orsa r
eusedtosaf
eguar
dsuchstr
uctur
es.I
tconsis
tsofathickcopperpla
teburi
eddeepunde rt
he
ground.Theplateisconne
ctedbyathi
ckcoppe
rwi r
etothespike
sa tthetopofthebui
ldi
ng.Thearre
storass
ume s
thesamec harg
ea stheeart
h.Att
hespi
kes,ahi
ghchargedensi
tybuildsupandas tr
ongelec
tri
cfi
elddevel
ops
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ICSLES
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be
tweenthecl
oudandthespi
kes
.Theai
raroundthes
pikesisi
oni
zed.
Theoppos
itec
har
gesa
ttr
acte
achot
hera
nd
ne
utr
ali
ze.Ex
cesse
lect
ronsfl
owtotheg
roundthr
oughthethic
kcopperwi
re.

I
tisf
ort
hisr
eas
ont
hatpe
opl
ear
eadvi
sednott
ota
kes
hel
terunde
rtr
eeswhe
niti
sra
ini
ng.

Appl
ic
ati
onsofs
tat
icc
har
ges

 El
ect
ros
tat
icpr
eci
pit
ator

Oneofthecaus
esofai
rpoll
uti
ongl
oball
yisi
ncrea
sedindust
rial
izat
ion.
Someindust
rie
sha vei
nde
edr
esponde
dto
thi
scha
lleng
ebyinst
all
ingel
ect
ros
tat
icprec
ipi
tat
orswhicharefoundwithi
nthechi
mne ys
.

Anel
ectr
ostat
icprec
ipi
tat
orconsi
stsofac
yli
ndr
ica
lme
tal
pla
tef
ixe
dal
ongt
hewa
llsoft
hec
himne
yandawi
re
mes
hs uspe
nde dt
hroughthemiddl
e .

Theplateischarg
e dposi
ti
ve l
ybyconnect
ingittoahighvol t
age,
a pproxi
ma te
ly50,000Vandthewir
eme sh
char
ge dnegati
vely.Asaresult
,ast
rongel
e c
tri
cfiel
dex i
stsbetweenthepl a
teandt hewir
eme sh.
Theioni
zed
pol
lutantparti
cl
esg eta
ttr
ac t
ed;s
omet otheplat
eandot herstothewi r
eme sh.Thedeposi
tsa
reremoved
occ
asionall
y.Thes amepri
nc i
plei
susedinfing
erprint
inga ndphotocopying.

 S
pra
ypa
int
ing

Thenozzleoft
hes prayi
ngcanischarged.Whenspr
aying,t
hepaintdroplet
sacqui
resimil
archa
rgeandspr
eadout
fi
nelyduetorepulsi
on.Asthedrople
tsapproachametal
li
cbody,theyinduceoppos
itechar
gewhichthe
nattr
act
s
themtotheme tal
surface
.Thisensurestha
tli
tt
lepai
ntisused.

Da
nge
rsofs
tat
icc
har
ges

Whenal
iqui
df l
owsthroughapi
pe ,
itsmole
c ule
sr ubaga
inste
achot
hera
nda g
ains
tthewall
softhepi
peand
be
comechar
ged.Ift
heliqui
disf
lamma bl
elikepe t
rol,
iti
sli
kel
ytoca
usespa
rksorevenex
plosi
on.Thi
sca
nalso
ha
ppent
ofuelswhenthe yar
epackedinpl
as ti
ccontai
ners.

I
tist
heref
orea
dvisabl
etost
orefuel
sandothe
rfl
amma bl
eli
qui
dsinmetal
li
ccont
aine
rssot
hatanycha
rges
g
enerat
edcancont
inual
lyl
eakout.
Thisal
soexpl
ainswhyl
ongcha
insha
ngunde r
neathf
uel
tanker
sasthe
ymove
.

4.
1:El
ect
ricf
iel
d

Thi
sisther
egiona r
oundac harge
dbodywherei
tsinf
luenc
e(att
ract
ionandre
pul
sion)canbefe
lt.
Iti
srepre
sente
d
l
inesoff
orc
ec al
ledele
c t
ricfie
ldli
nes.
Thedi
rect
ionofanelec
tri
cfi
eldist
hedi
rec
tioninwhic
hapos i
ti
vecharg
e
wouldmoveifpl
aceda tthatpoint.

El
ect
ricf
iel
dli
nesha
vet
hef
oll
owi
ngpr
ope
rti
es:

 Or
igi
nat
efr
omapos
iti
vec
har
gea
ndt
ermi
nat
eatane
gat
ivec
har
ge

 Donotc
ros
sea
chot
heri
.
e.donoti
nte
rse
ct

 Ar
epa
ral
lel
atuni
for
mfi
eld,
clos
etog
ethe
rats
trongf
iel
dsa
ndwi
del
yspa
ceda
twe
ake
rfi
elds
.

4.
2:El
ect
ricf
iel
dpa
tte
rns

Theel
ect
ricf
iel
dpat
ternbet
wee
ntwoc
har
gedbodi
esobe
yst
hel
awofe
lec
tros
tat
ics
.Be
lowa
res
omepa
tte
rns
bet
weencharge
dbodie
s :

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(
a) (
b)

c
)

Ne
utr
alpoi
nt

NB/
Att
hene
utr
alpoi
nt,
ther
esul
tante
ffe
cti
sze
ro.

4.
3:Ca
pac
itor
s

Aca
paci
torisadevic
eus edforstori
ngcharge
.Itc
onsist
softwoormoremeta
lpla
tessepa
ratedbyavac
uumora
mat
eri
almedium( i
nsula
tor).Thismater
iali
sknowna sa‘di
ele
ctr
ic’
.Ot
hermat
eri
alst
hatcanbeuseda
sadie
lec
tri
c
i
ncl
udeai
r,plas
tic
,gla
sse.t.
c.thesymbolofacapa
cit
orisshownbe l
ow:

Therearet
hreemaintypesofca
pa c
itorsname
lypaperc
apa
cit
ors
,el
ect
rol
yti
cca
pac
itor
sandva
ria
blec
apa
cit
ors
.
Othe
r si
ncl
udepla
sti
c,cer
a micandmi c
ac a
pac
itor
s.

4.
4:Cha
rgi
ngac
apa
cit
or

Ex
per
ime
nt:
Toc
har
geac
apa
cit
or

Apparat
us:Uncharge
dca
pa c
itorof500µF,
5.0Vpowe
rsuppl
y,r
heos
tat
,vol
tme
ter
,mi
ll
iamme
ter
,swi
tch,
conne
ctingwir
e sa
ndastopwa tc
h.

m
C

Pr
oce
dur
e

i
. S
etupt
hea
ppa
rat
usa
sshowna
bove
.

i
i. Cl
oset
hes
wit
cha
ndr
ecor
dtheva
lue
sofc
urr
ent
,Ia
tva
rioust
imei
nte
rva
ls.
Tabul
ateyourva
lue
sint
he

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t
abl
ebe
low:
Ti
me,
t(s
) 0 2 20 30 40 50 60 70

Cur
rent
,I(mA)

I
t(mAs
)

i
ii
. Pl
otag
raphofc
urr
ent
,Ia
gai
nstt
ime
,t

i
v. Pl
otag
raphofI
tag
ains
tti
me.

Obs
erva
tions

Thecha
rgi
ngcur
renti
sini
ti
all
yhi
ghbutg
radua
llyr
educ
est
oze
ro.
Agr
aphofc
urr
ent
,Ia
gai
nstt
imea
ppe
arsa
s
shownbel
ow:

I(
mA)

t(
s)

Thec harg
ingcurr
entdr opst
oz er
owhe nthecapaci
tori
sful
lychar
ged.Ast
hep.
d.a
cros
sthec
apacit
or
i
nc r
ea s
esthechargeinthecapaci
toral
soincrea
sesuptoacert
ainval
ue.Whent
hecapa
cit
ori
sful
lycha
rge
d,
thep.dacrosst
heca pac
itorwil
lbeequalsthep.
dofthesour
ce.

Ag
raphofp.
dac
ros
sthec
apa
cit
ora
gai
nstt
imei
sex
pone
nti
al.
Agr
aphofI
tag
ains
tti
mei
sal
soe
xpone
nti
al.

p.
d(V) I
t(mAs
)

t(
s) t(
s)

NB

Thepr
oduc
tItr
epr
ese
ntst
hea
mountofc
har
gei
nthec
apa
cit
or.

1.
5:Di
scha
rgi
ngac
apa
cit
or

Ex
per
ime
nt:
Todi
scha
rgeac
apa
cit
or

Appa
rat
us:
Acha
rge
dca
pac
itor
,re
sis
tor
,ga
lva
nome
ter
,swi
tcha
ndc
onne
cti
ngwi
res
.

G
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Pr
oce
dur
e

- S
etupt
hea
ppa
rat
usa
sshowna
bove
.

- Cl
oset
hes
wit
cha
ndr
ecor
dtheva
lue
sofc
urr
enta
tva
rioust
imei
nte
rva
lsi
nthet
abl
ebe
low.
Ti
me,
t(s
) 0 2 20 30 40 50 60 70

Cur
rent
,I(mA)

- Pl
otag
raphofc
urr
ent
,Ia
gai
nstt
ime
,t.

Obs
erva
tions

Thevalueofcur
renti
sseentoreducef
romma xi
mumva l
uetozer
owhenthec
apa
cit
ori
sful
lydi
scha
rge
d.The
gal
vanome t
erdefl
ect
sbutintheoppos
itedi
rec
tiont
otha
tduri
ngcha
rgi
ng.

Duringdi
scha
rgi
ng,
thep.
d.acros
sthecapa
c i
torreduce
stoze
rowhenthecapaci
tori
sful
lydi
schar
ged.The
graphsbe
lowshowtheva
ria
tionbetwe
enc urrent
,Iandti
me,ta
ndbet
we e
nt hep.dac
rosst
hecapaci
torand
ti
me ,t
.
+

I(
mA) p.
d(V)
t(
s)

t(
s)

Agra
phofcha
r g
einthec a
pa c
itor
,Qa g
ains
tti
me ,
tdur
ingdi
scha
rgingals
oappe
arsl
iket
hatofp.
dag
ains
tti
me
i
.e
.p.
dacr
ossthecapac
itorisdire
ctl
yproport
iona
ltot
hecha
rgestored.

4.
6:Ca
pac
ita
nce

Ca
paci
tanc
eofac
apa
cit
ori
sde
fine
dast
heme
asur
eoft
hec
har
ges
tor
edbyt
hec
apa
cit
orpe
runi
tvol
tag
e;C=
Q/V

He
nceQ=CV

Re
cal
l:Q=I
t

The
ref
oreQ=CV=I
t

TheSIUnitofc
apac
ita
ncei
sthef
ara
d,F.
Afa
radi
sthec
apa
cit
anc
eofabodyi
fac
har
geofonec
oul
ombr
ais
esi
ts
pot
enti
albyonevol
t.

Ot
hers
mal
leruni
tsofc
apa
cit
anc
ear
e:mi
crof
ara
d(µF)
,na
nof
ara
d(nF)a
ndpi
cof
ara
d(Pf
).

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i
.
e.1µF=2-6F

1nF=2-9F

1pF=2-12F

4.
7:Fa
ctor
saf
fec
tingc
apa
cit
anc
eofac
apa
cit
or

Thec
apa
cit
anc
eofapa
ral
lel
pla
tec
apa
cit
orde
pendsont
hre
efa
ctor
s,na
mel
y:

- Ar
eaofove
rla
poft
hepl
ate
s,A

- Di
sta
nceofs
epa
rat
ion,
dbe
twe
ent
hepl
ate
s

- Na
tur
eoft
hedi
ele
ctr
icma
ter
ial

Ex
per
ime
nt:
Toi
nve
sti
gat
ethef
act
orsa
ffe
cti
ngc
apa
cit
anc
e

Appar
atus:2alumini
umplat
es,
KandLofdi
mensi
ons25c
m*25c
m,I
nsul
ati
ngpol
ythe
nes
uppor
t,unc
har
ged
el
ect
roscope,
Glasspl
ate
,ea
rthi
ngwi
rea
ndafre
ewire.

K L

Pr
oce
dur
e

- Fi
xthepl
ate
sont
hei
nsul
ati
ngs
uppor
tsot
hatt
heys
tandpa
ral
lel
andc
los
etoe
achot
hera
sshowna
bove
.

- Cha
rgepl
ateKt
oahi
ghvol
tag
eandt
henc
onne
cti
ttot
heunc
har
gede
lec
tros
cope
.Ea
rtht
hes
econdpl
ate
,L.

- Whil
ekee
pingt
hea
reaofove
rla
p,At
hes
ameva
ryt
hedi
sta
nceofs
epa
rat
ion,
dandobs
ervet
hel
eaf
di
ver
genc
e.

- Whil
ekee
pingt
hedi
sta
nceofs
epa
rat
ion,
dcons
tantva
ryt
hea
reaofove
rla
p,Aa
ndobs
ervet
hel
eaf
di
ver
genc
e.

- Whil
ekee
pingbotht
hea r
eaofover
lapandt
hedis
tanceofs
e pa
rat
ion,
dcons
tanti
ntr
oduc
etheg
las
spl
ate
be
tweent
heplate
softhecapa
cit
orandobse
rvewhathappenstot
heleaf
.

Obs
erva
tions

1.Whe
nthedi
sta
nceofs
epa
rat
ioni
sinc
rea
sedt
hel
eafdi
ver
genc
eal
soi
ncr
eas
ed.

2.Whe
nthea
reaofove
rla
pisi
ncr
eas
edt
hel
eafdi
ver
genc
ede
cre
ase
d.

3.Whe
ntheg
las
spl
atei
sint
roduc
edbe
twe
ent
hepl
ate
s,t
hel
eafdi
ver
genc
einc
rea
sed.

Not
etha
tthel
eafdi
ver
genc
ehe
rei
same
asur
eoft
hepot
ent
ial
,Vofpl
ateK.
Henc
ethel
arg
ert
hedi
ver
genc
ethe

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g
rea
tert
hepot
ent
ial
andt
hust
hel
owe
rthec
apa
cit
anc
e(s
inc
eC=Q/
V,butQi
scons
tant
).

Conc
lus
ion

Fr
omt heaboveobser
vat
ions,
itfol
lowsthatt
heca
paci
tancei
sdir
ect
lyproport
ional
tot
heare
aofoverl
ap
be
twe e
ntheplat
esandinver
selypropor
tiona
ltot
hedi
stanceofs
epar
ati
on.Itals
odepe
ndsonthena
tureoft
he
di
ele
ctri
cma t
eri
al.

C∝A/
d

C=ε
A/dwhe
reεi
sac
ons
tantc
all
edpe
rmi
tt
ivi
tyoft
hedi
ele
ctr
icma
ter
ial
(eps
il
on)
.

I
fbetweent
hepl
ate
sisava
cuum,
the
nε=ε
0,knowna
seps
il
onnoug
hta
ndi
sgi
ve 85*2-12Fm-1.
nby6. Henc
eC
=ε0A/d

Ex
ampl
e9.
1

1.Howmuc hchargei
sst
ore
dbya300μFc
apa
cit
orc
har
gedupt
o12V?g
iveyoura
nswe
rin(
a)μC(
b)C {
ans
.
3600μC/
0.0036C}

S
olut
ion

a
) Q=CV=300*12=3600μC b)3600*2-
6=0.
0036C

2.Wha
tist
hea
ver
agec
urr
entt
hatf
lowswhe
na720μFc
apa
cit
ori
scha
rge
dto2Vi
n0.
03s
?

{
ans
.0.
24A}

S
olut
ion

Q=CV=I
t

I
=720*2-
6*2/0.
03=0.
24A.

3.Findt
hesepa
rati
ondi
stanc
ebet
we e
ntwoplat
esi ft
heca
paci
tancebetwe
ent
hemi 0*2-12Ca
s1. ndt
he
5. -
12 -1 -
4
encl
oseda
reais5.
0cm Takeε
0 =6.
85*2 Fm .{d=1.
425*2 m}

S
olut
ion

C=ε
0A/d

85*2-12*5.
d=6. 0*2-4/1.
0*2-12

425*2-4m
=1.

4.
8:Ar
rang
eme
ntofc
apa
cit
ors

a
)Se
rie
sar
rang
eme
nt

Cons
ide
rthr
eec
apa
cit
ors
;C1,
C2a
ndC3a
rra
nge
dass
hownbe
low:
C1 C2C3

V1 V2 V3

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Re
cal
lV=V1+V2+V3a
ndQ=CV

Whe
nc apaci
tor
sar
econne
cte
dins
eri
es,
thec
har
geds
tor
edi
nthe
mist
hes
amea
nde
qua
lst
hec
har
gei
n
t
heci
rcuit
.

i
.
e. Q=Q1=Q2=Q3

The
ref
oreV1=Q/
C1,
V2=Q/
C2,
andV3=Q/
C3

V=Q/
C1+Q/
C2+Q/
C3

Di
vidi
ngt
hroug
hbyQ,
weobt
ainV/
Q=1/
C1+1/
C2+1/
C3

S
inc
eV/
Q=1/
C

1/
C=1/
C1+1/
C2+1/
C3

Whe
reCi
sthec
ombi
nedc
apa
cit
anc
e.

I
nas
pec
ial
cas
eoft
woc
apa
cit
orsi
nse
rie
s,t
hee
ffe
cti
ve/
combi
nedc
apa
cit
anc
e,

C=C1C2/(
C1+C2)
.

b)Ca
pac
itor
sinpa
ral
lel

Whe
nca
pac
itor
sar
ear
rang
edi
npa
ral
lel
,thepot
ent
ial
dropa
cros
sea
choft
hemi
sthes
ame
.
C1

C2

V C3

Q1=C1V,
Q2=C2V,
Q3=C3V

Thet
ota
lcha
rge
,Q=Q1+Q2+Q3

Q=C1V+C2V+C3V=V(
C1+C2+C3)

Di
vidi
ngt
hroug
hbyV,
weobt
ainQ/V=C1+C2+C3

S
inc
eC=Q/
V,

C=C1+C2+C3

He
ncet
hec
ombi
nedc
apa
cit
anc
eforc
apa
cit
orsi
npa
ral
lel
ist
hes
umoft
hei
rca
pac
ita
nce
.

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Ex
ampl
e4.
2

1.I
nthec
irc
uitbe
low,
cal
cul
ate
:

a
) Thee
ffe
cti
vec
apa
cit
anc
eoft
hec
apa
cit
ors

b)Thec
har
geone
achc
apa
cit
or

c
) Thep.
dac
ros
sthepl
ate
sofe
achc
apa
cit
or
6V

12µF 24µF

S
olut
ion

a
) C=12*24/12+24=8µF

b)Q1=Q2=CV=8*6=48μC

c
) V1=48/
12=4V,
V2=48/
24=2V

2.Thef
igur
ebe
lows
howsa
nar
rang
eme
ntofc
apa
cit
orsc
onne
cte
dtoa2Vd.
csuppl
y.

De
ter
mine
:a)Thec
ombi
nedc
apa
cit
anc
eoft
hea
rra
nge
ment

b)Thet
ota
lcha
rgei
nthec
irc
uit

(a
ns.
0.7778μF,
3.
778μC)

a
) CBD=3*
3/3+3=1.
5μF

CAE=2+1.
5=3.
5μF

C=3.
5*1/
3.5+1=0.
7778μF

b)Q=CV=0.
7778*
2=3.
778μC.

As
sig
nme
nt1.
3

Thef
igur
ebe
lows
howspa
rtofac
irc
uitc
onne
cti
ng3c
apa
cit
ors
.De
ter
minet
hee
ffe
cti
vec
apa
cit
anc
eac
ros
s
AC.

2μF 15μF

A C

B5μF

4.
9:Ene
rgys
tor
edbyac
apa
cit
or
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ICSLES
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Duringchargi
ng ,
theadditi
onofe l
ect
ronstothene gative
lychargedplat
einvolvesdoingwor kagainstthe
repulsi
veforce.
Alsotheremova l
ofelec
tronsfromt hepos i
ti
velychar
g e
dpla t
einvolvesdoingsomewor k
againstt
hea t
tract
iveforc
e.Thisworkdoneiss toredinthecapaci
torintheformofe lec
tri
calpotenti
a l
energy.Thisenerg
yma ybeconvert
edtohe a
t ,
li
g htorotherfor
ms .Agraphofp.d,Va gai
nstcharg
e ,Qisa
stra
ightli
nethroughtheor i
ginwhosegradientg i
vesthecapaci
tanceofthecapacit
or.

p.
d(V)

Cha
rge
,Q(
C)

Thea
reaunde
rthi
sgr
aphi
sequa
ltot
hewor
kdoneore
ner
gys
tor
edi
nthec
apa
cit
or.

i
.
e.E=½ QV butQ=CV

He
ncE=½ CV2=Q2/
e 2C

Ex
ampl
e1.
3

1.Thef
igur
ebe
lows
howst
woc
apa
cit
orsc
onne
cte
dtoa12Vs
uppl
y

12V 12μF 6μF

De
ter
mine
:a)t
hee
ffe
cti
vec
apa
cit
anc
eoft
hec
irc
uit

b)Cha
rgeone
achc
apa
cit
or

c
)Ene
rgys
tor
edi
nthec
ombi
nat
ion

{
ans
.18μF,
72μC,
5.46*2-3J
}

a
) 12+6=18μF b)Q1=12* )E=½ CV2=1/
12=144μC c 2* 2-6*
18* 122=5. 2-3J
46*

2.I
nthef
igur
ebe
low,
cal
cul
atet
hee
ner
gys
tor
edi
nthec
ombi
nedc
apa
cit
or.
2μF 3μF

2V

{a
ns.
5. 2-6)
4*

C=2*
3/2+3=1.
2μF

E=½ *
1.2*
2- 22=5.
6* 4*2-6J

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45.
:Appl
ic
ati
onofc
apa
cit
ors

a
) Re
cti
fi
cat
ion(
smoot
hingc
irc
uit
s)

Int
hec onver
sionofal
ter
nat
ingcurr
enttodirectc
urr
entus
ingdi
ode
s,ac
apa
cit
ori
sus
edt
oma
int
ainahi
ghd.
c.
vol
tag
e. Thi
siscal
ledsmoot
hingorrec
tif
ica
tion.

b)Re
duc
tionofs
par
kingi
nthei
nduc
tionc
oil

Ac
apa
cit
ori
sinc
lude
dint
hepr
ima
ryc
irc
uitoft
hei
nduc
tionc
oil
tor
educ
espa
rki
ng.

c
)Int
uni
ngc
irc
uit
s

Ava r
iablec apaci
tori
sconnec
tedinpa r
all
eltoa
ni nductorinthetuningc
ircui
tofaradi
orecei
ver.Whenthe
capaci
tanc eofthevari
abl
ecapaci
torisvari
ed,thee l
ect
ricalosc
il
lat
ionsbet
we enthecapa
cit
orandtheinduct
or
changes.Ifthefreque
ncyofosci
ll
ati
onsisequaltothefr
e quencyoftheradi
osigna
l a
ttheaer
ialoft
heradio,
that
si
gnalisre ceive
d.

d)I
nde
layc
irc
uit
s

Ca
pac
itor
sar
eus
edi
nde
layc
irc
uit
sde
sig
nedt
ogi
vei
nte
rmi
tt
entf
lowofc
urr
enti
nca
rindi
cat
ors
.

e
)Inc
ame
raf
las
h

Acapaci
tori
nthef
las
hci
rcui
tofac
ame
rai
scha
rge
dbyt
hec
ell
int
hec
irc
uit
.Whe
ninus
e,t
hec
apa
cit
ordi
scha
rge
s
i
nst
a nt
lytof
las
h.

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5. CURRENTELECTRI CITYI I
5.1: Howt ous ea na mme terandvoltme ter
 Conne ctt hepos itivetermina
l oftheamme t
er/voltme te
rt othepositiveterminalofthebatter
y.
 Ens uretha tthepoi nteri
sini
tiallyatz
eroi.e.t
herei snoz eroerror.
Ift he
reisaz e
r oerror,c
orrecti
tbefore
us
ingt hei nstrume nt
.
 S e
lecta na ppr opr i
atescal
etous e.
 Avoi dpa rallaxe rrortaki
ngrea dingsi
.e.vi
ewt hesca l
enor mally.
5.2: Ohm’slaw
Thi slawre l
atest hec urre ntfl
owingthr oughaconductora ndthevol t
ag edropa cros
sthats e
c t
ionoftheconductor.
Thel awstates:thec ur r
e ntfl
owingthr oughac onductorisdirectl
ypr oporti
ona ltothepotential
diff
erenceacr
os s
itse ndsprovidedt e
mpe ra t
ureandothe rphysical
factorsareke ptcons t
ant
. Thefoll
owings etupc anbeusedto
inve sti
gat
eOhm’ sl aw:

- Clos
etheswit
chandadj
ustthecur
rentf
lowi
ngt
hroug
hthec
onduc
torTus
ingt
her
heos
tatt
othel
eas
t
possi
bleva
lue
.Re
c or
dthecorre
spondi
ngvol
tmet
erre
adi
ng.

- I
ncr
eas
ethec
urr
enti
nst
epsr
ecor
dingt
hec
orr
espondi
ngvol
tme
terr
eadi
ngs
.Re
cor
dyourva
lue
sint
he
t
abl
ebel
ow:
Cur
rentI(
A)

Vol
tag
eV(
V)

- Pl
otag
raphofvol
tag
eag
ains
tcur
rent
.He
ncede
ter
minet
hes
lopeoft
heg
raph.

Agr
aphofvolta
gea ga
instc
urr
e nti
sast
rai
ghtl
inet
hroug
htheor
igi
n.He
ncevol
tag
edr
opa
cros
sthec
onduc
tor
i
sdi
rec
tlyproport
ionalt
othecurre
ntt
hroughi
t;

Vol
tag
e(V)

∆V S
lope
=∆V/ΔI
=re
sis
tanc
eR

ΔI

Cur
rentI(
A)

VαI
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V/
I=c
ons
tant

Thec
ons
tanti
sknowna
sre
sis
tanc
eRoft
hec
onduc
torTunde
rinve
sti
gat
ion.

Thus
,V/
I=R

OrV=I
R.

Hencet
hes l
opeofavolt
age—curr
entgra
phi
sequalt
othere
sis
tanc
eRoftheconduc
torT.e
lec
tri
cal
res
ist
anc
e
canbedef
inedastheoppos
iti
onoff
ere
dbyaconduc
tort
othefl
owofel
ect
ricc
urrent
.Iti
smeasur
edusi
ngan
ohmmeter
.

TheS
IUni
tofe
lec
tri
cal
res
ist
anc
eist
heohm(
Ω).
Othe
runi
tsi
ncl
udeki
lo-
ohm(
kΩ)a
ndme
ga-
ohm(
MΩ)
;

1Ω=2-3kΩ

1Ω=2-6MΩ

Mate
rial
swhi c
hobeyOhm’slawaresai
dt obeohmicmater
ial
swhil
ethosewhi
chdonotobe
ythelawar
es a
id
t
obenon- ohmicma
teri
als.
Thegraphofvolt
ageagai
nstc
urrentf
ornon-
ohmicmate
ria
lsi
sacurveormaybea
st
rai
ghtli
nebutdoesnotpasst
hroughtheori
gin.

Thei
nve
rseonr
esi
sta
ncei
sca
lle
dconduc
tanc
e;

Conduc
tanc
e=1/r
esi
sta
nceR.

Ex
ampl
e5.
3

1.Ca
lcul
atet
hec
urr
entf
lowi
ngt
hroug
ha8Ωde
vic
ewhe
niti
sconne
cte
dtoa12Vs
uppl
y.

I
=V/
R

I
=12V/
8Ω=1.
5A

5.
5.
1:Fa
ctor
saf
fec
tingt
her
esi
sta
nceofac
onduc
tor

The
rea
ret
hre
ema
inf
act
orst
hata
ffe
ctt
her
esi
sta
nceofac
onduc
tor
:

a
) Te
mpe
rat
ure

I
ncr
eas
eint
empe
rat
uree
nha
nce
sthevi
bra
tionoft
hea
tomsa
ndt
hushi
ghe
rre
sis
tanc
etot
hef
lowofc
urr
ent
.

b)Le
ngt
hoft
hec
onduc
torL

Ther
esi
sta
nceofauni
for
mconduc
tori
ncr
eas
eswi
thi
ncr
eas
einl
eng
th.

c
) Cr
osss
ect
iona
reaA

Aconductorhavingawi dercros
ssect
ionareahasmoref
reeel
ect
ronsperuni
tleng
thcomparedtoathinone
.
Henceathicke
rma t
erialhasabett
erconduc
tivi
tyt
hanathi
nnerone.
General
ly,
resi
sta
nceva
riesinve
rsel
yasthe
cr
osssec
tiona r
eaoft hema te
ria
l.

Ther
efor
e,atacons
tantt
empe
rat
urer
esi
sta
nceva
rie
sdi
rec
tlya
sthel
eng
tha
ndi
nve
rse
lya
sthec
ros
sse
cti
ona
rea
oft
heconduct
or;

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RαL/
A

R=(
Acons
tant*L/
A)

Ors
impl
y,AR/
L=c
ons
tant

Thec
ons
tanti
sca
lle
dther
esi
sti
vit
yoft
hema
ter
ial
;

Re
sis
tivi
tyϱ=(
cros
sse
cti
ona
reaA*r
esi
sta
nceR)/l
eng
thL.

Re
sis
tivi
tyi
sme
asur
edi
nohm-
met
re(
Ωm)
.

Ex
ampl
e5.
4

1.Awi
reofr
esi
sta
nce3.
5Ωha
sal
eng
thof0.
5ma
ndc
ros
sse
cti
ona
re 2*2-8m5.De
a6. ter
minei
tsr
esi
sti
vit
y.

Re
sis
tivi
tyϱ=AR/
L=(
6. 2-8m2*
2* 3.5Ω)
/0.
5m

=5. 2-7Ωm
74*

2.Twoc onduc
tor
sAa ndBa
resuc
ht ha
tthecros
ssec
tionareaofAist
wic
etha
tofBandthelengthofBi
s
twic
et ha
tofA.I
fthet
woaremadefr
omt hesamema t
eri
al,de
ter
minet
herat
iooft
her
e s
ist
a nc
eofAtotha
t
ofB.

R=ϱL/
A

The
ref
ore
,RA=ϱALA/
AA

AndRB=ϱBLB/
AB

Whe
reLB=2LA

AB=1/
2AA

AndϱA=ϱB

He
nceRA=ϱALA/
AAa
nd

RB=2ϱALA/
0.5AA=4ϱALA/
AA

ThusRA/
RB=ϱALA/
AA =1/
4

4ϱALA/
AA

RA:
RB=1:
4

5.
11:
Res
ist
ors

Ares
ist
orisaspec
ial
lyde
signe
dconduc
tort
hatof
fer
sapa
rti
cul
arr
esi
sta
ncet
othef
lowofe
lec
tri
ccur
rent
.The
re
ar
ethreemaingr
oupsofres
ist
ors
:

a
) Fi
xedr
esi
stor
s-of
ferf
ixe
dva
lue
sofr
esi
sta
nce
.The
yha
vec
olourba
ndsa
roundt
hem.

b)Va
ria
bler
esi
stor
s-of
ferva
ryi
ngr
esi
sta
ncee
.gr
heos
tata
ndpot
ent
iome
ter
.

c
) Non-l
ine
arr es
ist
ors
-thecur
r e
ntf l
owingthroughthes
eresi
storsdoesnotc
hang
elinea
rlywi
tht
hevol
tag
e
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s,Update
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a
ppl
ied.
Exa
mpl
esi
ncl
udeat
her
mis
tora
ndl
ight
-de
pende
ntr
esi
stor(
LDR)
.

5.
11.
1:Me
asur
eme
ntofr
esi
sta
nce

Thr
eeme
thodsma
ybeus
ed:

a
) Vol
tme
ter
-amme
terme
thod

Int
hismethod,t
hecur
rentfl
owingt
hr oug
hthemat
eri
alandvol
tag
ea cr
ossi
tsendsar
emea
sure
da ndag
raphof
vol
tagea
gainstc
urr
entplot
ted.
Theslopeoft
hegr
aphgivest
heresi
sta
nceof
fer
e dbyt
hemat
eri
al.

b)Thewhe
ats
tonebr
idg
eme
thod

Awhe
ats
tonebr
idg
econs
ist
soff
ourr
esi
stor
sandag
alva
nome
terc
onne
cte
dass
hownbe
low:
I
1

R1 R2
I
1
G
I
2

I
2
R3 R4

Thevaluesofthreeoutoft
hefourresi
storsmus tbeknown. Theval
ueofoneoft
here s
ist
orsi
sadjus
tedtoapoint
thatt
hega l
vanome t
erdoesnotdefl
ect
.Att hi
spoi nt,t
hevol
tagedr
opacrossR1i
sequaltotha
tacros
sR3.Si
milarl
y,
thevol
tagedropa cr
ossR2isequal
totha tacrossR1.Notet
hatthec
urre
ntflowi
ngthroughR1ise
qualtha
tthrough
R5.Al
so,t
hec urr
entthroug
hR3i st
hesamet othatthroughR1.

The
ref
ore
,I1R1=I
2R3………………………….
i

I
1R2=I
2R4………………………….
ii

Di
vidi
nge
qua
tion(
i)by(
ii
),weg
et;

R1/
R2=R3/
R4

Thismet
hodi
smoreac
c ur
atec
omparedt
othevol
tmet
er-ammete
rme t
hods
inc
ethevol
tme
terha
ssome
res
ist
anc
eaga
ins
tthef
lowofcurr
enta
ndthust
akesupsomevol
tage
.

c
) Theme
trebr
idg
eme
thod

Thi
sme
thodr
eli
esont
hef
actt
hatr
esi
sta
ncei
sdi
rec
tlypr
opor
tiona
ltot
hel
eng
thoft
hec
onduc
tor
.

R1 R2

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L1 K L2

Theval
uesofR1a ndR2mustbeknown. Suppos
ea tpoi
ntKthegal
vanomete
rdoesnotdef
lec
t,t
he nthevol
tagedrop
acr
ossR1equalthevolt
agedropacr
ossthesect
ionL1.Si
mil
arl
y,t
hevolta
gedropacros
sR2equal
st hevol
tagedrop
acr
ossthesec
tionL5.I
fthecurr
entt
hroughR1andR2i sI
1andtha
tthrought
hesect
ionL1andL2isI2,t
hen;

I
1R1=I
2L1………………………….
.i

I
1R2=I
2L2……………………………i
i

Di
vidi
nge
qua
tion(
i)by(
ii
),weg
et;

R1/
R2=L1/
L2

Ex
ampl
e5.
5

1.Inanexper
imenttode t
ermi
net
heresi
sta
nceofani
chromewi
reusingthemet
rebridg
e,t
hebalanc
epoint
wasfoundtobeatthe40cmmark.
Giventha
ttheva
lueoft
her
esi
stortother
ighti
s30Ω,cal
cul
atetheva
lue
oft
heunknownr esi
storR.

R 30Ω
G

A C B

LAC/
LCB=R/
30Ω

40c
m/60c
m=R/
30Ω

R=(
30*
40)
/60=20Ω

5.
11.
2:Re
sis
torne
twor
ks

a
)Se
rie
sne
twor
k

Whenres
ist
orsar
earr
ange
dins
eri
est
hes
amec
urr
entpa
sst
hroug
hea
choneoft
hem.
Cons
ide
rthr
eer
esi
stor
s
c
onnec
tedasshownbel
ow:

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R1 R2 R3

I V1V2V3

Fr
omOhm’
sla
w,V=I
R.

Thevol
tag
edr
opa
cros
sR1;
V1=I
R1

Thevol
tag
edr
opa
cros
sR2;
V2=I
R2

Thevol
tag
edr
opa
cros
sR3;
V3=I
R3

Andt
het
ota
lci
rcui
tvol
tag
eV=V1+V2+V3.

ThusV=I
R1+I
R2+I
R3=I
(R1+R2+R3)

V/
I=(
R1+R2+R3)

ButV/
I=R

Thust
hec
ombi
nedc
irc
uitr
esi
sta
nceR=R1+R2+R3.

Ge
ner
all
y,t
hee
ffe
cti
ver
esi
sta
nceofr
esi
stor
sar
rang
edi
nse
rie
sise
qua
ltot
hes
umoft
hei
ndi
vidua
lre
sis
tanc
es.

a
) Pa
ral
lel
net
wor
k

Whenres
ist
orsar
econnec
tedi
npa
ral
lel
,thes
amevol
tag
eisdr
oppe
dac
ros
sthe
m.Cons
ide
rthr
eer
esi
stor
s
c
onnec
tedasshownbel
ow:
V

R1

R2

I R3

S
uppos
ethec
urr
entf
lowi
ngt
hroug
hR1i
sI1,
thr
oug
hR2i
sI2a
ndt
hroug
hR3i
sI3t
hen:

Thevol
tag
edr
opa
cros
sR1;
V1=I
1R1

Thevol
tag
edr
opa
cros
sR2;
V2=I
2R2

Thevol
tag
edr
opa
cros
sR3;
V3=I
3R3

ButV1=V2=V3=Va
ndI
=I1+I
2+I
3

The
ref
ore
,I=V/
R1+V/
R2+V/
R3

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I
/V=(
1/R1+1/
R2+1/
R3)

ButI
/V=1/
R.

He
nce1/
R=1/
R1+1/
R2+1/
R3

Ri
sthec
ombi
nedc
irc
uitr
esi
sta
nce
.

S
pec
ial
cas
eoft
wor
esi
stor
sinpa
ral
lel

I
tfol
lowst
hat1/
R=1/
R1+1/
R2

1/
R=(
R1+R2)
/R1R2

He
ncet
hee
ffe
cti
ver
esi
sta
nceR=R1R2/(
R1+R2)
.

Gene
ral
lyfornresi
stor
sarra
ng edi
npa
ral
lel
,thee
ffe
cti
ver
esi
sta
nceoft
hea
rra
nge
menti
sgi
venby;
1/
R=1/R1+1/R2+…………. .
+1/Rn

NOTE:whenaci
rcui
tcompr
iseofbot
hse
rie
sandpa
ral
lel
conne
cti
ons
,thea
rra
nge
menti
ssys
tema
tic
all
yre
duc
ed
t
oas i
ngl
eres
ist
or.

Ex
ampl
e5.
6

1.Thef
igur
ebe
lows
hows3r
esi
stor
s.
5Ω3Ω

8Ω

12V

Ca
lcul
ate
:

a
) Thee
ffe
cti
ver
esi
sta
nceoft
hec
irc
uit
.

R=(
8+5+3)
Ω=3Ω

b)Thet
ota
lcur
renti
nthec
irc
uit
.

I
=V/
R=12V/
3Ω=0.
75A

c
) Thevol
tag
edr
opa
cros
sea
chr
esi
stor
.

V8Ω=0.
75*
8=5.
0V

V5Ω=0.
75*
5=3.
75V

V3Ω=0.
75*
3=5.
25V

2.Thr
eer
esi
stor
sar
econne
cte
dass
hownbe
low:
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5Ω

3Ω

6Ω

12V

Ca
lcul
ate
:

a
) Thet
ota
lre
sis
tanc
eoft
hec
irc
uit
.

1/
R=1/
5+1/
3+1/
6

1/
R=(
6+2+5)
/30=21/
30

R=30/
21=1.
4286Ω

b)Thec
urr
entt
hroug
hea
chr
esi
stor
.

I
5Ω=12V/
5Ω=5.
4A

I
3Ω=12V/
3Ω=1.
0A

I
6Ω=12V/
6Ω=5.
0A

3.Thef
igur
ebe
lows
howsf
iver
esi
stor
sand5.
0Vs
uppl
y.
4Ω

6V 1Ω 2Ω 3Ω

0.
2Ω

Ca
lcul
ate
:

a
) Thee
ffe
cti
ver
esi
sta
nceoft
hec
irc
uit
.

R2,
3Ω=(
2*3)
/(2+3)=1.
2Ω

R4,
1.
2,2Ω=
0. 4+1.
2+0.
2=5.
4Ω

R=R1,4Ω=
5. (
1*5.
4)/
(1+5.
4)=0.
8438Ω

b)Thet
ota
lci
rcui
tcur
rent
.

I
=V/
R=6V/
0.8438Ω=3.
127A

5.
11.
3:I
nte
rna
lre
sis
tanc
er

Whe
nac e
lls
uppl
iesc
urr
enti
nac i
rcui
t,t
hepot
enti
aldif
fer
encebet
we e
nitst
erminal
sisobse
rve
dt obe
l
owert
hanit
sel
ect
romot
ivef
orc
e( e
mf).Thi
sdi
ffe
renceisduetot
heinter
nal
resi
sta
nceofthece
ll.
Some
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workmustbedonetoover
comethi
sresi
sta
ncea
ndsothedr
opi
nthee
mfoft
hec
ell
isr
espons
ibl
efort
his
.
Thedi
ff
erenc
eisref
erredt
oasthel
ostvol
tandi
sgi
venbyIr
.

i
.
e.l
ostvol
ts=e
mf-
ter
mina
lvol
tag
e

Ors
impl
yemf
=te
rmi
nal
vol
tag
e+l
ostvol
ts

Themathe
ma t
ica
lequa
tionc
onne
cti
nge
mf,
cir
cui
tcur
rent
,ex
ter
nal
res
ist
anc
eandi
nte
rna
lre
sis
tanc
eof
thec
ell
isgi
venby:

E=I
R+I
r=I
(R+r
).

Int
ernalr
esi
sta
nceofac
ell
canbeobt
aine
dex
per
ime
nta
lly.
Ins
ucha
nex
per
ime
nt,
thef
oll
owi
ngda
tawa
s
obtai
ned:
Cur
rentI
(A) 0.
1 0.
2 0.
3 0.
4 0.
6 0.
8

Vol
tag
eV(
V) 1.
43 1.
30 1.
4 1.
09 0.
82 0.
58

Whe
nag
raphofVol
tag
eVa
gai
nstc
urr
entIi
spl
ott
ed,
theg
raphwi
lla
ppe
ara
sshownbe
low:

e
mf

Theslopeoft
hegraph=-r(
-int
erna
l
resi
stanc
e)whil
ethey-i
nte
rcept=emfof
Vol
tag
e(V)
thecel
l.
ΔV

ΔI

Cur
rentI(
A)

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TOPI
C6.
:HEATI
NGEFFECTOFELECTRI
CCUURENT

6.
1:I
ntr
oduc
tion

Whencur
rentfl
owst
hroug
hac onduc
tor
,he
ate
ner
gyi
sge
ner
ate
dint
hec
onduc
tor
.Thehe
ati
nge
ffe
ctofa
nel
ect
ric
c
urr
entdependsont
hreef
act
ors:

- Ther
esi
sta
nce
,Roft
hec
onduc
tor
.Ahi
ghe
rre
sis
tanc
epr
oduc
esmor
ehe
at.

- Thet
ime
,tf
orwhi
chc
urr
entf
lows
.Thel
ong
ert
het
imet
hel
arg
ert
hea
mountofhe
atpr
oduc
ed

- Thea
mountofc
urr
ent
,I.
thehi
ghe
rthec
urr
entt
hel
arg
ert
hea
mountofhe
atg
ene
rat
ed.

Henc
etheheat
ingeff
ectpr
oducedbyanel
ect
ricc
urrent
,It
hroughaconduct
orofr
esi
sta
nce
,Rf
orat
ime
,ti
sgi
ven
2
byH=IRt.Thi
se qua
tioni
scal
ledtheJ
oul
e’
sequati
onofel
ectr
ica
lhe
a t
ing.

6.
2:El
ect
ric
ale
ner
gya
ndpowe
r

Thewor
kdonei
npus
hingac
har
ger
ounda
nel
ect
ric
alc
irc
uiti
sgi
venbyw.
d=VI
t

S
otha
tpowe
r,P=w.
d/t=VI
2
Thee
lec
tri
cal
powe
rcons
ume
dbya
nel
ect
ric
ala
ppl
ianc
eisg
ive
nbyP=VI=IR=V2/
R

Ex
ampl
e6.
1

1.Ane
lec
tri
cal
bul
bisl
abe
led20W,
240V.
Cal
cul
ate
:

a
) Thec
urr
entt
hroug
hthef
il
ame
ntwhe
nthebul
bwor
ksnor
mal
ly

b)Ther
esi
sta
nceoft
hef
il
ame
ntus
edi
nthebul
b.

{a
ns.
0.437A,
575.
04Ω}

S
olut
ion

a
) I=P/
V=20/
240=0.
437A
2
b)R=P/
I 4372=575.
=20/0. 04ΩorR=V2/
P=2402/
20=576Ω

2.Findt
heenergydiss
ipate
di n5minut
esbya
nel
ect
ricbul
bwi
thaf
il
ame
ntofr
esi
sta
nceof500Ωc
onne
cte
d
toa240Vsupply.
{a ns
.34,560J
}

S
olut
ion

E=Pt=V2/
R* 2402*
t=( 5*60)
/500=34,
560J

3.A5.
5kW i
mme
rsi
onhe
ate
risus
edt
ohe
atwa
ter
.Ca
lcul
ate
:

a
) Theope
rat
ingvol
tag
eoft
hehe
ate
rifi
tsr
esi
sta
ncei
s24Ω

b)Thee
lec
tri
cal
ene
rgyc
onve
rte
dtohe
ate
ner
gyi
n2hour
s.

{
ans
.241.
9488V,
1. 27J
8* }

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S
olut
ion
2
a
) P=VI
=I R
1/2
I=(
2500/
24) =5.
2062A

V=I
R=5.
2062*24=241.
9488V

b)E=VI
t=Pt=2500*
2*60* 8*27J
60=1.

ORE=VI
t=241.
9488*5. 8*27J
2062*2*60*60=1.

4.Ane
lec
tri
cbul
bisl
abe
led20W,
240V.
Cal
cul
ate
:

a
) Thec
urr
entt
hroug
hthef
il
ame
nt

b)Ther
esi
sta
nceoft
hef
il
ame
ntus
edi
nthebul
b.

{
ans
.0.
437A,
575.
95Ω}

S
olut
ion

a
) P=VI I=P/
V=20/
240=0.
437A

b)Fr
omOhm’
sla
w,V=I
R R=V/
I=240/
0.437=575.
95Ω

6.
3:Appl
ic
ati
onsofhe
ati
nge
ffe
ctofe
lec
tri
ccur
rent

Mos
thouseholdel
ect
ric
alappli
ancesconverte
lect
ric
alene
rgyi
ntohe
atbyt
hisme
ans
.The
sei
ncl
udef
il
ame
nt
l
amps,
ele
ctriche
ater
,elec
tri
ciron,
e l
ectr
icket
tle
,etc.

I
nli
ght
inga
ppl
ianc
es

a
) Fi
lame ntl
amps -itismadeofat ung s
tenwi reenclosedi naglassbulbfromwhi chairhasbeenr emove d.
Thisisbecauseairwouldoxidiz
et hefilament.Thef il
ame ntisheatedupt oahi ghtemperaturea ndbecome s
whitehot.Tungstenisusedduei tshighme lti
ngpoi nt;34000C.Thebulbi sfi
ll
e dwithaninactiveg a
se .
g.
argonornitrogena tl
owpr e
ssur ewhic hreducese vaporati
onoft hetungstenwi re.
Howe ver,one
di
sa dvant
ageofthei ner
tgasistha ti
tc aus
e sconve c
tioncurrentswhichc oolthefil
ament.Thispr oble
mi s
minimizedbyc oi
lingthewiresot hatitoccupiesas ma l
lerareawhichr educeshe a
tlossthroug hconvecti
on.

b)Fluores
centlamps-the
selampsa r
emor eeff
ici
entcompa redt of
ila
me ntla
mpsa ndlastmuchlong
e r
.They
haveme rcur
yvapourinthegla
s stubewhichemitsult
raviol
e tradi
ationwhe nswitche
don. Thi
sradiat
ion
causesthepowde ri
nthetubetoglow(fl
uoresce)i
.e.
emi t
svi si
bleli
g ht.Di
ffe
rentpowdersproduc
edi f
fer
ent
colours
.Notethatfl
uores
centl
ampsa reexpensi
vetoinstallbuttheirrunningcosti
smuc hless
.

I
nel
ect
ric
alhe
ati
ng

c
) Ele
ctr
icc
ookers-el
ect
ricc
ooke
rst
urnr
edhota
ndt
hehe
ate
ner
gypr
oduc
edi
sabs
orbe
dbyt
hec
ooki
ngpot
thr
oughconduc
tion.

d)El
ectr
icheat
ers-radi
anthe
ate
rst
urnr
eda
tabout9000Ca
ndt
her
adi
ati
one
mit
tedi
sdi
rec
tedi
ntot
her
oom
bypoli
she
dr ef
lec
tors.

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e
) Elec
tricket
tl
es-t
heheati
ngeleme
ntispl
aceda
tthebot
tomofthekett
les
othatt
heli
qui
dbei
ngheate
d
coversit
.Theheati
sthe
na bs
orbedbywate
randdis
tri
but
edthroug
houtthewhol
eli
qui
dbyconve
cti
on.

f
) Elec
tri
cirons
-whencurre
ntflowsthroug
htheheati
ngele
ment,t
heheatener
gydeve
lopedi
sconducte
dto
theheavymetal
basera
isi
ngitstemperat
ure
.Thisener
gyist
henuse
dt opre
sscl
othe
s.Thet
empe r
atureof
theele
ctri
cir
oncanbecontr
olledusi
ngathermost
at(abi
metal
li
cst
rip).

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TOPI
C7.
:QUANTI
TYOFHEAT

7.
1:I
ntr
oduc
tion

Whenheati
strans
ferre
dfromonebodytoanothe
r,t
hebodywhi
chl
ose
she
atha
sit
ste
mpe
rat
urel
owe
redwhi
le
t
hatwhi
chgainsheathasi
tst
emperat
urera
ised.

7.
2:Te
rmsus
ed

He
atc
apa
cit
y,C.

Thi
sist
hequa
nti
tyofhe
ate
ner
gyr
equi
redt
ora
iset
het
empe
rat
ureofag
ive
nma
ssofs
ubs
tanc
ebyoneKe
lvi
n.

i
.
e.he
atc
apa
cit
y,C=Q(
J)/
Δθ(
K)

He
ncet
heS
IUni
tofhe
atc
apa
cit
yisj
oul
epe
rKe
lvi
n(K-1)
J .

S
pec
ifi
che
atc
apa
cit
y,c

Thi
sisthequa
nti
tyofhe
ate
ner
gyr
equi
redt
ora
iset
het
empe
rat
ureofauni
tma
ssofas
ubs
tanc
ebyoneKe
lvi
n.i
.
e.
c=Q( J
)/mΔθ(Kg
K)

Q=mc
Δθ
-
1 -
TheS
IUni
tofs
pec
ifi
che
atc
apa
cit
yisj
oul
espe
rki
log
rampe
rKe
lvi
n(J
Kg K1).

Not
etha
tc=C/
m

The
ref
orehe
atc
apa
cit
y,C=ma
ss,
m*s
pec
ifi
che
atc
apa
cit
y,c
.

Thet
abl
ebe
lows
howss
omes
ubs
tanc
eswi
tht
hei
rspe
cif
iche
atc
apa
cit
ies
:
-
1 -
Ma
ter
ial s
.h.
c(J
Kg K1)

Wa
ter 4200

Al
cohol 2300
7.
5.
1:
Ke
ros
ene 2200

I
ce 220

Al
umi
nium 900

Gl
ass 830

I
ron 460

Coppe
r 390

Me
rcur
y 140

Le
ad 130

De
ter
mina
tionoft
hes
pec
ifi
che
atc
apa
cit
y

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Byt
heme
thodofmi
xtur
es

a
)S.
h.
cofs
oli
ds

I
nthi
smethod,
aknownmassofasoli
d,e.
g.amet
albl
ocki
sheate
dbydippi
ngi
tinabat
hofhotwat
er.Af
ters
ome
t
ime,
thes
olidi
sver
yfa
stt
ransf
err
e dint
ocoldwat
eri
nacalor
imete
randwhos
ema ssi
sknown.
S
tir
rer t
her
mome
ter

Boi
li
ngwa
ter

Me
tal
bloc
k Ca
rdboa
rdc
ove
r

Ca
lor
ime
ter

He
at La
ggi
ngma
ter
ial

Me
tal
bloc
k

Wa
ter

Thecal
ori
me t
eri
sthe
ncove
redus
ingapi
eceofc
ardboa
rda
nds
tir
redc
ont
inuous
ly.
Thef
oll
owi
ngme
asur
eme
nts
aret
henrecor
ded:

- Ma
ssoft
hes
oli
dme
tal
bloc
k,ms

- Ma
ssofc
oppe
rca
lor
ime
terwi
tht
hes
tir
rer
,mc

- Ma
ssoft
hec
alor
ime
tera
nds
tir
rer+wa
ter
,m1

- Te
mpe
rat
ureoft
heboi
li
ngwa
ter(
ini
ti
alt
empe
rat
ureoft
heme
tal
bloc
k),
θs

- Te
mpe
rat
ureofc
oldwa
teri
nthec
alor
ime
ter(
ini
ti
alt
empe
rat
ureofc
alor
ime
ter
),θw

- Fi
nal
ste
adyt
empe
rat
ureoft
hemi
xtur
e,θ

Ca
lcul
ati
on

Ma
ssoft
hewa
teri
nthec
alor
ime
ter=m1–mc=mw

Te
mpe
rat
urec
hang
eoft
hehotme
tal
bloc
k=θs–θ

Te
mpe
rat
urec
hang
eoft
hewa
teri
nthec
alor
ime
tera
ndt
hec
alor
ime
ter=θ-θw

Assumi
ngther
eisnohe
atl
osst
othes
urr
oundi
ngwhe
ntheme
tal
bloc
kisbe
ingt
rans
fer
redi
ntot
hec
oldwa
ter
andthe
rea
fte
r;

Amountofhe
atlostbyt
heme t
albloc
k=a
mountofhe
atg
aine
dbyc
alor
ime
terwi
ths
tir
rer+ a
mountofhe
at
ga
inedbywaterinthec
alor
imete
r.

i
.
e.msc
s(θs-
θ)=mcc
c(θ-
θw)+mwc
w(θ-
θw)

whe
rec
s–s
.h.
c.oft
heme
tal
bloc
k

c
c–s
.h.
c.oft
hec
oppe
rca
lor
ime
ter

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c
w –s
.h.
c.ofwa
ter
.

He
nces
.h.
c.oft
heme
tal
bloc
k,c
s=[
mcc
c(θ-
θw)+mwc
w(θ-
θw)
]/ms(
θs-
θ)

b)S
.h.
c.ofal
iqui
d

I
nthisc
ase,asoli
dofknowns .
h.c
.isus
e dandthewaterint
hecalor
imeteri
srepla
cedwit
htheli
qui
dwhoses.
h.
c.i
s
t
obedetermined.Thesol
idmetall
icbl
ockisfi
rsthe
atedinabathofboi
li
ngwa t
erandthe
ntrans
fer
redi
ntot
he
c
alor
imete
rc onta
iningt
heli
quid.Thefol
lowi
ngme asure
me nt
sarethencol
lec
ted:

- Ma
ssoft
heme
tal
bloc
k,ms

- Ma
ssoft
hec
alor
ime
terwi
ths
tir
rer
,mc

- Ma
ssoft
hec
alor
ime
ter
,st
irr
era
ndt
hel
iqui
d,m1

- I
nit
ial
tempe
rat
ureoft
heme
tal
bloc
k,θs

- I
nit
ial
tempe
rat
ureoft
hel
iqui
d,θl

- Fi
nal
ste
adyt
empe
rat
ureoft
hemi
xtur
e,θ

Ift
hethe
reisnohea
tlos
stothesur
roundi
ng,t
henthequa
nti
tyofhe
atl
ostbyt
heme
tal
bloc
kequa
lst
hequa
nti
ty
ofhea
tgaine
dbythecal
ori
meterwit
hsti
rre
randtheli
qui
d.

i
.
e.msc
s(θs–θ)=[
mcc
c(θ-
θl)+mlc
l(
θ-θl)
]

He
ncec
l=[
mcc
s(θs–θ)-mcc
c(θ-
θl)
]/ml(
θ-θl)

Alt
erna
tive
lythes.
h.
c.ofal
iqui
dcanbeobtai
nedbymi
xingi
twi
tha
not
herl
iqui
dwhos
espe
cif
iche
atc
apa
cit
yis
knownandt he
irc
ommont empera
turedet
ermine
d.

Thef
oll
owi
ngpr
eca
uti
onsmus
tbet
ake
ntomi
nimi
zehe
atl
oss
est
othes
urr
oundi
ngs
:

- Us
ingahi
ghl
ypol
is
hedc
alor
ime
ter

- He
avi
lyl
agt
hec
alor
ime
ter

- Us
ingal
idofpoort
her
mal
conduc
tivi
ty

Ex
ampl
e7.
1

1.70gofas ol
idini
ti
all
yat250Cwascaref
ull
ydroppe
dintowateri
nacalor
imeterat600C.Ift
hef i
nalconst
ant
0
te
mpe rat
ureofthewa t
erandthes
olidwa s54Candthemassofwat
eris500g,deter
mi nethespecif
icheat
capac
ityofthesol
id.As
sumetheheatabsorbe
dbythecal
ori
me t
ert
obene gl
igi
ble.Takethes.h.
c.ofwater=
-
1 -
4200JKg K1.
-
1 -
{
ans
.2,
767.
23J
Kg K1}

S
olut
ion

He
atl
ost=he
atg
aine
d

mwc
wΔθw =msc
sΔθs

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-
1 -
0.
5Kg*4200J
Kg K1*(
60-
54)K=0.
07kg*c
s*(54-
25)K
-
1 -
Cs=29400J/5.
73Kg
K=1O,
767.
23J
Kg K1

2.Astude
ntheat
ed20Kgofwa
tertoatempera
t eof800C.
ur HethenaddedxKgofwa te
rat150Candthefi
nal
0 - -
1
st
eadytempe
ratur
eoft
hemixt
ureis40C.Giventha
tthes.
h.
c.ofwat
eris1.
2Jg1K ,det
erminetheva
lueof
x.
{ans.
32kg]

S
olut
ion

He
atl
ost=he
atg
aine
d
-1 -
K1*( -
1 -
20kg*4200Kg 80-
40)K=x*4200J
Kg K1*(
40-
15)K

X=3,
360,
000/
25,
000=32kg
.

3.0.
2kgofi ronat200Ci
sdroppe
dinto0.
09kgofwa
terat260Cins
ideacal
ori
meterofmas s0.
15kgands
.h.
c.
-
1 -1 -
1 -
800JKg K . Fi
ndthef
ina
l t
empera
tureoft
hewat
er.Takethes.
h.c
.ofi
ron=460JKg K1a ndtha
tofwate
r=
-1 -
4200JKg K1.

{
ans
. 20C}
33.

S
olut
ion

He
atl
ostbyi
ron=he
atg
aine
dbyc
alor
ime
ter+he
atg
aine
dbywa
ter
.
-
1 -
K1*( -
1 -
K1*( -
1 -
0.
2kg*460J
Kg 20-
θc)K=0.
15kg*800J
Kg θC-
26)+0.
09Kg*4200J
Kg K1*(
θc-
26)

9200-
92θc=126θc-
3120+378θc-
9828

596θc=22148

20C
θc=22148/596=33.

4.Acert
ainbl
ockishe
atedsucht
hati
tstemper
atur
ei sr
aisedfom150Ct
r o450C.
cal
cul
atet
hea
mountofhe
at
-
1
abs
orbedbythemetal
ifi
tshea
tcapac
ityi
s460JK{ 13,800J}

S
olut
ion

K-1*(
Q=C*Δθ=460J 45-
15)K=13,
800J
.

5.Inane x
pe r
imentt
odeterminethespeci
fi
che a
tcapac
ityofamet
al,
a20goft
hemet
alwast
rans
ferr
edfrom
boil
ingwa t
e rt
oal
aggedcoppercalor
imetercont
aini
ngcoldwa
ter.
Thewate
rwass
tir
reda
ndafinals
teady
temperaturewasr
eal
ized.Thef
ollowingdatawasrecor
ded:

-
ini
ti
alt
empe
rat
ureofc
oldwa
tera
ndc
alor
ime
ter=200C

-
tempe
rat
ureofboi
li
ngwa
ter=990C

-
fi
nal
tempe
rat
ureofwa
ter
,ca
lor
ime
tera
ndme
tal 70C
=23.

-
mas
sofc
oldwa
terpl
usc
alor
ime
ter=130g

-
mas
sofc
alor
ime
ter=50g

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Ta
kes
.h.
c.ofwa
ter
=4200J
Kg-
1K-
1,s
.h.
c.ofc
oppe
r=400J
Kg-
1K-
1.

Us
etheda
taa
bovet
ode
ter
mine
:

a
) Thehe
atg
aine
dbyt
hewa
tera
ndc
alor
ime
ter

Q=mc
Δθw +mc
Δθc=(
0.08*
4200*
3.7)+(
0.05*
400*
3.7)

=2741.
2J

b)Thes
pec
ifi
che
atc
apa
cit
yoft
heme
tal

0.
1*c
*71.
3=2741.
2
-
1 -
C=2741.
2/0.
1*71.
3=381.
46J
Kg K1

c
)St
atet
hepos
sibl
esour
cesofe
rrori
ntheva
lueoft
hes
.h.
cobt
aine
dint
hea
bovee
xpe
rime
nt.

- He
atl
ossa
stheme
tal
wasbe
ingt
rans
fer
redf
romt
heboi
li
ngwa
tert
othec
alor
ime
ter
.

- Er
rorwhe
nre
adi
ngt
het
her
mome
ter(
par
all
axe
rror
)

6.3kgofhotwat
erwasaddedt
o9kgofc
oldwate
rat20Candther
esul
ti
ngtemper
aturewas200C.
ig
nori
ng
-
1 -
heatl
ossbyt
hecont
ainer
,de
ter
minet
heini
ti
alte
mpe r
atur
eofhotwat
er.
Takes.
h.cofwat
er=4200J
Kg K1.

mc
Δθh=mc
Δθc

3*
(θ-
20)=9*
2

3θ=90+60=150

3=500C
θ=150/

El
ect
ric
alme
thod

a
)Spe
cif
iche
atc
apa
cit
yofas
oli
d

I
nthismethod,
twohol
esa
redr
ill
edinthesol
idtoacc
ommodat
etheheat
era
ndt
her
mome
ter
.Thes
oli
dishe
ate
d
e
lec
tric
all
yforagi
vent
ime.
Bel
owi sa
na rr
angementtha
tca
nbeused:
A

I
nthi
sme
thod,
thef
oll
owi
ngda
tai
sre
cor
ded:

- Ma
ssoft
heme
tal
(sol
id)

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- He
ate
rvol
tag
e,V

- He
ate
rcur
rent
,I

- Ti
me(
dur
ati
on)ofhe
ati
ng,
t

- I
nit
ial
tempe
rat
ureoft
hes
oli
d

- Fi
nal
tempe
rat
ureoft
hes
oli
d

Thee
lec
tri
cal
ene
rgyl
ostbyt
hehe
ate
risg
ive
nby;
E=VI
t

S
uppos
ethe
rei
snohe
atl
osst
othes
urr
oundi
ngs
,the
nthehe
atl
ostbyt
hehe
ate
requa
lhe
atg
aine
dthes
oli
d.

i
.
e.VI
t=mc
Δθ

He
ncec=VI
t/mΔθ

Not
e

He
atl
ossi
smi
nimi
zedbyl
agg
ingt
hec
alor
ime
tera
swe
lla
soi
li
ngt
hehol
es.

S
pec
ifi
che
atc
apa
cit
yofal
iqui
d

Thehe
atl
ostbyt
hehe
ate
requa
lthehe
atg
aine
dbyt
hel
iqui
dandt
hec
alor
ime
ter
.

VI
t=mc
Δθl+mc
Δθc

He
ncec
l=(
VIt–mc
Δθc)
/mΔθl

Ex
ampl
e7.
2

1. Animmers
ionhe
ate
rrated120W,240Visconnecte
dtoa240Vpowe
rsuppl
y.Howl
ongwi
lli
tta
ket
ohe
at1
om20Cto900C?Ta -
1 -
kgofwa
terfr kes.h.
cofwa t
er=4200J
Kg K1.

t
=mc
Δθ/
VI=mc
Δθ/
P

t
=(1*
4200*
80)
/120=2800s
econds
.

2. Aheat
errat
ed180W a
ndathermome
terwe
rei
nse
rte
dina0.
5kgofwa
teri
nac
oppe
rca
lor
ime
ter
.The
f
oll
owingr
esul
tswer
er e
cor
ded:

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0
Te
mpe
rat
ure
,T(C) 30 36 40 45 49 54 57

Ti
me,
t(
minut
es) 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

a
) Pl
otag
raphoft
empe
rat
urea
gai
nstt
ime

b)Us
etheg
rapht
ofi
nd:

- Ther
oomt
empe
rat
ure

- Thes
pec
ifi
che
atc
apa
cit
yofwa
ter
.

3. A180W heate
risimme r
sedinacoppe rcal
ori
me t
e rofmas s20gc ont
aini
ng200gofa l
cohol
.Whe
nthe
heat
erisswi
tchedon,af
ter36secondsthetemperatureofthec a
lorimeterandit
scontent
swasr
ais
edby
-1 -
120C.Fi
ndthespeci
fi
cheatcapa
cityofalc
ohol.Takethes.h.cofcopper=400JKg K1.

Pt
=mc
Δθa+mc
Δθc

Ca=(
pt-
mcΔθc)
/mΔθa=(
180*
36-
0.1*
400*
12)
/0.
2*12
-
1 -
=2500J
Kg K1

7.
3:CHANGEOFS
TATE

Whenic
eishe
ate
dsa
yfr 20Cunt
om- ili
tboi
ls
,itunde
rgoe
scha
nge
swhi
chc
anber
epr
ese
nte
dbyt
hehe
ati
ng
c
urvebel
ow:
0
Te
mp(C)

20 D E

0 B CTi
me,
t(s
)

-
2A

Bet
we e
nthepointsAB,i
cea bs
orbsheate
nergyandit
stempe ra
turer i
ses.
Be t
wee nBC,theiceabsor
bsitsl
ate
nt
hea
toffusi
onwhichitusestomelt
.Thisc
hangeofsta
teocc
ur satac onst
anttempe r
ature.BetweenCDwa t
er
abs
orbsheatener
gyasitstemperat
ureri
sesunt
ilboi
li
ngpoint.Asthewa terboi
lsatconstantte
mpe r
ature
,it
abs
orbsit
slat
entheatofvapori
zat
ion.

Whenthevapourc
ondensest
oliquid,i
tgi
vesouti
tsl
ate
nthe
atofva
por
iza
tion.
Simi
lar
ly,
whe
nal
iqui
dfr
eez
est
o
s
oli
d,i
tgive
soutit
sla
tentheatoffusi
on.

Not
e:

Late
ntheatoffus
ion-i
tist
hequa
nti
tyofhe
atne
ede
dtoc
onve
rtag
ive
nma
ssofas
oli
dtol
iqui
datc
ons
tant
te
mpe r
ature.

S
pec
ifi
cla
tenthe
atoff
usi
on-i
tist
hequa
nti
tyofhe
atne
ede
dtoc
onve
rtauni
tma
ssofas
oli
dtol
iqui
datc
ons
tant

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t
empe
rat
ure
.i.
e.l
f=Q/m

The
ref
oreQ=ml
f

-
1
TheS
Iuni
toft
hespec
ifi
clat
enthe
atoffusi
onist
hejoul
eperkil
ogram(JKg ).
Aunitmassofas
ubs
tanc
echa
ngi
ng
fr
omli
qui
dtosol
idwi
llgi
veoutheate
ne r
gyequi
val
enttoi
tsspeci
fi
cla
tentheatoff
usi
on.

7.
3.
1:De
ter
mina
tionofs
pec
ifi
cla
tenthe
atoff
usi
on.

The
rea
ret
wome
thodsus
ed:

Mi
xtur
eme
thod

Apieceofdr
yicei
sdroppedintoacalor
imete
rcontai
ningwate
rs l
ight
lyaboveroomtemperat
ure.
S t
irthemix
tur
e
unti
lallt
hei
cehasmelt
ed.Supposetherei
snoheatlos
stothesurroundi
ngs,t
hentheheate
ne r
gylostbythewat
er
andcalor
imet
erequa
lstheheatener
g ygai
nedbytheme l
ti
ngice

The
rmome
ter S
tir
rer

La
ggi
ngma
ter
ial Wa
ter

I
ce

I
ntheabovee
xpe
rime
nt,
thef
oll
owi
ngda
tai
sre
cor
dedf
orpur
pos
esofde
ter
mini
ngt
hes
pec
ifi
cla
tenthe
atof
f
usi
on:

-
Mas
soft
hedr
yic
e

-
mas
soft
hewa
teri
nthec
alor
ime
ter

-
mas
soft
hec
alor
ime
terpl
uss
tir
rer

-
Tempe
rat
urec
hang
eoft
hewa
ter

He
ncemc
Δθw +mc
Δθc=ml
f

Lf=(
mcΔθw +mc
Δθc)
/mi

Not
eDryicei
suse
dduetoit
slowmois
tur
econt
ent
.Thi
simpl
iest
hata
llt
hehe
ata
bsor
bedbyt
hei
cei
sus
edt
ome
lt
t
heiceandnotwar
mingt
hemoist
ure
.

El
ect
ric
alme
thod
A
The
rmome
ter V

He
ate
r

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Funne
l

I
ce

Wa
ter

P Q

Equalamountsofcrus
hedicear
eputsi
mul t
aneous
lyint
woidenti
calf
il
terfunnels.
Ahe a
teri
sthenimmers
edinthe
funneli
nsetupP.Placec
lea
ndr ybe
akersbel
owe ac
hfunne
l.Waitunt
ilareasonablea
mountofwa t
erhasc
oll
ect
ed
i
nt hebeake
rPt he
ns wit
chofft
heheat
erandremovethebeake
rs.Weighthebe a
kersandthe
ircont
ents
.

I
nthea
bovee
xpe
rime
nt,
thef
oll
owi
ngda
tai
scol
lec
ted:

- Ma
ssoft
hebe
ake
runde
rPbe
for
eex
per
ime
nt,
m1

- Ma
ssoft
hebe
ake
runde
rPa
fte
rthee
xpe
rime
nt,
m2

- Ma
ssofbe
ake
runde
rQbe
for
eex
per
ime
nt,
m3

- Ma
ssofbe
ake
runde
rQa
fte
rex
per
ime
nt,
m4

- He
ate
rvol
tag
e,V

- He
ate
rcur
rent
,I

- Dur
ati
onofhe
ati
ng,
t

Ca
lcul
ati
ons

Ma
ssofme
lte
dic
eins
etupP,
mp=m2-
m1

Ma
ssofme
lte
dic
eins
etupQ,
mq=m4-
m3

S
etupQiscal
ledt
hec ontr
ole
xperi
me nt
.Ithe
lpstodet
erminethemassofi
cethatme
lte
dasare
sul
toft
he
t
empera
tur
eoftheroomdur i
ngtheexper
iment.I
nordertoobt
a i
nthemassofic
emelt
edbyt
heheat
eronl
y,i
tis
i
mport
antt
osubtrac
tt hemas
sofme l
tedicei
nQf r
omthatme l
tedinP;

i
.
e.m=mp-
mq.

The
n,he
ate
ner
gys
uppl
iedbyt
hehe
ate
r=he
ate
ner
gya
bsor
bedbyt
heme
lti
ngi
ce.

VI
t=ml
f

He
ncel
f=VI
t/m

Thet
abl
ebe
lowg
ive
ssomec
ommons
oli
dsa
ndt
hei
rspe
cif
icl
ate
nthe
atsoff
usi
on:
25)J -
1
Ma
ter
ial s
.l
.hoff
usi
on(
* Kg

Coppe
r 1.
0

Al
umi
nium 3.
9

Wa
ter
(ic
e) 3.
34

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I
ron 5.
7

Wa
x 1.
8

Na
pht
hal
ene 1.
5

S
olde
r 0.
7

Le
ad 0.
026

Me
rcur
y 0.
013

Ex
ampl
e7.
3
0 0
1.Ablockoficeofmass40gat0Cispla
cedinacalori
me t
erconta
ining400gofwa te
rat20C.I
gnori
ngheat
absor
bedbyt hecal
orimet
er,
deter
minethef
inaltemperat
ureofthemixtur
ea ft
erall
thei
cehasmelt
ed.
-
1 -
K1a -1
Takes.
h.c
.ofwa t
er=4200J
Kg ndthes.
l.
h.offusi
onofice
=340, 000J
Kg .

He
atl
ostbyt
hehotwa
ter
=he
atg
aine
dbyme
lti
ngi
ce+he
atg
aine
dbyme
lte
dic
e

mc
Δθh=ml
f+mc
Δθm

0.
4*4200*
(20-
θ)=(
0.04*
340,
000)+(
0.04*
4200*
θ)

33600-
380θ=13600+38θ

1848θ=20000

Θ=20000/ 820C
1848=5.

2.3gofdr
yicewa saddedto20gofwa
terat260Cinabea
kerofnegl
igi
bleheatca
paci
ty.
Aftert
hei
cehadal
l
melt
ed,t
hetemperatureofwat
erwasfoundtobe12C.
Findthes
pecif
icla
tenthea
toffus
ionofi
ce.
Taket
he
-
1 -
s.
h.
cofwater=4200JKg K1.

0.
1*4200*
(26-
11)=(
0.03*
l)+(
f 0.03*
4200*
11)

6300=0.
03l
f+737.
2
-
1
Lf=5560.
8/0.
03=3.
4755*25J
Kg

3.Analuminiumt rayofma s
s400gc ont
aini
ng300gofwa t
eri
splacedi
nar ef
riger
ator.After80minute
s,t
he
tr
ayisremove dandi ti
sfoundthat60gofwa t
err emai
nsunfr
ozenat00C.I
ftheinit
ialtemperatur
eofthe
tr
aya nditsconte
ntswa s200C,
determinetheaverageamountofhea
tremove dpermi nutebythe
-1 -
ref
ri
ge r
ator.Takes.
h.cofalumi
nium=900J Kg K1,s.
h.
cofwater=4200JKg-
1K-1,s.
l.
h. offus
ionofic
e=
-1
3.
4*25JKg .

He
atl
ostbyt
ray=mc
Δθ=0.
4*900*
(20-
0)=7200J

He
atl
ostbywa
ter=mc
Δθ=0.
3*4200*
20=25,
200J

La
tenthe
atofi
ceg
ive
nout=ml
f=(
0.3-
0.06)
*340,
000=999,
600J

Tot
alhe
ate
ner
gya
bsor
bedbyt
her
efr
ige
rat
or=3600+25200+999600=114000J

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He
ncea
mountofhe
atr
emove
dpe
rmi
nut
e=114000J
/80mi
n=1425J
/mi
n

4.I
nane
xpe
rime
ntt
ode
ter
minet
hes
pec
ifi
cla
tenthe
atoff
usi
onofi
ce,
thef
oll
owi
ngs
etupwa
sus
ed:
He
ate
runc
onne
cte
d He
ate
rconne
cte
d

I
ce

Col
lec
tedwa
ter

A B

InAtheheat
erisunconnect
e da
ndwhe nt hei
ceismelt
ings
teadi
ly,
0.015kgofwate
ri scoll
ect
edin300s.
InBthe
heat
erisc
onnectedt
oapowe rsupplyr
ated50W. Whenwaterdr
ipsatasteadyr
ate,0.058kgofwat
eriscol
lec
ted
in300s
.Cal
cula
tethevaluefort
hes pec
ifi
clat
enthea
toffus
ionofic
e.

Q=Pt=ml
f

Lf=(
50*
300)
/(0.
058-
0.015)
-
1
=348,
833.
21J
Kg

La
tenthe
atofva
por
iza
tion

Thi
sist
hequa
nti
tyofhe
ate
ner
gyr
equi
redt
oconve
rtag
ive
nma
ssofal
iqui
dtog
asa
tcons
tantt
empe
rat
ure
.

S
pec
ifi
cla
tenthe
atofva
por
iza
tion

Thi
sist
hequa
nti
tyofhe
ate
ner
gyr
equi
redt
oconve
rtauni
tma
ssofal
iqui
dtog
asa
tcons
tantt
empe
rat
ure
.

Lv=Q/
m

The
ref
ore
,Q=ml
v

-1
TheS
Iuni
tofs
pec
ifi
cla
tenthe
atofva
por
iza
tioni
sthej
oul
epe
rki
log
ram(
JKg ).

7.
3.
2:De
ter
mina
tionoft
hes
pec
ifi
cla
tenthe
atofva
por
iza
tion

Ex
per
ime
nt

Ai
m:Tode
ter
minet
hes
pec
ifi
cla
tenthe
atofva
por
iza
tionofwa
terus
ingmi
xtur
eme
thod.

Appa
rat
us

- Ca
lor
ime
terwi
thas
tir
rer

- Wa
ter

- The
rmome
ter

- Fl
askwi
thade
live
ryt
ube

- He
ats
our
ce

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- We
ighi
ngma
chi
n

S
afe
tyt
ube

Fl
ask De
live
ryt
ube Wa
ter

He
at

The
rmome
ter S
tir
rer

Ca
lor
ime
ter wa
ter

Pr
oce
dur
e

1.S
etupt
hea
ppa
rat
usa
sshowna
bove
.

2.Fi
ndt
hema
ssoft
hec
alor
ime
terwhe
nempt
yandwhe
nfi
ll
edwi
thwa
tert
othel
eve
lshown.

3.Me
asur
eandr
ecor
dthei
nit
ial
tempe
rat
ureofwa
teri
nthec
alor
ime
ter
.

4.Hea
tthewate
rint
heflas
kunt
ili
tdel
ive
rsstea
mt hroug
hthede
live
ryt
ube
.Ens
uret
hatt
hef
reee
ndof
t
hedeli
ver
ytubei
sins
idewat
erint
hecalor
imete
r .

5.All
owstea
mt obubbl
eint
othewa
terwhi
les
tir
ringunt
ilt
het
empe
rat
ureofwa
terr
ise
sbya
bout200C
abovet
heroomtemperat
ure.

6.Re
movet
hede
live
ryt
ubef
romt
hec
alor
ime
tera
ndr
ecor
dthet
empe
rat
ureoft
hewa
ter
.

7.Deter
minet
henewma
ssoft
hec
alor
ime
tera
ndi
tsc
ont
ent
s.He
nce
,de
ter
minet
hema
ssoft
he
condens
eds
tea
m.

Not
e

S
tea
mfi
rstc
onde
nse
stowa
terwhi
cht
henc
ool
sdown,
los
inghe
ate
ner
gy.

There
for
e,heate
ner
gyl
ostbys
tea
mandt
hec
ool
ingwa
tere
qua
ltot
hehe
ate
ner
gyg
aine
dbyt
hewa
tera
nd
cal
ori
meter.

ml
v+mc
Δθh=mc
Δθw+mc
Δθc

Lv=(
mcΔθw+mc
Δθc-mc
Δθh)
/m

Iti
simport
antt
ofi
rstcoolthewaterint
hecal
orimete
rt oacert
ainval
uebe
lowt
heroomte
mpe r
atur
ea nd
the
npa s
sthest
eamthroughitunti
lthete
mpe r
atur
er is
esabovetheroomt
empe
rat
urebythes
ameva l
ue.
Thiswi
llhel
pmini
mizee r
rorsduetothehea
tlosst
ot hesurr
ounding
.

S
pec
ifi
cla
tenthe
atofva
por
iza
tionus
ingt
hee
lec
tri
cal
met
hod
A

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ICSLES
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Wa
rmwa
terout

Col
dwa
teri
n

He
ate
r

Conde
nse
dwa
ter

Theheati
ngproc
essi
sal
lowedtoconti
nueunti
last
eadyst
atewher
econdens
edwa te
rdripsoutatacons
tantr
ate
hasbeenachi
eve
d.Themassofwa
t e
rcoll
ect
edaft
erati
me,tisme
asure
d.Thefol
lowingdatai
scoll
ect
edinthi
s
exper
iment:

-He
ate
rcur
rent
,I

-He
ate
rvol
tag
e,V

-Ma
ssofe
mpt
ybe
ake
r

-Ma
ssofbe
ake
randc
oll
ect
edwa
ter

-Ti
met
ake
ntoc
oll
ectt
hec
onde
nse
dwa
ter

S
uppos
eal
lthehe
atg
ive
nbyt
hehe
ate
risus
edt
oconve
rtwa
tert
ost
eam,
the
n:

VI
t=ml
v

He
nce
,lv=VI
t/m

Thet
abl
ebe
lows
howss
omec
ommonl
iqui
dsa
ndt
hei
rspe
cif
icl
ate
nthe
atsofva
por
iza
tion;
Li
qui
d s
.l
.h.
ofva
por
iza
tion*25(
JKg
-1)

Wa
ter 3.
6

Al
cohol 6.
6

Et
hanol 6.
5

Pe
trol 5.
3

Be
nze
ne 1.
0

Et
her 3.
5

Tur
pent
ine 5.
7

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7.
4:Boi
li
nga
ndMe
lti
ng

Boi
li
nga
ndme
lti
ngpoi
ntsa
reg
ene
ral
lya
ffe
cte
dbyt
wof
act
ors
;impur
iti
esa
ndpr
ess
ure
.

Me
lti
ng

1.
Eff
ect
sofpr
ess
ureont
heme
lti
ngpoi
nt

I
ncr
easei
npres
surel
owe
rsthemel
ti
ngpoi
ntofamat
eria
l.Thi
scanbei
ll
ust
rat
edbys
uspe
ndi
ngt
wowe
ight
s
s
uppor
tedbyacoppe
rwi
reonthes
urfa
ceofa
nicebl
ockasshownbel
ow:
Coppe
rwi
re I
cebl
ock

We
ight
s Woode
nsuppor
t

Thewi r
eisseentoc utitswayt hr
oug htheblockofic
ebutl ea
ve sitasonepiec
e.Thesus
pendedwe ight
sma kethe
copperwiretoexertpr e
s s
ureont heicedirect
lyunderneat
hwhi c
hisma detome l
tatat
empe ra
turebelowits
me l
ti
ngpoint.Ast
hewi recutsthrough,thewa t
erfor
me dflowsove rthewireandimmediat
elysol
idi
fie
ssinceiti
s
nolongerunderpres sur
e .
Ast hewa t
ers ol
idi
fi
es,i
tgivesoutitsla
tentheatoff
usionwhi
chisconductedbythe
copperwiretomeltt heicebelowit.Thisconti
nuesuntilt
hec opperwi r
ecompletel
ycut
sthroughtheicel
eavingi
t
i
ntact.

Notetha
tcopperwir
ehasbee
nus edduet
oit
shighthe
rma
lconduc
tivi
ty.
Ifapoort
her
mal
conduc
torl
ikec
ott
on
st
ringwasused,i
twoul
dnotcutt
hrought
heicebl
ock.

Thepr
oce
ssbywhi
chwa
terr
efr
eez
esi
sre
fer
redt
oasr
ege
lat
ion.

Theeffe
ctsofhi
ghpress
ureontheme l
ti
ngpoi
ntareappl
ic
ablei
nic
eskati
nga ndjoi
ningtwopi
ecesofic
ebloc
ks
tog
ether.Thewei
ghtofthes
katerac
tsonthet
hinbla
desofthes
kat
esexer
tinghighpress
ureontheic
e.Theic
e
underneatht
husmelt
s,f
ormingathi
nfil
mofwa t
eroverwhicht
heska
tersl
ides.

Whentwoic
ec ube
sar
epres
sedhardaga
inste
ach,t
hehi
ghpre
ssur
ebe t
weenthemlower
stheme
ltingpointofthe
i
ceatt
hepointofc
ont
act
.Whenthepr
essi
ngforc
eiswit
hdr
awn,wate
rrecondens
esandt
hetwocubesarejoine
d
t
oge
ther.

5.Thepres
enceofi
mpuri
tie
sl owe
rsthemelt
ingpointofamater
ial
.Thisi
sther
easonbe
hinds
pre
adi
ngs
alton
roadsandpat
hsduri
ngwinterinc
oldreg
ions.Thi
swillpre
ventf
reezi
ngontheroa
ds.

Boi
li
ng

Ge
ner
all
y:

-
Thepr
ese
nceofi
mpur
iti
esi
nal
iqui
dra
ise
stheboi
li
ngpoi
ntoft
hel
iqui
d.

-
Ani
ncr
eas
einpr
ess
urer
ais
est
heboi
li
ngpoi
ntoft
hel
iqui
d.

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Thee
ffe
ctsofpr
ess
ureonboi
li
ngpoi
ntma
ybei
ll
ust
rat
edbyt
hes
etupsbe
low:

Ef
fec
tsofi
ncr
eas
edpr
ess
ureonboi
li
ngpoi
nt
The
rmome
ter

Rubbe
rtube

S
tea
m

Boi
li
ngwa
ter Roundbot
tome
dfl
ask

He
at

Thehe a
tingisdoneunt i
lwat
erstart
st oboil
.Thetemperat
ureatwhic
hwa te
rboil
sisnoted.
Whe ntherubbertube
i
s s
uingsteamissque e
z e
dmome ntari
ly,therea
dingonthethermometeri
sobse
rvedtoris
ea ndboi
lingreduce
s.
Notethatcl
osingthetuberai
sestheva pourpress
urewit
hinthefl
ask.
Thismakesi
tdif
fic
ultfort
hemol e
culesfr
om
thesurf
aceoftheliquidtoe
scape,r
aisingtheboil
ingpoi
ntofthel
iqui
d.

Theeff
ectofhi
ghpres
sureonboi
li
ngpointi
sappl
iedinapre
ssurec
ooker.He
ret
hepr
ess
urei
sra
ise
dwhi
chr
ais
es
theboi
li
ngpointofwat
erhenc
ethefoodisc
ookedatahig
hertemper
atur
e.

Ef
fec
tsofr
educ
edpr
ess
ureonboi
li
ngpoi
nt
Col
dwa
ter

Fl
ask

Wa
ter

The
rmome
ter

Cl
ip

Wa t
erisf
irs
theatedt
oboili
ng.Thefl
askist
henturnedupsi
dedowna ndcoldwat
erpoure
doverit
.Itwouldbe
obser
vedthatwhenheati
ngstops,
boil
ingal
sostops.
Whe ncol
dwaterispoure
doverthef
las
k,t
hewa te
rinsi
dethe
fl
askbegi
nsboil
ingaga
inalt
houghitstemper
aturei
sbelowtheboi
li
ngpoint.

Thec
oldwa
terc
onde
nse
sthes
tea
mre
duc
ingva
pourpr
ess
urei
nsi
dei
nthef
las
k.He
nceade
cre
asei
npr
ess
ure
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l
owe
rst
heboi
li
ngpoi
ntofal
iqui
d.

7.
5:Boi
li
nga
ndEva
por
ati
on

Whenali
quidi
she ate
d,t
hemolecul
escl
oset
othesurf
acema yg
ains uf
fic
ientki
net
icene
rgytobreakawayf
rom
t
hefor
cesofat
trac
tionbet
weenthenei
ghbor
ingmolec
ulesandesc
ape .
Thi si
scal
lede
vapora
tion.
Evapor
ati
on
t
ake
splaceatanytemper
atur
e,e
ve nbe
lowtheboi
li
ngpointoft
heliquid.

Fa
ctor
saf
fec
tingr
ateofe
vapor
ati
on

a
)Te
mpe
rat
ure

I
ncr
eas
eint
empe
rat
ureoft
hel
iqui
denha
nce
seva
por
ati
on.
Thi
siswhyc
lot
hesdr
yfa
ste
ronahotda
y.

b)S
urf
acea
rea

Whenthes
urfacea
reai
sinc
r e
ased,
themole
cul
esoftheli
qui
dha
veg
rea
terc
hanc
eofe
sca
ping
.He
nceawe
tcl
oth
woul
ddryfas
terwheni
tissprea
douttha
nwhenitisfol
ded.

c
)Humi
dit
y

Whe
ntherei
shi
gha
mountofwate
rvapouri
ntheat
mos
phe
re,
itbe
come
sdi
ff
icul
tfort
hemol
ecul
est
oes
cape
.Thi
s
i
swhycl
othe
sta
kel
ong
ertodryonahumidday.

d)Dr
aug
ht/
movi
ngwi
nd

Movi
ngaira
bovet
hes
urf
aceoft
hel
iqui
dswe
epsa
wayt
hee
sca
pingmol
ecul
es.
Thuse
vapor
ati
oni
senha
nce
dby
t
hepass
ingair
.

DI
FFERENCESBETWEENBOI
LINGANDEVAPORATI
ON
Eva
por
ati
on Boi
li
ng

Oc
cur
sata
llt
empe
rat
ure
s Oc
cur
sataf
ixe
dte
mpe
rat
ure

Oc
cur
satt
hes
urf
aceoft
hel
iqui
d Ta
kespl
acet
hroug
houtt
hel
iqui
d

Nobubbl
esa
ref
orme
d Bubbl
esa
ref
orme
dint
hel
iqui
d

Decre
aseinat
mos
phe
ricpr
ess
urei
ncr
eas
est
her
ateof Decr
easeinatmosphe
ricpr
ess
urel
owe
rst
heboi
li
ng
eva
porati
on poi
ntofthel
iqui
d

Eva
porat
ionhasacooli
ngef
fectwhi
chi
sappl
iedi
nswe
ati
ngi
nhuma
nbe
ing
sanda
nima
ls,
cool
ingofwa
teri
n
por
ouspotsandt
her e
fri
ger
ator.

Whe nwa t
ere va
por
ates
,itabs
or bsthela
tentheatf
romthebodycausingacooli
ngeff
ect
.Dif
ferentani
ma l
shave
dif
fere
ntwa ysbywhic
ht he
yc oolthei
rbodies.
Forins
tanc
e,dogse
x posethei
rtongue
swhe niti
shotwhi l
ethe
muz z
leofac owbec
ome smorewe twhe niti
shot.Bot
hthesear
etoinc r
easet
her a
teofeva
por a
tionther
eby
cool
ingthebody.

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Apor
ouspothast
inyhol
eswhi
cha
llowwa
tert
ose
epouts
lowl
y.Ast
hewa
tere
vapor
ate
s,i
tabs
orbst
hel
ate
nthe
at
ca
usi
ngacool
ingef
fec
t.

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TOPI
C8.
:REFRACTI
ONOFLI
GHT

8.
1:I
ntr
oduc
tion

Ref
ract
ionrefer
stothebendingofli
ghtwhenitpa
sse
sfr
omoneme di
umintoanot
herofdi
ff
erentopt
ica
ldens
ity.
Thi
sisbecauseasl
ightpass
esthroughdif
fer
entmedi
ait
sve
loc
ityc
hange
s.Thebendi
ngoccursatt
heboundar
yor
i
nter
faceofthetwome di
a.

0
I
nci
dentr
ay i a
ir

0 Gl
assbl
ock
r r
efr
act
edr
ay

Ther e
fractedrayma ybe nda wayort owa r
dst henorma ldependingont heopti
caldensi
tyoft
hes ec
ondme dium
withrespecttothefir
stme dium.Ge nerall
y,ar aypass
ingfroma nopti
call
ydenserme di
umi nt
oal es
sopt i
call
y
dense(rare
r )me di
umi sbenta wayf r
omt henor ma la
fterrefra
c t
ion.
Iftheraypassesfr
omar are
rme diumintoan
opti
cal
lyde nserme di
umt heni ti
sbe nttowar dsthenor mal.
Itiseasi
ertotellwhic
hme diumisoptic
allydenserby
si
mplyc ompa ri
ngthea nglebetwee ntheincidentraya ndthenor malandthatbetweentheref
racte
dr ayandt he
normal.Theme diumwi thas ma l
lerangle(ofincidenceorrefracti
on)istheopti
call
ydensermedium.

(
a) 0
i M1(
opt
ica
llyde
nse
r)

M2(
rar
erme
dium)
0
r

(
b) 0
r M3(
rar
erme
dium)

M4(
opt
ica
llyde
nse
rme
dium)
0
i

However
,whenther
aystr
ikest
heinte
rfa
ceperpe
ndi
cul
arl
y(nor
mal
ly)i
tpa
sse
sunde
via
ted(
wit
houtbe
ndi
ng)
.
Thi
sisbeca
uset
heangl
eofinci
dencei
szero.

Infi
gur
e( b)above,
onl
ythedir
ect
ionoftheli
ghthasbeenrever
sedle
avingtheangl
esthesame.However
,inow
becomerwhilerbecomesi
.Theprinc
ipl
ethatma ke
sitposs
ibl
etoreverset
hedire
ctionofl
ightkee
pingt
hesiz
esof
theang
lestheraysmakewit
hthenormal t
hesameiscal
ledthepri
nci
pleofreve
rsi
bil
ityofl
ight.
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Thes
tudyofr
efr
act
ionofl
ighthe
lpsusunde
rst
andt
hef
oll
owi
ngc
ommonphe
nome
na:

- Whyas
tic
kappe
arsbe
ntwhe
npa
rtofi
tisi
nwa
ter
.

- Whyac
oina
ttheba
seofabe
ake
rofwa
tera
ppe
arsne
are
rthes
urf
acet
hani
tac
tua
llyi
s.

- Whyt
hes
tar
stwi
nkl
e.

- Whyt
hes
unc
ans
til
lbes
eens
ome
time
sbe
for
eitr
ise
sore
vena
fte
rse
tti
ng.

- Whyt
hes
umme
rskya
ppe
arsbl
ue.

- Thef
orma
tionoft
her
ainbow.

8.
2:Re
fra
cti
oni
ngl
ass

Thi
sca
nbei
nve
sti
gat
edbyt
hef
oll
owi
ngs
teps
:
P1
0
P2i O

0
r

O’
0
eP3

P4

- Fixawhit
eplai
npape
ronasoftboardus
ingdr
awi
ngpi
ns.
Pla
cet
heg
las
sbl
ockwi
thi
tsl
arg
ers
urf
aceon
thepl
ainpape
randtr
acei
tsoutl
ine
.

- Re
movet
hegla
ssbloc
kandthendra
wanor
mal
thr
oug
hpoi
ntO.
Dra
wal
inema
kinga
nang
les
a =300
yi
wi
tht
henor
ma la
sshownabove.

- Repl
acetheg
lassbloc
kont
otheout
li
nea
nds
tic
ktwopi
nsP1a
ndP2a
longt
hel
ines
ucht
hatt
heya
re
upri
ghta
nda bout6cmapa
rt.

- Fromtheopposit
esideofthebloc
k,vi
ewthetwopinsa
ndsti
ckt
wopinsP3andP4suchthatt
hefourpi
ns
appearonastr
aightli
ne.
Jointheposi
ti
onsofP3a
ndP4usi
ngast
rai
ghtl
inea
ndpr oducethel
inet
ome ett
he
outl
ineatO’
.

- Dr
awa
not
hernor
mal
atO’
andt
henj
oinOt
oO’
.Me
asur
eang
lesra
nde
.

- Re
pea
tthea
boves
tepsf
orot
herva
lue =400,
sofi 500a
nd600.
Compl
etet
het
abl
ebe
low:
0
Ang
leofi
nci
denc
e,i 300 400 500 600
0
Ang
leofi
nci
denc
e,r

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0
e

S
ini

S
inr

S
ini
/Si
nr

- Pl
otag
raphofS
ini
aga
ins
tSi
nr.
det
ermi
net
hes
lopeofyourg
raph.

Obs
erva
tions

 Ther
ati
oofS
ini
toS
inri
sac
ons
tant
.

 Theg
raphofS
ini
aga
ins
tSi
nri
sas
tra
ightl
inet
hroug
htheor
igi
n.

 Thes
lopeoft
heg
raphi
sequa
ltot
her
ati
oofS
ini
toS
inri
nthet
abl
e.

s
ini

s
inr

8.
3:Thel
awsofr
efr
act
iona
ndr
efr
act
ivei
nde
x

The
rea
ret
wol
awsofr
efr
act
ion:

1.
Thei
nci
dentr
ay,
ref
rac
tedr
aya
ndt
henor
mal
att
hepoi
ntofi
nci
denc
eal
lli
eint
hes
amepl
ane
.

8.
Snel
l’
slaw:
itst
ate
stha
tther
ati
oofs
ineofa
ngl
eofi
nci
denc
etot
hes
ineofa
ngl
eofr
efr
act
ioni
sac
ons
tantf
ora
gi
venpai
rofmedi
a.

i
.
e.S
ini
/Si
nr=ac
ons
tant
.

Theconst
anti
srefer
redtoasthere
fra
ctivei
ndex,
ηoft
hes ec
ondmediumwithr
espe
ctt
othefi
rstmedi
um.
The
fi
rstmedi
umisthatmediuminwhichtheinc
ide
ntrayi
sfoundwhi
lethese
condmedi
umistha
tme di
umwheret
he
ref
ract
edrayi
sfound.I
tisdenot
edas1η8.

Henc
ein8.2above,t
herati
oSi
ni/
Sinri
sther
efr
act
ivei
nde
xofg
las
swi
thr
espe
ctt
othea
irs
inc
ethel
ightpa
sse
d
f
roma i
rint
oglassbl
ock.

However,
whenli
ghtpas
sesf
romva c
uumi nt
oanot
hermedi
um,iti
sref
err
edtoasa
bsol
uter
efr
act
ivei
nde
x.
Ther
efor
efora
bsolut
eref
rac
tivei
ndex,
theangl
eofi
nci
denc
eii
sfoundinava
cuum.

i
.
e.a
bsol
uter
efr
act
ivei
nde
x=s
ini
(i
nva
cuum)
/si
nr(
int
hes
econdme
dium)
.

Re
cal
l:

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1η2=s
ini
/si
nr

Bythepr
inci
pleofr
eve
rsi
bil
it
yofl
ight
,rnowbe
come
sia
ndi
bec
ome
sri
.
e.t
hei
nci
dentr
ayi
snowf
oundi
nthe
se
condme di
um.

He
nce2η1=s
inr
/si
ni

Buts
inr
/si
ni=1/
(si
ni/
sinr
)=1/
1η2

The
ref
ore2η1=1/
1η8.

Thet
abl
ebe
lows
howss
omema
ter
ial
sandt
hei
rre
fra
cti
vei
ndi
ces
:
Ma
ter
ial Re
fra
cti
vei
nde
x

I
ce 1.
31

Cr
owng
las
s 1.
50

Wa
ter 1.
33

Al
cohol 1.
36

Ke
ros
ene 1.
44

Di
amond 8.
42

Not
ethatt
her
e f
rac
tivei
ndi
cesg
ive
nint
hea
bovet
abl
ear
ewi
thr
espe
ctt
oai
ri.
e.whe
nli
ghtt
rave
lsf
roma
iri
nto
t
hevari
ousmedi
a.

Ex
ampl
e8.
1

1. I
nthef
igur
ebe
low,
cal
cul
atet
hea
ngl
eofr
efr
act
ionrg
ive
ntha
tther
efr
act
ivei
nde
xoft
heg
las
sis1.
50.

Gl
assbl
ock

300
0
r

Byt
hepr
inc
ipl
eofr
eve
rsi
bil
it
yofl
ight
;

s
inr
/sn300=1.
i 50

s
inr
=1.
50*
sin300

r
=si
n-1(
1.50*
sin300) 60.
=48.

2.Ar
ayofl
ighti
sinc
ide
ntonaf
latg
las
ssur
fac
eass
hownbe
low:

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550

Gl
ass

Gi
vent
hatt
her
efr
act
ivei
nde
xofg
las
sis1.
50,
det
ermi
net
hea
ngl
eofr
efr
act
ionf
ort
her
ayofl
ight
.

1.
50=s
in350/
sinr

S
inr
=sn350/
i 1.50

r
=si
n-1(
sin350/
1.50) 480
=3.

8.
3.
1:Re
fra
cti
ont
hroug
hsuc
ces
siveme
dia

Cons
ide
rar
ayofl
ightpa
ssi
ngt
hroug
has
eri
esofme
diaa
sshownbe
low:

i Ai
r

r
1

M1
r
1

M2
r
2

r
2
i Ai
r

S
uppos
ethebounda
rie
sar
epa
ral
lel
,the
n:

η1=s
a ini
/si
nr1……………………………….
(i)

1η2=s
inr
1/s
inr
2……………………………(
ii
)

2η=s
a i
nr2/
sini
………………………………(
ii
i)

Byt
hepr
inc
ipl
eofr
eve
rsi
bil
it
yofl
ight
;

η2=s
a ini
/si
nr2…………………………….
(iv)

Al
so,
mul
ti
plyi
nge
qua
tions(
i)a
nd(
ii
),weg
et:

η1*
a 1η2=s
ini
/si
nr1*si
nr1/
sinr
2=s
ini
/si
nr8.

Thusaη2=aη1*
1η8.

Ge
ner
all
y,1ηk=1η2*
2η3*
………….
*k-1ηk.

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Ex
ampl
e8.
2

1.Arayofl
ightf
romai
rpass
essuc
cessi
vel
ythroughpara
lle
lla
yersofwa t
er,
oil
,gl
assandt
henint
oai
raga
in.I
fthe
re
fra
ctivei
ndice
sofwa
ter
,oila
ndgla
ssare4/3,6/
5a nd3/2respec
tive
lyandtheangl
eofi
nci
dencei
nai
ris600.

a
)Dr
awadi
agr
amt
oshowhowt
her
aypa
sse
sthr
oug
hthemul
ti
plel
aye
rs.

600 Ai
r

p wat
er

q
Oi
l

r Gl
ass

Ai
r 600

a
]Ca
lcul
ate
:

i
)Thea
ngl
eofr
efr
act
ioni
nwa
ter
.

4/
3=s
in600/
sinr

r
=si
n-1(
3sn600/
i 4) 50
=40.

i
i)Thea
ngl
eofi
nci
denc
eatt
heoi
l-
gla
ssi
nte
rfa
ce.

oη=s
g i
nq/
sinr

Byt
hepr
inc
ipl
eofr
eve
rsi
bil
it
yofl
ight
,aηg=s
in600/
sinr=3/
2

r
=si
n-1(
2sn600/
i 270.
3)=38.

Al
so,
oη=oηa*aηg=5/
g 4

The
ref
ore
,5/
4=s
inq/
si 270
n38.

q=s
in-
1(5s
in38.
270/
4) 40
=48.

8.
4:Re
fra
cti
vei
nde
xint
ermsofr
eal
anda
ppa
rentde
pth

Thisi
sonthebas
ist
hatwhenanobj
ectatthebaseofacont
ainerf
il
ledwit
hwa
teri
svi
ewe
dpe
rpe
ndi
cul
arl
yit
appear
scl
osert
othesur
fac
ethani
tactual
lyis
.Consi
derthefi
gurebelow:

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0
E C rD

Wa
ter

Fr
omt
hef
igur
e,wη=s
a i
ni/
sinr
.

The
ref
ore
,aηw=s
inr
/si
ni.

S
inc
ethea
ngl
esi
andra
reve
rys
mal
l,
sini
=ta
nia
nds
inr
=ta
nr.

The
ref
ore
,byt
hepr
inc
ipl
eofr
eve
rsi
bil
it
yofl
ight
,aηw=s
inr
/si
ni=t
anr
/ta
ni=(
CD/
BC)
/(CD/
AC)

Thusaηw=AC/
BC‬,
whe
reAC-r
eal
dept
handBC-a
ppa
rentde
pth.

He
nce
,re
fra
cti
vei
nde
xofwa
ter
=Re
alde
pth/
Appa
rentde
pth.

Whenagra
phofre
aldept
hagai
nstappa
rentdepthi
spl
ott
ed,t
heg
r a
phobtai
nedisas
tra
ightl
inet
hroug
hthe
or
igi
nandwhos
egradi
enti
sequalt
otheref
rac
tivei
nde
xofthemediumi
nvolve
d.

Ex
ampl
e8.
3

1.
Inatr
ans
parentli
qui
dconta
ine
r,anairbubbl
eappea
rstobe12cmwhenviewe
dfromonesi
dea
nd18c
mwhe
n
vi
ewedf
romtheothers
ide.
Ift
helengt
hofthetanki
s40cm,whereex
act
lyi
stheai
rbubbl
e?
40c
m.

Tr
ans
par
entl
iqui
d
x 10-
x

12c
m 18c
m

Re
fra
cti
vei
nde
xofg
las
s=(
12+x
)/12=(
18+2-
x)/
18

x
=20/
5=4c
m.

The
ref
ore
,thebubbl
eis3c
mint
hel
iqui
dfr
omt
hel
eft
-ha
nds
ide
.

8.Ami c
roscopeisfoc
usedonamarkonahor
izont
alsurf
ace.
Ar e
cta
ngul
argla
ssbl
ock30mmthic
kispl
acedonthe
ma r
k.Themi crosc
opeist
henadj
ust
ed2mmupwa rdstobri
ngthemarkbac
ktofoc
us.Det
ermi
nether
efr
acti
ve
indexofthegla
s s
.

ηg=r
a eal
dept
h/a
ppa
rentde
pth=30mm/
20mm

=1.
50

8.
5:Re
fra
cti
vei
nde
xint
ermsofve
loc
ityofl
ight

Re
fra
cti
onoccur
sasares
ultofthedi
ffe
rentl
ightvel
oci
tyindif
fere
ntme
dia.
Basi
cal
ly,
ref
rac
tivei
nde
xofany
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me
diumi
sther
ati
ooft
heve
loc
ityofl
ighti
nava
cuumora
irt
otheve
loc
ityofl
ighti
ntha
tme
dium;

ηm=ve
loc
ityofl
ighti
nva
cuum/
vel
oci
tyofl
ighti
ntheme
dium.

Not
etha
ttheve
loc
ityofl
ighti
nava
cuumi
s3.
0*28m/
s.

Ge
ner
all
y,1η2=ve
loc
ityofl
ighti
nme
dium1/
vel
oci
tyofl
ighti
nme
dium8.

Ex
ampl
e8.
4

1.
Theve
loc
ityofl
ighti
ngl
assi
s8.
0*28m/
s.Ca
lcul
ate
:

a
)Ther
efr
act
ivei
nde
xofg
las
s.

ηg=ve
loc
ityofl
ighti
nva
cuum/
vel
oci
tyofl
ighti
ngl
ass
=(3.
0*28)
/(8.
0*28)=1.
50

b)Thea
ngl
eofr
efr
act
ioni
ngl
assf
orar
ayofl
ighti
nci
denta
tthea
ir-
gla
ssi
nte
rfa
cea
tana
ngl
eofi
nci
de eof400.
nc

S
in400/
sinr=1.
50

r
=si
n-1(
sin40/
1.50) 40.
=10.

8.
Cal
cul
atet
hes
pee
dofl
ighti
ndi
amondofr
efr
act
ivei
nde
x8.
1.

ηd=ve
loc
ityofl
ighti
nva
cuum/
vel
oci
tyofl
ighti
ndi
amond

8.
4=(
3. 28)
0* /Vd

Vd=(
3. 28)
0* /8.
4=1. 28m/
25* s.

3.
Thespe
edofl
ighti
nme di
um1is8.
0*28m/
sandi
nme
dium2i
s1.
5*28m/
s.Ca
lcul
atet
her
efr
act
ivei
nde
xof
medi
um2withr
es pe
ctt
ome di
um1.

1η2=V1/
V2=(
8. 28m/
0* s)/(
1. 28m/
5* s)

=1.
33

8.
6:Tot
ali
nte
rna
lre
fle
cti
on,
cri
ti
cal
ang
lea
ndr
efr
act
ivei
nde
x

Astheangleofi
nci
denceint
hedenserme di
umincr
easest
heangl
eofr ef
ract
ionalsoi
ncre
ase
s.Ift
hisconti
nues
unt
iltheangl
eofrefr
acti
onrea
ches900,
theang
leofinc
ide
nceiscal
ledthecrit
ica
langl
eC.Acri
tic
alanglei
sdefi
ned
ast
hea ng
leofinci
denceint
hedensermediumforwhic
htheangl
eofr e
frac
tionis900i
nthel
essdenseme di
um.
Ai
r

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Byt
hepr
inc
ipl
eoft
her
eve
rsi
bil
it
yofl
ight
,

ηg=s
a in900/
sinC=1/
sinC.

I
ftheangl
eofi
nci
denceexc
eedst
hec
rit
ica
lang
le,
thel
ightunde
rgoe
stot
ali
nte
rna
lre
fle
cti
on.
Thi
sre
fle
cti
onobe
ys
a
llthel
awsofr
efl
ect
ion.

Fort
ota
lint
erna
lre
fle
cti
ont
ooc
cur
,twoc
ondi
ti
onsmus
tbes
ati
sfi
ed,
name
ly:

 Li
ghtmus
tpa
ssf
roma
nopt
ica
llyde
nse
rme
diumt
oal
essopt
ica
llyde
nseme
dium.

 Thea
ngl
eofi
nci
denc
eint
hede
nse
rme
diummus
tbeg
rea
tert
hant
hec
rit
ica
lang
le.

Ex
ampl
e8.
5

1.
Cal
cul
atet
hec
rit
ica
lang
lef
org
las
swhos
ere
fra
cti
vei
nde
xis1.
50.

1.
50=1/
sinC.

C=s
in-
1(1/
1.50)=

8.
Thef
igur
ebe
lows
howst
hepa
thofar
ayl
ightpa
ssi
ngt
hroug
har
ect
ang
ula
rbl
ockofPe
rspe
xpl
ace
dina
ir.

50
42.

Per
spex

a
)Ca
lcul
atet
her
efr
act
ivei
nde
xofPe
rspe
x.

ηp=1/
a si 50=1.
n48. 48

b)Ar
ayofl
ightnowt
rave
lsf
romat
rans
par
entme
diumofr
efr
act
ivei
nde
x8.
4int
othePe
rspe
xass
hownbe
low:
Tr
ans
par
entma
ter
ial

Ca
lcul
atet
hec
rit
ica
lang
leC.
per
spex
pηm=s
inC/
sin900=pηa*
aηm=(
1/ηp)
a *aηm

=1/
8.4*
1.48=1.
48/
8.4

C=s
in-
1(1.
48s
in900/
8. 070.
4)=38.

8.
8.
1:Ef
fec
tsoft
ota
lint
erna
lre
fle
cti
on

 Mi
rag
e

Onahotday,
theai
rabovethegr
oundi satahig
he rtempera
turethanthelayersabovei
t.Thusthedensit
yofai
r
i
ncreas
eswit
hheig
htabovetheground.Dens
era i
risopti
cal
lydenserthanlig
hterone.Hence,arayofli
ghtf
romthe
sununder
goesc
onti
nuousref
rac
tionatthebounda r
iesbe
twe e
na nytwolayersofairwit
hdiff
e r
enttempera
tur
es.
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I
neachcase
,theraybendsa
wayfr
omthenormal
until
thec
rit
ica
lang
leisac
hieved.Therea
fte
r,t
herayunderg
oes
t
ota
lint
ernalre
fle
cti
on.Ani
nve
rte
dimagei
nthefor
mofapoolofwateri
sobse
r ved.Thi
sphenomenonisre
ferr
ed
t
oasmirage.

Gene
ral
ly,
mi r
ag eocc
ursasare
sultofconti
nuousandprogres
siver
efr
acti
onattheai
rbounda
riesandt
ota
l
i
nter
nalre
fle
ction.Mir
ageal
soocc
ur si
nc ol
dregionsbutt
histi
metherayofl
ightcur
vesupwards
.

 At
mos
phe
ricr
efr
act
ion

Thesuniss
ome t
imessee
nbefor
eitac
tual
lyris
esoraf
terithasse
t.Thisi
sbecaus
ethel
ightf
romt
hes
uni
s
ref
rac
tedbytheatmos
pheret
owa r
dsthee
a r
th.(Re
cal
l:t
hee a
rthisspher
ica
l).

8.
8.
2:Appl
ic
ati
onsoft
ota
lint
erna
lre
fle
cti
on

a
) Apr
ismpe
ris
cope

Itmake
sus
eoftwori
ght-
angl
edisos
cel
espri
sms
.Thel
ightf
romt
heobj
ecti
sinve
rte
dthr h900byt
oug hef
ir
st
pri
smandafur
t r900byt
he hese
condpris
m.

Thi
spe
ris
copepr
oducesbr
ighte
rimagesc
omparedt
othoseofthes
impleper
isc
opeinwhic
hapl
anei
sused.
The
i
magef
ormediser
ecta
ndvirtual
.Apr
ismper
isc
opehasthefol
lowi
ngadvant
agesovert
hesi
mpl
eper
isc
ope:

 Formsbrig
htera
ndc l
eare
rimages
.As
impl
epe
ris
copepr
oduc
esma
nyf
ainti
mag
esbe
side
sthema
ini
mag
e
espec
ial
lyift
hemir
roristhi
ck.

 Doe
snota
bsor
bthee
ner
gyoft
hel
ight
.Pl
anemi
rror
sabs
orbs
omel
ighti
nci
dentont
hem.

 Hasat
oug
hst
ruc
tur
eandt
husdoe
snote
asi
lywe
ar.
Thepa
int
ingont
hepl
anemi
rrorc
anwe
aroutwi
th
t
ime.

b)Apr
ismbi
noc
ula
rs
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Thisdevi
ceisus
edt
ore
duc et
hedis
tanc
ebe
twe
ent
hee
yepi
ecea
ndt
heobj
ect
ivet
her
ebyr
educ
ingt
hel
eng
thoft
he
te
lescope
.Itf
ormsa
nerec
timage
.
Obj
ect
ivel
ens
es

Eye
pie
cel
ens
es

c
) Opt
ica
lfi
bre

Iti
sat hi
nf l
exibleg l
assrodmadeupoft wopart
s;theinnerpartmadeofg l
assofhi
gherref
ract
iveindexa
ndthe
outerglas
sc oatingoflowerref
ract
ivei
ndex.Whe narayoflig
hte nt
e r
sthefi
breatanangl
eg r
eatertha
nthecri
ti
cal
angl
e ,
itunde r
g oe saser
iesoft
ota
linte
rnalre
fle
ctionbeforei
tfinal
lyemergesfr
omt heot
herend.Noneofthel
ight
energyislosti
nt heproces
s.

Opti
calfi
bre
sa reusedi
nme di
ci
neforvi
ewi
ngint
ernalbodyorga
ns(t
hee
ndosc
ope)aswel
lasi
n
te
lecommunicati
on.Theya
repref
erredt
oordi
nar
yc a
blesbeca
usethe
yar
eli
ghtandt
hina
nddonotc
aus
e
scat
ter
ingofthesig
nals
.

8.7:Dispersi
onoflight
Whi teli
ghtfromthes unisma deupofs evenc olour s
.The ya l
ltravelwit
hthes ameveloci
tyinvacuumbuttheir
velocit
iesvaryinothertranspar
entme dialikeglassa ndwa ter.Hencewhenar ayofwhi t
elig
httravel
sfr
oma
vacuumi ntoag l
asspr i
sm,itiss
eparatedintoi t
sc ompone ntcoloursrangi
ngf r
omr ed,ora
nge,yell
ow,gr
een,blue,
indigotoviolet
.Thes prea
dingoutoflightintoitsc onst
itue ntcolour
sbya nothermediumi scal
leddis
pers
ion.
Pur eli
ghtiscal
ledmonoc hroma t
icl
ightwhi leani mpur elightlikewhiteli
ghtisref
erredtoasnon-monochroma t
ic
orc ompositeli
ght.
Di sper
sionofli
ghtisill
ustratedbyt hedi a
gra mbelow:
Gl
asspr
ism

Whi
tel
ight R

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Redisl
eastdevi
atedwhilevi
ole
tist
hemostdevi
ate
dr ay.
He nc
er e
dlighthasthegr
eat
estvel
oci
tyandvi
ole
tthe
l
eastvel
oci
tyinglass
.Thecol
ouredbandpr
oducedisca
lle
davi s
iblespect
rum.Thespect
rumproduce
daboveis
i
mpur e
.Inordertoobta
inapurespect
rumwhereeachcolouri
sdisti
nct,
ana c
hromati
clensi
spla
cedbet
we ent
he
sc
reenandtheprism.

Whent
heseve
ns e
venc
olour
sar
ere
combi
ned,
awhi
tel
ighti
sobt
aine
d.Thi
sca
nbea
chi
eve
dbyus
ingas
imi
larbut
ani
nve
rte
dprism.
Whi
tel
ight

Whi
tel
ight V

8.
8:Ther
ainbow

Whenarayofl
ightpass
esthroug
hawa t
erdrop,
arainbowisproduc
ed.Thewat
erdi
spers
estheli
ghtint
oits
c
onst
it
uentcol
ours.Eac
hcolourthe
nunder
goestot
alinte
rnal
refl
ect
ionwit
hint
hedropbef
oreiteve
ntuall
y
eme
rgesi
ntoairagai
n.

Whi
tel
ight

V R

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TOPI
C9.:WAVES
9.
1:I
ntr
oduct
ion

9.
2:Pr
ope
rti
esofwa
ves
(for
mthr
ee)

Wa veprope rt
iesr
e f
ertot hebe haviourofwa vesundercert
a i
nc ondit
ions.The yincl
udere f
lec
tion,refr
act
ion,
diff
racti
ona ndint
e r
ferencea mongot hers.Theyc a
nbei nvesti
gatedusingar ippletankwhichcons is
tsofa
transparenttr
aycontainingwa ter,alampf orill
uminati
on,awhi tescreenunde r
neathanda nelectri
cmotor(a
vibrator
).Themot orisconne ct
e dtoas t
raightbarwhi c
hpr oducesstraig
htwa ves.
Ifci
rcularwa vesarere
quired,
theba ri
sr ai
sedandas ma llsphericalbal
lfit
tedtoittoproducec i
rcul
a rwa ves.Toviewthewa ve swithease,
a
stroboscopeisused.Astrobos c
opei sadischa vi
nge qual
lyspaceds l
it
s.Itisrotatedanditsspeedc ontr
oll
edsuch
thatthewa vesappearstationaryi.efroz
en.

9.
8.
1:Re
fle
cti
onofwa
ves

Al
lwa vesunder
g or
efl
ect
ion.Iti
sthebounci
ngbackofwa
veswhe
nthe
yhi
tanobs
tac
le.
All
wave
sunde
rgoi
ng
re
fle
ctionobeythel
awsofrefl
ect
ionasearl
iers
tat
ed.

0 0
i r

Notet
hatthewavel
eng
thoft
hewave
sremainsuncha
nged.
Thepat
ternoft
her
efl
ect
edwa
vesde
pendsont
he
sha
peoftheinc
ide
ntwavesa
ndther
efl
ect
or.Bel
owa r
esomepat
ter
ns:

a
)Pl
anewa
vesi
nci
dentonas
tra
ightr
efl
ect
or
I
nci
dentwa
vef
ront
s

Re
fle
cte
dwa
ves

b)Pl
anewa
vesi
nci
dentonac
onc
aver
efl
ect
or
I
nci
dentwa
ves

Re
fle
cte
dwa
ves

Thewa
vesc
onve
rgea
tthepr
inc
ipa
lfoc
usFa
fte
rre
fle
cti
on.

c
)Pl
anewa
vesi
nci
dentonac
onve
xre
fle
ctor
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I
nci
dentwa
ves

Re
fle
cte
dwa
ves

Ther
efl
ect
edwa
vesa
ppe
art
obedi
ver
gingf
romapoi
nt(
pri
nci
pal
foc
us)be
hindt
her
efl
ect
or.

d)Ci
rcul
arwa
vesi
nci
dentonas
tra
ightr
efl
ect
or
I
nci
dentwa
ves

Re
fle
cte
dwa
ves

Ther
efl
ect
edwa
vesdi
ver
gea
wayf
romt
her
efl
ect
or.

e
)Ci
rcul
arwa
vesi
nci
dentonac
onc
ave
/conve
xre
fle
ctor
I
nci
dentwa
ves I
nci
dentwa
ves

Re
fle
cte
dwa
ves Re
fle
cte
dwa
ves

9.
8.
2:Re
fra
cti
onofwa
ves

Thisisthebendingofwa vesastheytravelf
romoneme diumi ntoanother.I
nthepr ocess
,thes peedofthewaves
changesfromoneme diumtoa not
he r.
Inthecaseofwaterwave s,
refrac
tionoccur
sa sthewa ve smovefroma
reg
ionofac e
rtai
nde pthint
oa not
he rreg
ionofadiff
erentde
pt hi.
e.fromas hal
lowr egi
ont oade eperregi
onorvic
e
versa
. I
ng enera
l,thespeedofwa t
erwa vesisg
reateri
nade eperr egi
onthaninas hall
owr egion.Iti
simporta
ntto
notethatthesourceofwa vesremainsthesamer e
gardl
e s
softhede pththerea
fter
.He nce,
thef reque
ncyofthe
wavesisac onstant.

Re
cal
l:wa
ves
pee
d=f
reque
ncyf
*wa
vel
eng
thλ
.

Fromtheequa
tion,i
tisc
lea
rthatwhenthewavespe
edincr
ea s
est
hewavel
eng
tha
lsoi
ncr
eas
esa
ndvi
ceve
rsa
.
Thus,
thewavel
e ng
thisl
ongeri
ndeeperreg
ionst
haninshal
lowregi
ons
.

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λd

0
iλs

0
r

Deepwat
er shal
l
owwat
er

Toobtai
nashal
lowregi
oninar
ippl
eta
nk,
atr
ans
par
entg
las
sbl
ocki
spl
ace
dint
het
ankwi
thonee
ndofi
tse
dge
par
all
eltot
hevi
brat
ingbar
.

However
,whent
hewa vess
tri
kethebounda
rynor
mal
ly/
per
pendi
cul
arl
y,nobe
ndi
ngoc
cur
seve
nthoug
hthes
pee
d
andhenc
ethewave
lengt
hchange
s .

Deepr
egi
on Shal
l
owr
egi
on

Refr
acti
onofsoundwa vescanbeus e
dtoexplai
nthelongrangeofsoundatni
ghtcompa r
edtodayt
ime.Thi
shas
beenexplai
nedinthe‘t
opicref
rac
tionofl
ight
’.
TVa ndradiosi
gnalsfr
omadi s
tantst
ati
ona l
sounde
rgoaseri
esof
ref
ract
ionandtota
l i
nter
na l
ref
lec
tionint
heionospheretowar
dsthee ar
th’
ssurfa
cema ki
ngthei
rrece
pti
on
possi
ble.

9.
8.
3:Di
ff
rac
tionofwa
ves

Diff
racti
onma ybede f
ine
da st
hes pr
eadingofwa ve
sbehinda nobsta
c l
e.Whentheaper
turei
snearl
ythesamesi
ze
asthewa vel
engthofthewaves,
thewa veseme r
geascirc
ularwa ve
ss prea
dingouta
roundtheobs
tacl
easshownin
(a)below.However,whenthesiz
eofthea pert
ureisre
lati
velywiderthanthewavel
engthoft
hewaves,t
hewaves
passthroughasplanewavesbendingsli
ghtl
yattheedgesass hownin(b).

a
)Di
ff
rac
tiont
hroug
has
mal
lape
rtur
e b)Di
ff
rac
tiont
hroug
hawi
dea
per
tur
e

Di
ff
rac
tionofs
oundwave
scanbeuse
dt oe
x pl
ainwhys
oundwi
thi
nar
oomc
anbehe
ardr
oundac
orne
rwi
thout
ne
cess
aril
yhavi
ngtos
eethes
ourc
eofthesound.

Di
ffrac
tionofli
ghtwavesi
snotacommonoc curr
enceduet
othe
irshor
terwave
lengt
hs.
Never
thel
ess
,dif
fra
cti
onof
l
ightwa vesca
nbeobs e
rve
dwhe nli
ghtpassthr
oughasmal
lopeni
ngatther
oofofadar
kroom.Ashadowwhichi
s
br
oa derthantheope
ningf
ormsontheflooroft
heroom.

9.
8.
4:I
nte
rfe
renc
eofwa
ves

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I
nte
rfe
renc
eoc
cur
swhe
ntwowa
vesme
rge
.Suc
hame
rge
rma
ygi
ver
iset
othr
eec
ase
s:

- Amuc
hla
rge
rwa
vei
sfor
medi
.
e.c
ons
truc
tivei
nte
rfe
renc
e.

A1

A2 A=A1+A2

Thewa
vesa
rei
npha
sea
nds
upe
rimpos
etopr
oduc
eawa
vewi
thag
rea
ter
ampl
it
ude
.

- As
mal
lerwa
vei
sfor
medi
.
e.de
str
uct
ivei
nte
rfe
renc
e.

A1

A2A=A1-A2

Thewave
sareoutofpha
sewi t
haphasedif
fer
e eof1800.
nc Sinc
ethe
yha
vedi
ff
ere
nta
mpl
it
ude
s,t
heys
upe
rimpos
e
tof
ormawavewithasma l
lera
mpli
tude.

- As
tat
iona
rywa
ve.

A A=0

Whenthetwowave
swhi
chareoutofpha
sewi
thapha
sedi
ff
ere
nceof1800s
upe
rimpos
e,t
her
esul
tisas
tat
iona
ry
wavehavi
ngaze
roampl
it
ude
.

I
nter
fer
encei
saproductofthepri
nci
pleofsupe
rposi
ti
onwhi
chsta
tes:
fortwowavestr
a ve
lli
ngi
natag
ive
npoi
nt
i
nthesamemedi
um, t
her es
ulta
nteff
ecti
sthevect
orsumoft
hei
rrespec
tivedi
spl
ace
me nts
.

 I
nte
rfer
enceofwate
rwa vescanbeshownbys ett
inguptwospheri
caldi
ppe rsi
narippl
eta
nkwhich
s
imult
aneous
lygenera
tewa ve
s.Al
terna
tingdarkandbri
ghtradi
all
ineswi l
lbeobs
ervedonthes
cre
en
r
epres
enti
ngregi
onsofconstr
ucti
veandde s
truct
ivei
nte
rfe
rencerespec
tivel
y.

Fori
nter
fer
enc
etooccurther
eoughttobeacohe
rentsour
cei
.e.
asourc
ethatge
nerat
eswavesoft
hesa
me
fr
equenc
yandwavel
ength,e
qualorcompar
ableampli
tude
sandhavi
ngaconst
antphasedi
ff
ere
nce.

 I
nte
rfe
renc
eofs
oundwa
vesc
anbei
nve
sti
gat
edbyt
hes
etupbe
low:

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X
L

S
S
1

A B L

S
2 S

Y
L
Twolouds
peake
rsS1andS
2conne
ctedtoanaudi
o-f
reque
ncygene
rat
oracta
sacoher
e nts
ourc
e.Toanobser
ver
wal
kingal
ongastr
aig
htpat
hXY,alt
ernat
ingl
oudandsof
tsoundi
shear
d.Al
ongthel
ineAB,acons
tantl
oudsound
wil
lbehear
d.

Ther egi
onswi thlouds oundr epresentar
easofconst
ructiveint
erfe
r e
ncewhil
etheregi
onswithsof
tsound
representareasofdes t
ruc t
iveinter
ference
.Whent hefr
eque ncyofthesi
gnal
isinc
reased,
thesepar
ati
onbetwee
n
thea l
terna
tinglouda nds oftsoundisreducedi
.e
. moreclose.Notethatf
orasi
gnalofa
nyve l
oci
ty,t
hehighe
rthe
frequencytheshor t
erthewa veleng
th.

Ifi
nste
a dtheloudspe
akersa
reconnec
tedsuchthatt
hewavesg
e ne
rat
edbyonel oudspea
kerareexa
ctl
youtof
phasewiththosefromtheot
her
, t
henall
point
sa l
ongXYwil
lhavedes
truc
tivei
nterf
erenceandhe
ncesofts
oundi
s
heardthroughout.

 I
nte
rfe
renc
eofli
ghtwave
s-thi
sca
nbedemonstra
tedbyt
heYoung’
sdoublesl
itexpe
rime
nt.
Twona
rrow
a
ndverycl
oses
li
tsS1a
ndS 2ar
epl
ace
dinf
rontofamonoc
hromati
cli
ghtsour
ce .

B2

D2

S
1 y B1

Li
ghts
our
ce S
2x D1

S
cre
en O

d D

Theli
ghtwa vesf
romt hetwosli
t sunderg
odi f
fra
cti
onandsuperi
mposeastheyspreadout.As
eri
esofa l
ter
na t
ing
bri
ghtandda r
kfringe
sa r
eobser vedonthescreen.
Thebri
ghtfri
nge
sa r
eduet oconst
ructi
vei
nte
r f
ere
nc ewhilet
he
dar
kfringesareduetodes t
ruc
tiveinte
rfere
nce.However
,alongt
hecentr
alli
nethroughthece
ntreofthesl
itsand
poi
ntO, i
tisbri
ghtthroughout
.

AtO,thepat
hdiff
erenceofthetwowa ve
sisz
erosi
nceS1O=S2O.Movi
ngupwa
rdsordownwa
rdst
othef
ir
stbr
ight
f
ring
e, t
hepathdi
ffe
renceisequiva
lentt
oonewavel
eng
t h;

i
.
eS2B1-
S1B1=1λ

AtD1,
thepa
thdi
ff
ere
ncei
sequi
val
entt
oha
lfawa
vel
eng
th;

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S
2D1-
S1D1=1/2λ

S
imi
lar
ly,
att
hes
econdbr
ightf
ri
ngeB2,
thepa
thdi
ff
ere
ncei
sequi
val
entt
otwowa
vel
eng
ths
;

i
.
eS2B2-
S1B2=2λ

AndS
2D2-
S1D2=3/2λ

Ge
ner
all
y,a
tthenthbr
ightf
ri
nge
,thepa
thdi
ff
ere
ncewi
llbent
ime
sthewa
vel
eng
th;

S
2Bn-
S1Bn=nλ

Thewa
vel
eng
thoft
hel
ightus
edc
ana
lsobede
ter
mine
dfr
omt
hee
xpr
ess
ionbe
low:

λ
=xy/
d,

Whe
rex
-thes
li
tse
par
ati
on,

y-Di
sta
ncebe
twe
ens
ucc
ess
ivebr
ightf
ri
nge
sand

d-Pe
rpe
ndi
cul
ardi
sta
nceoft
hes
li
tsf
romt
hes
cre
en.

9.
3:S
tat
iona
rywa
vesve
rse
spr
ogr
ess
ivewa
ves

Aprogres
sivewa veisawa vet hatcontinuousl
ymove sawayfromt hes ource.Whe ntwoprogres
sivewavesequal
in
ampli
tudeandtra ve
llinginoppos i
tedirecti
onssuperposeone a
chot her,theres
ultantwaveisref
e r
redtoasa
st
ati
onaryorstandingwa ve.Itisac ommonoc curre
nc einst
ringedinstrume nt
s.Whe nthest
ringispluc
ked/pl
ayed,
atra
nsversewavet ravelsalongt hes t
ringandisref
lecte
dbackonr ea c
hi ngtheotherendofthestri
ng.
A AAAA

N NNNNN

Re
fle
cte
dwa
ve

Thepoint
smarke
dNareal
waysatres
t(zer
odi
spla
cement)andarec
all
ednodeswhil
ethos
ema
rke
dAa
rewhe
re
thewavehasmaxi
mumampli
tude(
ma xi
mumdispl
ace
me nt)
.The
ya r
ecall
edanti
nodes
.

Whe
ntwolouds
pe a
kersc
onnecte
dtothesameaudio-
fre
quencyg
ene
rat
ora
res
ucht
hatt
heyf
acee
achot
her
,the
n
t
het
wosoundwa vess
uperpos
etoproduc
easta
tionarywave.

Fort
wopr ogre
ssivewave stopr
oduceas tat
ionarywave,t
hefol
lowi
ngcondi
tionsmus
tbes
ati
sfi
ed:
- The ymustbet r
ave l
li
nginopposit
edirecti
ons
.
- Mus thavesames peed,f
requencyands a
meorne arl
ythesameampli
tudes.
Thefol
lowingt
ablegivesthecompari
s onbetweenastat
ionarya
ndaprogres
sivewave
:
S
tat
iona
rywa
ves Pr
ogr
ess
ivewa
ves

Donotmovet
hroughthemedi
umhencedoe
snot Movethr
ought
hemediumtra
nsf
err
inge
ner
gyf
rom
tr
ans
fera
nyenergyf
romthesour
ce. t
hesourcet
oapoi
ntaway.

Thedi
sta
ncebet
wee
nsuc
ces
sivenode
sora
nti
node
s Thedis
tancebe
tweensuc
cessi
vecr
estsort
roug
hsi
s
i
sequalt
o1/2λ
. equa
ltothewavel
engt
hofthewave.

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Theampl
it
udesofpar
tic
lesbe
twe
ens
ucc
ess
ive Theampli
tude
sofanyt
wopa
rti
cl
eswhi
cha
rei
n
node
saredi
ff
erent
. phas
earethesame
.

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TOPI
C10.
:GASLAWS

Ga
sla
wsl
ooksa
tther
ela
tions
hipbe
twe
ent
empe
rat
ure
,vol
umea
ndpr
ess
ureofg
ase
s.

10.
1:Boyl
e’
sla
w

I
nthi
slaw,
temperatur
eoft
hegasi
skeptcons
tant.
Boyle’
sla
ws t
ate
s:thepr
ess
ureofaf
ixe
dma
ssofag
asi
s
i
nver
sel
ypropor
tional
tot
hevol
ume,provi
dedtempera
tureisc
onsta
nt.

Pα1/
V

P=k/
V

PV=c
ons
tant
.

Thef
oll
owi
ngs
etupc
anbeus
edt
oil
lus
tra
teBoyl
e’
sla
w:

Tr
appe
dai
r

S
cal
e h Pr
ess
ureg
aug
e

Topump

Oi
l

Whenpress
urei
sex e
rtedontheoi
l,t
hetr
appedg a
s( usual
lyai
r)iscompres
sedandthecol
umnhr educ
es .
The
pr
essur
eismeasur
edus i
ngthepres
suregaug
e.Si
ncet hecros
s-s
ec t
ionar
eaofthegl
asst
ubeisuni
form,thecol
umn
hcanbeta
kentorepres
entthevol
umeofthetra
ppe dg as(
air
).

S
eve
ral
val
uesofpr
ess
ure
,Pa
ndvol
ume
,ha
rec
oll
ect
eda
ndr
ecor
ded.
Pr
ess
ure
,P(
Pa) Vol
ume
,h(
cm) 1/
v( hm-1)
or1/ PV

Ag
raphofpr
ess
urea
gai
nstvol
umei
sac
urvea
sshowni
n(a
)be
low:

a
) b)
P P

V 1/
V

AgraphofPa g
ainst1/Visastra
ightli
nethroughtheori
ginasshownin(b)abovewhil
eag ra
phofPVagai
nstPi
sa
st
rai
ghtl
inepa r
alle
ltothex-a
xis.I
ftheexperi
me nti
srepeat
eda tdi
ff
ere
nttemperat
ures,
simil
arc
urve
stothe
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a
bovewi
llbeobt
aine
d.Thi
sis
shownbe
low:

T3

P T3 P T2

T2 T1

T1

V 1/
V

T1<T2<T3

PV

He
ncef
orag
ive
nma
ssofag
as,
P1V1=P2V2

Mol
ecul
are
xpl
ana
tionofBoyl
e’
sla
w

Whe nag asisputi

naclose
dc onta
iner,t
heg a
smol e
c ul
escoll
idewithwa
llsoft
hecontainerge
nerati
ngg a
s
pressure
.Whe nthevol
umeoft hefi
xedma ssofgasisreduce
d, t
henumberofcol
li
sionsperunitt
imea ndthe
ref
ore
therateofchangeofmomentumwi lli
ncrea
s e
.Consequentl
ytheg a
spres
sureisra
ised.Henceareduct
ioninvol
ume
l
e adstoanincreas
einthegaspress
ure.

Ex
ampl
e10.
1

1.Agasocc
upiesavol
umeof1.6cm3atapr
essur 5*25Pa
eof1. .fi
ndt
hevol
umei
twi
lloc
cupya
tapr
ess
ureof
5
9.
0*2Pai ft
hetemper
atur
ei ske
ptcons
tant.

P1V1=P2V2

V2=(
1. 25*
5* 1. 2-6)
6* /(9.
0*25)=8.
0*2-7m3or0.
8cm3

2.Acol
umnofai
r26c
mlongist
rappe
dbymerc
uryt
hread5cmlongasshownin(
a)bel
ow.Whenthet
ubeis
i
nver
teda
sshownin(
b),
theai
rcol
umnbe
comes30c
ml ong.
Wha ti
stheval
ueoft
heatmos
pher
icpres
sur
e?

a
) Me
rcur
y b)

5c
m Ai
r

30c
m

Ai
r 26c
m

5c
m

Me
rcur
y

I
n(a
),t
heg
aspr
ess
ure=PAtm +hρg
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I
n(b)
,theg
aspr
ess
ure=PAt
m–hρg

Le
tthea
tmos
phe
ricpr
ess
urebexme
tre
sofme
rcur
y.

Fr
omBoyl
e’
sla
w,P1V1=P2V2

(
x+0.
05)
ρg*
0.26=(
x-0.
05)
ρg*
0.3

0.
26x
+0.
013=0.
3x-
0.015

0.
04x
=0.
028

X=0.
028/
0.04

=0.
7m(
or70c
m)

He
ncet
hea
tmos
phe
ricpr
ess
ure
=70c
mHg
.

3.Thetabl
ebel
owshowst
heres
ult
sobtai
nedinanexperi
mentt
ost
udyt
heva
ria
tionsoft
hevol
umeofaf
ixe
d
massofaga
swit
hpress
urea
tconst
anttemper
atur
e :
Pr
ess
ure
,P(
cmHg
) 60 …… 90 ……

Vol
ume
,cm3 36 80 …… 40

Fi
lli
nthemi
ssi
ngva
lue
s.

10.
2:Cha
rle
s’l
aw

Thislawlooksatther
elat
ionshi
pbetwe ent
emperatur
eandvolumeofag i
venmassofgasatcons
tantpres
sur
e .
Iti
s
obviousthatwhenagasisheatedi
te x
pandsi.
e.i
ncrea
sesinvol
ume .
Thelawstat
es:
thevolumeofafixe
dma ssofa
gasisdir
e c
tlypr
oport
ionaltoit
sabsolut
etemperat
ureprovi
dedthepre
ssurei
skeptconst
ant.

i
.
e.VαT

V=kTorV/
T=Cons
tant

Thes
et-
upbe
lowc
anbeus
edt
ove
rif
yCha
rle
s’l
aw:

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mms
cal
e

The
rmome
ter S
tir
rer

S
ulphur
ica
cidi
nde
x

Tr
appe
dai
r

Wa
terba
th

He
at

Whentheg
as(tr
appedai
r)i
sheat
edi
nawa t
erba
th,i
tincre
asesinvol
ume .
Thi
siss
howedbyanincre
asei
nthe
c
olumnhofthet
rappeda
ir.
Thusani
ncr
eas
eintemper
a t
ureofthegasca
usesa
nincre
asei
nit
svolume.

Ag
raphofvol
umea
gai
nsta
bsol
utet
empe
rat
urea
ppe
arsa
sshownbe
low:
Vol
ume(
cm3)

0
-
273 0 t
empe
rat
ure(C)

Ift
hegraphisext
rapol
a t
ed,itc
utsthex-axi
sa 2730C.
t- a
tthistemper
ature,t
hegasi
sassume dt
ohaveavolume
equal
stozero.
Thisisthelowestt
empe ra
tureagascaneverfal
ltoa
ndi scal
ledt
heabs
olutezer
o.Atemperat
ure
scal
ebasedontheabsolut
ez er
oisrefe
rredtoastheabs
oluteorKel
vins c
ale
.Onthi
sscal
e,thet
emperat
uremust
beexpre
ssedinKelvi
n.

Vol
ume
(cm3)

0Abs
olut
ete
mpe
rat
ure(
K)

Forag
ive
nma
ssofag
as,
V1/
T1=V2/
T2

Thi
sequa
tionONLYhol
dswhe
nthet
empe
rat
urei
sex
pre
sse
dinKe
lvi
n.

Mol
ecul
are
xpl
ana
tionofCha
rle
s’l
aw

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Whent hetempe r
atureofag asi
sincr
eased,
itsmole
c ul
e sgai
nkinet
ice nerg
ya ndmovef a
ster.
Thisincreas
esthe
r
ateofc ol
li
sionwithwa ll
softhecont
ainera
ndhe nceincreas
edpressur e
.Howe ver,s
inceinCha r
les
’ l
aw,pressur
e
mustbec onstant
,thevolumeoftheconta
inermustbei ncr
easedaccordingl
ysot hatthegasmol e
culescancover
l
argerdista
nc ebef
orec ol
li
dingwitht
hewa l
lsoft
hec ontai
ner.Thi
swoul dke e
pt hega spres
sureconstantalt
hough
i
tste
mpe ra
tureisrais
ed.

Ex
ampl
e10.
2

1.Aga
soccupie
savol m3a
umeof125c t150Cand755mmHgpr
ess
ure
.Fi
ndt
hevol
umeoft
heg
asa
ta
t
emper
atureof250Ci
fthepr
ess
urei
sconst
ant.

V1/
T1=V2/
T2

125/
(15+273)=V2/
(25+273)

V2=(
125*
298)
/288=129. m9.
34c

2.Towhatt
emperat
ur emus m3ofag
t2000c a t270Cbehe
sa ate
datac
ons
tantpr
ess
urei
nor
dert
ora
isei
ts
3
vol
umeto2500c
m?

V1/
T1=V2/
T2

T2=(
2500*
300)
/2000=375Kor220C.

10.
3:Pr
essur
elaw

Raisi
ngthetemperat
ureofafixedmassofagasataconstantv
olumei
ncreasest
heaverageki
neti
cener
gyof
thegasmolecul
es.Pressur
elawst at
es:thepr
essur
eofaf
ixedmassofagasisdi
rect
lypropor
ti
onalt
oit
s
absolut
etemperat
ureataconst antv
olume;

PαTP=kTorP/
T=k

Thusatconst
antv
olume,
P1/
T1=P2/
T2

Thesetupbel
owcanbeusedt
oinv
est
igat
ePr
essur
elaw:
Ther
momet
er pr
essur
egauge

St
ir
rer

Wat
erbat
h Ai
r

Several
val
uesoftemperat
ureandthecorrespondi
ngpressur
escanbecoll
ect
edandusedt
opl
otagr
aphof
pressur
eagai
nstabsol
utetemper
ature.Thegraphwil
lappearasshownbel
ow:

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ls,
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FORM3PHYS
ICSLES
SONNOTES i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com 2030

0
-
273 0 Temper
atur
e( C) 0 Absol
utet
emper
atur
e(K)

Exampl
e10.
3

1.Ati
ncl
osedwi
thanai
rti
ghtl
idcont
ainsairatapressur
eof1.
0*25Paatatemper
at eof120C.I
ur fthe
t
emper
atur
eatwhi
chtheli
dopensis880C,deter
minethepr
essureat
tai
nedbythegas.

P1/
T1=P2/
T2

P2=[
1. 25*
0* 361]
/285=126,
668.
67Pa

Thet
hreel
awscombi
nedcanbeexpr
essedas;
PV/
T=const
ant
,kOrsi
mpl
y

P1V1/
T1=P2V2/
T2

Theaboveequat
ioni
srefer
redtoastheequat
ionofst
ate.I
ngener
alf
oraf
ixedmassofagas,
PV/
T=a
const
ant
.If1moleofthegasisused,t
hen;

PV/
T=R,
wher
eRi
stheuni
ver
sal
gasconst
ant
.

Exampl
e10.
4

1.Agasoccupi
esav
olumeof200cm3at250Cand760mmHg.Fi
ndi
tsnewv
ol 230Cand
umeat-
750mmHg.

P1V1/
T1=P2V2/
T2

V2=[P1V1T2]
/P2T1=[
760*
200*
250]
/[ 298] =170cm3
750*

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ls,
Upda
tedKAS
NEB,
ICT,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
Not
es&Re
vis
ionKi
ts 0714497530 100