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Latest FORM 3 Physics Notes-3

Mathematics (University of Nairobi)

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FORM THREE PHYSICS

HANDBOOK
[With well drawn diagrams, solved examples and questions for exercise]

LABO ATOMS.

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Table of Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Page 2

BRIEF PERSONAL PROFILE Page 2

GUIDELINES IN MY LIFE Page 2

Chapter 1 LINEAR MOTION Page 3

Chapter 2 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION Page 12

Chapter 3 WORK, ENERGY, POWER AND Page 19

MACHINES

Chapter 4 REFRACTION OF LIGHT Page 28

Chapter 5 GAS LAWS Page 37

Chapter 6 WAVES II Page 43

Chapter 7 CURRENT ELECTRICITY II Page 51

Chapter 8 HEATING EFFECT OF AN Page 61

ELECTRIC CURRENT

Chapter 9 ELECTROSTATICS II Page 64

Chapter QUANTITY OF HEAT Page 71

10

Lines that influence activities in my life

1. God is always there to assist provided you ask for Him.
2. At its best, Physics eliminates complexity by revealing underlying simplicity.
3. There is no method of changing your fate except through hard work.
4. Cohesion with immediate neighbours and determination always betters your immediate
environment.

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Chapter One LINEAR MOTION

Specific objectives Content

By the end of this topic the leaner should be able to: 1. Distance, displacement, speed, velocity,
acceleration (experimental treatment required)
a) Define distance, displacement, speed, velocity and
acceleration 2. Acceleration due to gravity

b) Describe experiments to determine velocity and  free fall,

acceleration
 Simple pendulum method
c) Determine acceleration due to gravity
3. Motion- time graphs
d) Plot and explain motion- time graphs
 Displacement-time graphs
e) Apply the equation of uniformly accelerated motion
 Velocity- time graphs
f) Solve numerical questions.
4. Equations of uniformly accelerated motion

5. Problems on uniformly accelerated motion

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Introduction iii. Speed

 This topic deals with study motion of bodies in a This is the rate of change of distance covered by a
straight line. moving body with time. Speed is a scalar quantity.
distance covered
speed =
Terms Associated with Linear Motion time taken

i. Distance For a body moving with a non-uniform speed,

 Distance is the actual length covered by a moving total distance covered

average speed =
total time taken
body. It has no specific direction and it is therefore a
scalar quantity. The SI unit of distance is meter (m)  Instantaneous speed refers to the rate of
change of distance of a moving body at a
point (an instant). The SI unit of speed is the
ii. Displacement, s metre per second (ms-1)

 This is the distance covered by a moving body in a

specified direction. Displacement is therefore a
iv. Velocity
vector quantity. The SI unit of displacement is metre
(m)  This is the rate of change of displacement
with time. It can also be defined as the speed
Illustrating distance and displacement
in a specified direction. Velocity is therefore a
Consider the diagram below showing motion of a vector quantity.
body starting from point A and moving in the direction
shown. change in displacement
velocity =
time taken

For a body moving with a varying

velocity,

total displacement
average velocity = .
total time taken
a) At point B, distance covered is AB while the  The SI unit of velocity is the metre per second
displacement of the body is AB in the direction AB
(ms-1).
b) At point C, distance covered is AB + BC while the
displacement is AC in the direction AC

c) When back at starting point A, distance covered is v) Acceleration

AB + BC + CA while the displacement is zero.
 This is the change of velocity per unit time. It
is a vector quantity.

change in velocity
Acceleration =
time taken

final velocity-initial velocity

Acceleration =
time taken

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Solution
5 -1 4 -1 -1
v-u u = 2.0×10 kmh = 5.55556×10 ms , v = 0 ms
a= , where, v is the final velocity, u is the initial
t 4 -1
v-u (0-5.55556×10 ) ms 6 -2
velocity and t is the time taken. a=
t
;a = -2
2.0×10 s
= -2.777778×10 ms

Instantaneous acceleration is the acceleration of a Therefore retardation is - (-2.777778×10 ms

6
) = 2.777778×106 ms-2
-2

body at a point. Deceleration or retardation is the

Exercise
negative acceleration in which a body moves with a
decreasing velocity with time. The SI unit of 1) A van on a straight road moves with a speed of 180
acceleration is metre per square second (ms-2). kmh-1 f0r 45 minutes, and then climbs an escarpment
with a speed of 72 kmh-1 for 30 minutes. Calculate:
Examples
I. The average speed of the van
1. A body moves 30 m due east in 4 seconds, then 40
m due north in 8 seconds. Determine: II. The average acceleration produced

a) The total distance moved by the body. 2) A girl runs 40 m due south in 40 seconds and then 20
m due north in 10 seconds. Calculate:
b) The displacement of the body.
I. her average speed
c) The average speed of the body.
II. her average velocity
d) The average velocity of the body.
III. her change in velocity for the whole
Solution journey

IV. The acceleration produced by the girl.

Measuring Speed, Velocity and Acceleration Using

Ticker Timer

 A ticker timer has an arm which vibrates regularly

a) Total distance = total length covered due to changing current in the mains supply
(alternating current). As the arm vibrates, it
30 m + 40 m = 70 m makes dots on the paper tape which is moving
under the arm. Successive dots are marked at
the same interval of time
b) Total displacement is ( 2
30 +40 m
2
)
 Most ticker timer operates at a frequency of 50
2500 m = 50 m on bearing 36.87
o
hertz (50Hz) i.e. 50 cycles per second i.e. they
make 50 dots per second. The time interval
c) Average speed = total distance covered 1
total time taken between two consecutive dots is: = 0.02sfor a
50
70 -1 50Hz ticker timer. This time interval is called a
= = 5.833 ms
12 tick.
total displacement
d) verage velocity =
total time taken

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=
50 -1
= 4.167 ms on bearing 36.87
o Sample sections of tapes are as shown below. The
12
arrow shows the direction in which the tape is pulled.

2. The speed of a of body rolling on an inclined plane is 10

ms-1 when time is 0 s at time t = 10 s the speed of the
body is found to be 25 ms-1. If the body is moving in the
same direction throughout, calculate the average
acceleration of the body

Solution

v-u
a=
t

(25-10)ms-1
a=
(10-0) s
-1
15 ms -2
a= = 1.5 ms
10 s

3. A particle moving with a velocity of 2.0 X 105 kmh-1 is

brought to rest in 2.0 X 10-2 s. calculate the acceleration
of the body, hence the retardation.

Examples I. Calculate the average velocity for the motion

1. A tape is pulled through a ticker timer which makes one II. What does the area under the straight line
dot every second. If it makes three dots and the represent?
distance between the first and the third dot is 16cm,
find the velocity of the tape. III. What is the difference between successive
sections of tape?
Solution
IV. Calculate the acceleration of the trolley in ms-1

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Motion Graphs

 Graphs can be used to represent variation of

f = 1 Hz
distance, speed, velocity or acceleration of a
Time between consecutive dots = 1 s, total time moving body with time. When used this way they
= 1sX2 = 2s are called motion graphs

Distance between 1stand 3rd dots = 16cm = 0.16 m

total displacement 0.16 m

average velocity = = = 0.08 ms
-1
Displacement – Time Graphs
total time taken 2s

3. The tape in the figure below was produced by a ticker

timer with a frequency of 100Hz. Find the acceleration
1. Stationary body
of the trolley that was pulling the tape. Solution
 Displacement does not change with time, since
displacement is a vector quantity the position of
the body may be negative or positive relative to
be observer.
Solution

1
time between consecutive dots = = 0.01s
100

0.005 m -1
initial velocity, v = = 0.5 ms
0.01 s

0.025 m -1
final velocity = = 2.5 ms
0.01 s

time taken = 4×0.01 = 0.04s

v-u (2.5-0.5)ms
-1
200 -2
acceleration = = = = 50 ms
t 0.04 s 0.04

Exercise 2. A body moving with uniform velocity

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1. The figure below shows a piece of tape pulled through  For a body moving with uniform velocity,
a ticker timer by a trolley down an inclined plane. The displacement changes uniformly over equal time
frequency of the ticker timer is 50Hz intervals. The graph of displacement against
time is a straight line whose slope or gradient
I. What type of electric current is used to operate the
ticker timer? represents the velocity of the body which is
constant.
II. Calculate the average velocity for the trolley
between A and B

2. The figure below shows a tape chart from the paper

tape obtained (frequency of ticker timer 50 Hz)

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3. A body moving with variable velocity

 a. For a body moving with a velocity increasing

uniformly with time, the displacement-time graph
is a curve of increasing slope since the distance
the body covers increases for equal time intervals.
The slope of the graph at any given point gives
instantaneous velocity of the body i.e.

∆s
instantaneous velocity =
∆t

2. A body moving with its velocity changing

uniformly

 The gradient of this graph is a straight line;

meaning that velocity changes uniformly over
equal time intervals. This gradient graph gives
∆V
constant acceleration i.e. acceleration =
∆t

 b. For a body moving with a velocity decreasing

uniformly with time, the displacement-time graph
is curve of decreasing slope since the distance
the body covers decreases for equal time intervals
as shown below.
3. A body moving with its velocity changing non-
uniformly

 a) For a body moving with an increasing

acceleration, meaning that its velocity is
increasing at an increasing rate, the velocity-time
graph is curve of increasing slope as shown
alongside. The slope of the graph at any point
gives the instantaneous acceleration of the body
at that point.

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Velocity – Time Graphs

1. Body moving with uniform velocity

 The slope/gradient of the graph is zero and

therefore acceleration of the body moving with
uniform velocity is zero.

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 b. For a body moving with a decreasing

acceleration, meaning that its velocity is
increasing at a decreasing rate, the velocity-time Solution
graph is curve of decreasing slope as shown
 ab- the velocity of the car increases uniformly
below. from rest ( i.e. it accelerates uniformly)

 bc- the velocity of the car decreases uniformly to

rest ( i.e. it decelerates uniformly)

 cd- velocity of the car increases uniformly but in

opposite direction (accelerates uniformly in
opposite direction)

 de- velocity of the car decreases uniformly but still

in same opposite direction (decelerates uniformly
in opposite direction)

2, A car starting from rest accelerates uniformly for 5

minutes to reach 30 ms-1. It continues at this speed for the
next 20 minutes and then decelerates uniformly to come to
stop in 10 minutes. On the axes provided, sketch the graph
of velocity against time for the motion of the car and
Area under velocity – time graph
hence, find the total distance covered by the car. Solution
 Consider a body starting from rest moving with
constant acceleration for time, t. The velocity-time
graph for the body is as shown alongside.

Total distance = total area under the graph

1
Total distance = (35+20)60×30 (i.e. area of a trapezium)
2

Total distance = 49500 m

Exercise

1. The figure below shows the displacement time graph

of motion of a particle.

distance travelled = average velocity×time

= ( )
O+V
2
1
×t = vt
2

 Therefore, area A under the velocity – time graph

represents the distance covered by the body after
time t seconds.
State the nature of the motion between: (i) A and B (ii) B

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Examples and C (iii) C and D

1. Interpret the graph below representing motion of a car

from point a to e.
2. The figure below shows a velocity time graph for the
motion of a certain body. Describe the motion of the
body in the region: (i) OA (ii) AB (iii) BC.

3. The figure below shows the acceleration time graph

for a certain motion. On the axes provided, sketch the
displacement-time graph for the same motion.

Therefore, for a body moving with uniform

acceleration, any of these three equations may be
used.

1. v = u + at

1 2
2. s = ut + at
2
2 2
3. v = u + 2as

Examples

1. A car starts from rest with uniform acceleration of

5ms-2. How long does it take to cover a distance of
400m?

Solution

a = 5ms - 2

S = 400m

Equations of Uniformly Accelerated Motion t=?

 Consider a body moving in a straight line with

uniform accelerationa, so that its velocity

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increases from an initial value u to a final value v U = 0ms - 1

in timet and it is displaced by s; 1 2
Best equation for use is; s = ut + at
2

1 2
400 = 0×t + ×5×t
Derivation of the 1st equation 2

5 2
change in velocity ∆v 400 = t
acceration, a = = 2
time taken ∆t

v-u 400×2
a= t= = 12.65 seconds.
t 5

at = v - u

v = u + at 2. A body is uniformly accelerated from rest to a final

velocity of 100ms-1 in 10seconds. Calculate the
distance covered.

Derivation of 2nd equation Solution

displacement,s = averange velocity×time u=0

-1
v = 100ms
u+v
s=( )×t
2
t = 10s

but from equation 1, v = u + at s=?

s= ( u+u+at
2
t ) right equation is v2 = u2 + 2as

2 2
100 = 0 + 2as
1 2
(2ut + at )
2 But a =
v-u
t
1 2
s = ut + at 100-0
2 = 10 ms
-2

10

2 -2
10000m s
s= = 500 m
2×10
Derivation of 3rd equation
3. A body whose initial velocity is 30ms-1 moves with a
displacement = average velocity ×t constant retardation of 3ms-2.Calculate the time taken
for the body to come to rest.
u+v
s=( )×t
2 Solution

but from equation 1, v = u + at u = 30 ms

-1

v-u a = - 3 ms
-1
t=
a
t=?
-1
v = 0ms

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v+u v-u Right equation is v = u + at

s=( )×( )
2 a
0 = 30 - 3t
2 2
v -uv+uv-u
s=
2a -30 = -3t

2 2
2as = v - u t = 10s

2 2
v = u + 2as

4. A body moving with a uniform acceleration of 10ms-2

covers a distance of 320m. If its initial velocity was
60ms-1, calculate its final velocity.
-2
a = 10ms

s = 320m
-1
u = 60ms

v=?

Right equation is v = u + 2as

2 2
(b) Right equation is
2 2 2 2
v = 60 + 2×10×320 v = u + 2gs
2 2
v = 3600+6400 20 = 0 + 2×10×s

= 10000 400
s= = 20m
20
-1
= 100 ms

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Motion under Gravity 2. A bullet shot vertically upwards rises to a maximum

height of 1000m. Determine:
Acceleration (In Free Fall) and Deceleration (In
Vertical Projection) Due To Gravity a) The initial velocity of the bullet

b) The time of flight of the bullet

 When a body is projected vertically upwards, it
decelerates uniformly (negative acceleration) due Solution
gravitational pull. When this body falls from
maximum height, it accelerates uniformly (a) At maximum velocity, velocity is zero
downwards and this is called free fall. -1
v = 0 ms
 Consider a ball thrown vertically upwards from -1
u = ?ms
the ground. The graph below shows how the
velocity of the ball changes with time from when g = -10ms
-1

it leaves the ground until it hits the ground again.

because the bullet decelerates upwards
Air resistance is assumed to be negligible.
Downward velocity is taken to be positive. The s = 1000m
gradient of this graph is a constant whose value
2 2
is gravitational acceleration, g. Using the equation v = u + 2gs
2
0 = u + 2×( - 10)×1000
2
0=u - 20000
-1
u = 20000 = 141.42 ms

(b) Total time the bullet is in air

1 2
using the expression s = ut + gt ,
2

displacement is 0 m

1 2
 Equations of uniformly accelerated bodies also 0 = 141.42×t + (-10)t
2
apply in motion under gravity.
141.42 = 5t
1. v = u + gt
141.42
t= = 28.28 s
5

Exercise

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1 2 1. A stone is released from a cliff of 180m high calculate

2. s = ut + gt
2
a) The time it takes to hit the ground
2 2
3. v = u + 2gs
b) The velocity with which it hits the water (take
-1
g = 10ms )

2. A body is projected vertically upward with an initial

velocity u. it returns to the same point of projection
after 8s. Plot:
Examples
a) The speed time graph
1. A stone is released vertically downwards from a high
cliff. Determine b) The velocity time graph for the body

a) its velocity after two seconds 3. A body is thrown vertically upwards with an initial
velocity of u. show that:
b) How far it has travelled after two seconds.
u
I. Time taken to reach maximum height is t =
Solution g

(a) u = 0 II. Time flight (time taken for the body(projectile)

2u
t = 2seconds to fall back to point of projection) is t =
g
-1
g = 10ms u
2
III. Maximum height reached is Hmax =
2g
Right expression is
IV. Velocity of return is equal in magnitude to
v = u + gt velocity of projection
v = 0 + 10×2
4. A stone is projected vertically upward with a velocity
-1 of 30ms-1 from the ground. Calculate:
v = 20ms
I. The time it takes to reach maximum height.

II. The time of flight.

III. The maximum height reached.

IV. The velocity with reach it lands the ground.

Horizontal projection Example

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Some examples of horizontal projection include: 1. An arrow is shot horizontally from the top of the
building and it lands 200 m from the foot of the
1. A jet from a water pipe held horizontally building after 10s. Assuming that the air resistance is
negligible, calculate:
2. A bullet from a gun held horizontally
a. The initial velocity of the arrow.
3. A tennis ball when it rolls from the tennis
table. b. the height of the building

Solution
4. A stone thrown horizontally.
a. initial horizontal velocity, u = ?
5. An arrow released horizontally from bow.
R = 200m

t = 10s
 Consider a body projected horizontally with an
initial horizontal velocity u. The body maintains From the expression R = ut;
that initial horizontal velocity but since it also
200m = u×10
experiences free fall due to gravity, it describes a
curved path as shown below. 200 -1
u= = 20ms
10

1 2
b. from the expression; h = gt
2

1 2
h = ×10×10
2

= 5×100 = 500m

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Exercise

1. A ball is thrown from the top of a cliff 20m high with

a horizontal velocity of 10ms-1 , calculate:

a. The time taken by the ball to strike the ground

b. The distance from the foot of the cliff to where

the ball lands.

c. The vertical velocity at the time it strikes the

ground.

2. A stone is thrown horizontally from the building that

is 45m, high above a horizontal ground. It hits the
 The path followed the body projected horizontally ground at a point which is 60m from the foot of the
(projectile) is called trajectory. The maximum building. Calculate the initial velocity of the stone.
horizontal distance covered by the body
3. A ball is thrown from the top of a cliff 20m high with
projected horizontally is called the range. The a horizontal velocity of 10ms-1 , calculate:
vertical acceleration is due to gravity while the
horizontal acceleration is zero since the body I. The time taken by the ball to strike the ground
maintains its initial horizontal velocity throughout II. The distance from the foot of the cliff to where
the motion. the ball lands.

 The displacement of the projectile at any given III. The vertical velocity at the time it strikes the
ground.
1
time t is given by s = ut + at2
2 4. A stone is thrown horizontally for the building that is
45m, high above a horizontal ground. It hits the
ground at a point which is 60m from the foot of the
building. Calculate the initial velocity of the building.
Horizontal displacement, R

 Since horizontal acceleration, a, is zero, R = ut

NB: REMEMBER THE SIMPLE PENDULUM

The vertical displacement, h
EXPERIMENT.
 Initial velocity for vertical displacement is zero.
This means that vertical displacement is;

1 2 A pendulum is a small heavy body

s = 0×+ gt
2
suspended by a light inextensible string.
1 2
s = gt
2

1 2
h = gt
2

Note: The time for horizontal displacement is equal

to time for vertical displacement at any given
point.

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Revision Exercise

1. A body moving at an initial velocity u (ms-1) accelerates at a (ms-2) for t i. State the direction in which
seconds and attains a final velocity v (ms-1). Represent this motion on the the parcel moved immediately
velocity against time axes shown below. it was released.

ii. Calculate the time taken by

the parcel to reach the ground
2. The data in the table below represents the motion over a period of 7 from the maximum height.
seconds
iii. Calculate the velocity of the
Time in 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 parcel when it strikes the
s ground.
D in m 0 20 40 60 80 95 105 110 iv. Calculate the maximum
height above the ground the
a) Plot on graph paper a graph of displacement (y-axis) against time. parcel reached.
b) Describe the motion of the vehicle for the first 4 seconds. v. What was the height of the
helicopter at the instant the
c) Determine the velocities at 4.5s and 6.5 s. Hence or otherwise
parcel was dropped.
determine the average acceleration of the vehicle over this time
interval.

5. A stone is thrown horizontally

from a building that is 50 m high
3. A ball-bearing X is dropped vertically downwards, from the edge of a table
above a horizontal ground. The
and it takes 0.5s to hit the floor below. Another bearing Y leaves the edge
stone hits the ground at a point,
of the table horizontally with a velocity of 5m/s. find:
which is 65m from the foot of the
building. Calculate the initial of the
i. The time taken for bearing Y to reach the floor.
stone.
ii. The horizontal distance traveled by Y before hitting the floor.

iii. The height of the table-top above the floor level.

6. The figure represents dots made
by a ticker-timer. The dots were
made at a frequency of 50 dots
4. A helicopter, which was ascending vertically at a steady velocity of 20m/s, per second. (Diagram not drawn to
released a parcel that took 20second to reach the ground. scale)

i. What is time interval between

two consecutive dots?

ii. The first dot from the left was

made at time t = 0. Copy the
diagram and indicate using
arrows pointing downwards
the dots made at t= 0.1s, 0.2s,
0.3s.

iii. Determine the average

velocities of the tape over time
intervals -0.02s to 0.02s, 0.08s
to 0.12s, 0.18s to 0.22s and

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0.28s to 0.32s

iv. Draw a suitable graph and

from it determine the
acceleration of the tape.

Chapter Two NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

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Specific Objectives Content

By the end of this topic, the leaner should be able to: 1. Newton’s laws of motion (experimental
treatment of inertia required)
a) State Newton’s laws of motion
2. Conservational of linear momentum: elastic
b) Describe simple experiments to illustrate inertia collision, inelastic collisions, recoil velocity,
impulse (oblique collisions not required)
c) State the law of conservation of linear momentum
3. F=ma
d) Define elastic collision, inelastic collision and
impulse 4. Frictional force

e) Derive the equation F=ma  Advantages and disadvantages

f) Describe the application of fractional force
 Viscosity
g) Define viscosity
 Terminal velocity (qualitative treatment)
h) Explain terminal velocity
5. Problem on Newton’s law of conservation of
linear momentum (exclude problems on elastic
i) Solve numerical problems involving Newton’s laws
collisions)
and the law of conservation of linear momentum.

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Introduction 2. The bottom wooden block can easily be pulled

out of the stack without disturbing others placed
 Effects of force on motion of a body are based on on it. The other blocks remain in a pile
Newton’s three laws motion. In this topic, these laws undisturbed except that their position is lowered
are looked into. because of downward pull of the gravitational
force.

Newton’s First Law (The Law of Inertia)

 It states that “a body remains in its state of rest or

of uniform motion in a straight line unless acted
upon by an external force”. This law is also called
the law of inertia

3. When a moving train or a car stops suddenly,

Definition of Inertia passengers are thrown forward. The passenger
in a moving vehicle is also in a state of motion.
 Is the tendency of a body to remain in its state of Hence, when the vehicle stops suddenly, the
rest if it was at rest or in its state of motion if it was upper part of his body continues to move. This is
in motion. why it is necessary to wear seat belt.

4. A cyclist on a level ground continues to move for

some time without pedaling.
Examples of Inertia (i.e. Examples of Newton’s First Law
in Practice)

1. When a card supporting a coin on a glass tumbler is Definition of Force as per Newton’s First Law of
suddenly flicked, it is observed that the card flies off Motion
but the coin falls in the tumbler. This is because the
coin tends to maintain its state of rest (it falls in  Force is defined as that which produces motion
glass because another force acts on it. Which is that in body at rest or which alters its existing state of
other force?) motion.

Momentum Relationship between Force, Mass and Acceleration

 Momentum of a body is defined as the product of its Consider a force F acting on a body of mass m for a
mass and velocity. For a body of mass m in kg and time t. if its velocity changes from u to v, then;
velocity v in ms-1,
change in momentum = final momentum - initial momentum
-1
momentum = mass(kg)×velocity(ms )
∆p = mv - mu
P = mv

 SI unit of momentum is the kilogram metre per

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second (kgms-1). Momentum is a vector quantity Rate of change of momentum =

change in momentum
;
time
since it has both magnitude and direction. The
direction of momentum is same as that of the ∆p mv-mu
=
velocity of the body. t t

mv-mu
From Newton’s second law, F ∝
t

F∝m ( ) v-u
t
; but
v-u
t
=a
Examples
therefore, F ∝ ma
1. What is the momentum of a racing car of mass 500kg
driven at 270km/h? so, F = kma. where k is a constantof protionality.
-2
Solution When F = IN, a = 1ms , m = 1kg , then. k = 1

-1 -1
v = 270 kmh = 75 ms ; m = 500 kg hence,F = ma ,
'
momentum = mass(kg)×velocity(ms
-1
) This is an expression for Newton s second law

-1
momentum = 500 kg × 75 ms

= 37500 kgms
-1 Definition of a newton as per Newton’s 2nd law of
motion
2. Find the momentum of :
 A newton is the force which produces an
a. An object of a mass 100g moving at 20ms-1 acceleration of 1ms-2 when it acts on a body of
mass 1kg.
Solution

momentum = mass(kg)×velocity(ms )
-1

-1 Examples
= 0.100 kg×20 ms

-1 1. What force is needed to stop a 500kg car moving at

= 2 kgms
180kmh-1 in 12.5m?
b. An object of mass 2.0kg which falls from rest for 10s
(Momentum after 10s).
Solution
Solution
-1
-1 -2 m = 500 kg, v = 0 ms ,
u = 0 ms , t = 10 s, g = 10 ms , v = ?
-1 -1
u = 180 kmh = 50 ms , s = 12.5 m, F = ?
using the expression v = u + gt,
2 2
2 2 v -u
v = 0 + 10×10 From the equation, v = u + 2as, a =
2s
-1
= 100 ms 2 2
0 -50
mom=o.1x100=100 kgms
-1 a= ,
2 ×12.5

Exercise

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1. What is the momentum of a racing car of mass 500kg a = -100 ms

-2

driven at 270km/h?
' nd
From Newton s 2 law, F = ma, F = 500×-100
2. An apple of mass 100g falls a distance of 2.5m to the
ground from a branch of a tree. F = -50 000 N.

a) Calculate the speed at which it hits the ground and what does the negative mean?
the time taken for it to fall.(Ignore air resistance).
2. An external force applied to a ball of mass 160g
b) Calculate the momentum of the apple just before increases its velocity from 2.5cms -1 to 275cms-1 in 10
hitting the ground seconds. Calculate the force applied.

Solution
-1 -1
m = 160 g = 0.160kg, u = 2.5 cms = 0.025 ms ,
Newton’s Second Law of Motion
-1 -1
v = 275 cms = 2.75 ms , F = ?N
 It states that “the rate of change of momentum of a
body is directly proportional to the resultant external
force producing the change and takes place in the
F = ma, F = m ( )
v-u
t
direction of the force”.

Resultant force acting ∝ rate of change of momentum

F = 0.160 ( 2.75-0.025
10 )
= 0.0436 N

Exercise

1. What is the mass of an object which is accelerated at 5

ms-1 by a force of 200 N?

2. A gun fires a bullet of mass 10.0g horizontal at 50 ms-1 at

a fixed target of soft wood. The bullet penetrates 50 cm
into a target. Calculate

a) Time taken by the bullet to come to rest in

the wood

b) The average retarding force exerted by the

wood on the bullet.

3. A trolley of mass 1.5kg is pulled along by an elastic cord

given an acceleration of 2ms-2. Find the frictional force  Note: Impulse occurs when bodies collide and
acting on the trolley if the tension in the cord is 5N. the impulsive force is the one which causes
4. State Newton’s second law of motion. Hence, show that F
destruction during collision. The time for which
= ma. this impulsive force acts determines the extent
of damage caused. If time of impact is long,
5. Define the newton (unit of force) damage is less than when time of impact is
short. The following are some examples of
6. A car of mass 1500kg is brought to rest from a velocity of
designs made to prolong time of impact and
25ms-1 by a constant force of 3000N. Determine the
change in momentum produced by the force and the time therefore reduce damage by impulsive force.
that it takes to come to rest.

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7. A hammer of mass 800 g produces a force of 400 N when 1. Eggs are packed in spongy crates
it strikes the head of a nail. Describe how it is possible for
the hammer to drives the nail into a piece of wood, yet a 2. Smart phones are put in soft holders
weight of 400 N resting on the head of the nail would not
3. vehicles are fitted with safety airbags
8. A resultant force F acts on a body of mass m causing an
acceleration a1 on the body. When the same force acts on 4. some vehicles have collapsible bumpers
a body of mass 2m, it causes an acceleration a2. Express and steering
a2 in terms of a1.
5. High jumpers usually land on soft ground
etc.

Impulse

 Impulse is defined as the product of force acting on Examples

a body and the time in which the force acts. 1. Determine the change in momentum produced when a
Impulsive force refers to the force which acts on a force of 4000 N acts on a body which is at rest for
body for a very short time during a collision. 0.003 minutes

 If a force F acts on a body of mass m for time, t,

then the impulse of the force is given by:
Solution

F = 4000 N, time, t = 0.003 minutes = 0.18 s

Impulse = force ×time
Impulse = change in momentum = Ft
Impulse = Ft
-1
change in momentum = 4000 ×0.18 = 720 kgms or 720 Ns
(SI unit of impulse is the newton second (Ns))
2. A car of mass 400 kg starts from rest on a horizontal
mv-mu
But from Newton’s second law of motion, F = track. Find the speed 4 s after starting if the tractive
t
force by the engine is 500 N.
Ft = mv - mu,but Ft = impulse and mv - mu

is the change in momentum of the body

Solution

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Impulse = change in momentum, Ft = m(v - u)

 This implies that the impulse of force acting on a 500 ×4 = 400(v-0)

body during some time interval is equal to the
500×4 -1
change in momentum produced in that body in that v= = 5 ms
400
time.

 The area under the plot of force F against time (t) Exercise
represents impulse or change in momentum during
a collision. 1. An apple of mass 100g falls a distance of 2.5m to the
ground from a branch of a tree.

I.Calculate the speed at which it hits the ground and the

time taken for it to fall. (Ignore air resistance).

II. Assuming the apple takes 100 milliseconds to come to C. Lift moving downwards with acceleration
rest Calculate the average force experienced by the
apple.  The downward acceleration is negative and this
is why the one feels lighter when lift is
2. The table below shows the values of the resultant force, F, accelerating downwards. Therefore reading on
and the time t for a bullet traveling inside the gun barrel
the machine (apparent weight of the body in lift)
after the trigger is pulled.
is:
Force, F (N) 36 34 300 240 17 11
0 0 0 0 P’ = mg - ma
Notes:
Time, (t) 3 4 8 1 17 22
(millisecond 2 I. If the lift moves with constant velocity, the
s)
machine will read weight of the body since
I. Plot a graph of Force, F, against time t. acceleration will be zero.

II. Determine from the graph: II. If a = g(free fall) the body will experience
weightlessness since the reaction from the lift
a) The time required for the bullet to travel the on the body will be zero.
length of the barrel assuming that the force
becomes zero just at the end of the barrel. Exercise

b) The impulse of the force. 1. A lady of mass 80 kg stands on weighing machine in a

lift. Determine the reading on the weighing machine
c) Given that the bullet emerges from the muzzle of
when the lift moves:
the gun with a velocity of 200 m/s, calculate the
mass of the bullet. a) downwards at a constant velocity of 2.0 ms-1

3. A body of mass 5 kg is ejected vertically from the ground b) downwards with an acceleration of 3 ms-2
when a force of 600N acts on it for 0.1s. Calculate the
velocity with which the body leaves the ground. c) upwards with an acceleration of 3 ms-2

4. A high jumper usually lands on a thick soft mattress. 2. A man of mass 80 kg stands on a lift which is
Explain how the mattress helps in reducing the force of accelerating upwards at 0.5 ms-2. if g = 10N/kg
impact. determine the reaction on the man by the floor of the

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lift.

Newton’s Third Law of Motion

It states that “for every action, there is an equal but

opposite reaction force”. This means that if a body P The Law of Conservation of Linear Momentum
exerts a force on another body Q, Q exerts an equal and
opposite force on P. It is clear that it is due to action  This law states that, “for a system of colliding
(force exerted by foot on ground) and reaction (force bodies, their total linear momentum is a
exerted by earth on foot) that we are able to walk constant, provided no external forces are acting”.
forward.
 If a body A of mass mA initially moving with a
velocity of uA collides lineally with a body B of
mass mB initially moving with a velocity uB and
their velocities after collision are vA and vB
respectively, then:

Total linear momentum before impact

Weight in a lift = Total linear momentum after collision

a. Lift at rest mAuA + mBuB = mAvA + mBvB

 Lift machine reads the weight of the body in lift Note: velocity is a vector quantity and must be
since action and reaction are equal and opposite i.e.
treated appropriately in calculations
R = mg.

b. Lift moving upwards with acceleration a

Types of Collisions
The resultant upward force F produces the
acceleration (F =ma)resultant upward force F = total I. Elastic Collision
upward force P - downwad force (weight) W
 This is a collision in which both kinetic energy
F = P - W ⇒ P = F + w and ∴ and momentum are conserved. If the bodies A
and B above collide elastically;
P = mg + ma
mAuA + mBuB = mAvA + mBvB
 This is what the lift machine will read (the reaction
of the lift on the body). 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
m u + m uB = m vA + mBvB
2 A A 2 B 2 A 2

 Note: In this collision, bodies separate and move

in same or different directions after collision.

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II. Inelastic Collision I. mbub + mwuw = (mb+mw)v

 This is a collision in which momentum is conserved 0. 020×50 + 1.980×0 = (0.020+1.980)v

but kinetic energy is not. In this collision, colliding
1
bodies fuse and move together in one direction with v= = 0.5 ms
-1

2
a common velocity.
II. at maximum height, all K.E is converted to P.E
 If the collision of bodies A and B above collide
inelastically, then; 1 2
mv = mgh, m cancels out
2
mAuA + mBuB = mAvA + mBvB
1 2
1 1 1 1 ×0.5 = 10×h
2 2 2
m u + m uB ≠ m vA + mBvB
2 2
2 A A 2 B 2 A 2
0.125
h= = 0.0125 m
 Note: the total kinetic energy after the impact is 10
always less than the total kinetic energy before the
impact and the loss is due to: Exercise

I. Energy used in deformation of bodies 1. A lorry of mass 3000 kg travelling at a constant

velocity of 72 kmh-1 collides with a stationary car of
II. Energy transformed to heat, sound and even mass 600 kg. The impact takes 1.5 seconds before the
two move together at a constant velocity for 15
light
seconds. Calculate:

Examples i. The common velocity

1. Two trolleys of masses 2 kg and 1.5 kg are traveling ii. The distance moved after the impact
towards each other at 0.25m/s and 0.40 m/s respectively.
The trolleys combine on collision. iii. The impulsive force

I. Calculate the velocity of the combined trolleys. iv. The change in kinetic energy
II. In what direction do the trolleys move after 2. A bullet of mass 15 g is short from a gun 15 kg with a
collision? muzzle velocity of 200 ms-1. If the bullet is 20 cm long,
calculate:
Solution
I. the acceleration of the bullet

II. the recoil velocity of the gun

3. Explain how:

Total linear momentum before impact i. Rocket propulsion takes place

= Total linear momentum after collision
ii. Garden sprinkler works

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mAuA + mBuB = (mA+mB)v.

⇒2.5 ×0.25 + 1.5×(-0.40) = (2.5+1.5)v Frictional Force

0.25 -1
v=
4.0
= 0.00625 ms  Frictional force refers to the force that opposes
or tends to oppose relative motion between two
surfaces in contact. Frictional force acts in the
direction opposite to that of the pulling force.
III. They move in the direction to which trolley of mass
2.5 kg was moving to before collision Types of Frictional Force

I. Static/ Limiting Frictional Force

2. A bullet 0f mass 20 g travelling horizontally at a speed of  This is the force required to just start the body
50 ms-1 embeds itself in a block of wood of mass 1980 g sliding. The force is directly proportional to the
suspended from a light inextensible string. Find: reaction force on the body by the surface.FS = µsR ,

I. The velocity of the bullet and block immediately where µs is the coefficient of static or limiting
after collision
frictional force
II. The height through which the block rises

Solution
II. Kinetic/ Sliding Frictional Force

 This is the force required to keep the body sliding

or moving at a constant speed. It opposes
motion between two surfaces that are in relative
motion. Sliding friction is directly proportional
reaction force. FK = µkR ,

where µk is the coefficient of kinetic or

sliding frictional force

Note: Consider a block of wood being pulled using a Exercise

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rubber band on a horizontal surface as shown below. 1. A bullet of mass 10g traveling horizontally with a
velocity of 300m/s strikes a block of wood of mass
290gwhich rests on rough horizontal floor. After
impact they move together and come to rest after
traveling a distance of 15m.

I. Calculate the common velocity of the bullet and

the block.

II. Calculate the acceleration of the bullet and the

block.

III. Calculate the coefficient of sliding friction

between the block and the floor.

2. Under a driving force of 4000N, a car of mass 1250 kg

has an acceleration of 2.5 m/s2. Find the frictional
force acting on the car.

3. A bullet of mass 22g travelling with a horizontal

velocity of 300ms-1 strikes a block of wood of mass
378g which rests on a rough horizontal surface. After
the impact, the bullet and the block move together and
come to rest when the block has travelled a distance
of 5m. Calculate the coefficient of sliding friction
between the block and the floor.
 The rubber band stretches for some time before the
block starts moving (stretch is due to limiting 4. A block of a metal A having a mass of 40kg requires a
horizontal force of 100N drag it with uniform velocity a
frictional). The stretching increases to a point when
long horizontal surface.
the block starts sliding steadily (sliding frictional
force limits motion at this point).µs > µk I. Calculate the coefficient of friction

 Frictional force is useful/ advantageous in walking, II. Determine the force required to drag a similar
moving vehicles, braking, writing, lighting a match block having a mass of 30kg along the same
stick etc. horizontal surface, calculate.

 Frictional force can be disadvantageous as it causes III. If the two blocks A and B are connected with a
wear and tear in moving parts of machine and leads two bar and a force of 200N is applied to pull the
two long the same surface, calculate.
to generation of unnecessary noise.
a) The tension in the tow bar

b) The acceleration
Example

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A smooth wooden block is placed on a smooth wooden table. IV. If the tow bar is removed and the 40kg blocks of
A force of 14N should be exerted on the4kg wooden block to metal moves around a smooth path of radius
keep the block moving with a constant velocity. 10m at a constant speed of 24ms-1 calculate
the centripetal force.
a) What is the coefficient of kinetic friction,µk
V. At the end of the circular path, the 40kg mass
drops vertically in a trench 10m high and falls
freely determine the time it takes to land at the
Solution bottom of the trench.`

FK = µkR, FK = µkmg Factors Affecting Frictional Force between Two

Surfaces in Contact
14 = µk×4×10
I. Normal reaction– frictional force is directly
14 proportional to normal reaction.
µk = = 0.35
40
II. Nature of the surfaces- the more rough a
surface is, the larger the frictional force.
b) If a 20N brick is placed on the block, what force will
be required to keep the block and brick moving with Methods of minimizing friction
required constant speed?
a) Using rollers- The rollers are laid down on the
surface and the object pushed over them

Solutioncoefficient of kinetic friction,µk remains b) Lubrication -Application of oil or grease to the

constant moving parts
FK = µkR ⇒ FK = 0.35×(40+20)

= 20 N

c) Use of ball bearing -This is applied on rotating axles. Factors Affecting Viscosity In Fluids
The bearing allows the movement of the surface
over the other. I. Density - The higher the density of the fluid,
the greater the viscous drag and therefore
d) Air cushioning - This is done by blowing air into the the lower the terminal velocity.
space between surfaces. This prevents surfaces
from coming into contact since air is matter and
occupies space.

Viscosity

 This is the force that opposes relative motion

between layers of the fluid.

 Consider a small ball bearing introduced gently into

glycerine in a long cylindrical jar. The forces acting
on the ball are as shown below.
II. Temperature - In liquids, viscous drug
decreases (terminal velocity increases) with
temperature, while in gases viscous drug
increases (terminal velocity decreases) with
temperature.

Exercise

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1. The diagram shows a tall measuring cylinder

containing a viscous liquid. A very small steel ball is
released from rest at the surface of the liquid as
shown. Sketch the velocity- time graph for the motion
of the ball from the time it is released to the time just
before it reaches the bottom of the cylinder.

 The resultant downward force (mg - (u+Fr))

accelerates the ball downwards.

 The viscous drag increases with velocity until the 2. Two small spherical identical stones A and B are
sum of upward forces equal the downward forces, released from the same height above the ground. B
falls through air while A falls through water. Sketch
u + Fr = mg the graphs of velocity against time (t) for each stone.
Label the graph appropriately.
 At this point the resultant force is zero and the ball
attains a constant velocity called terminal velocity.

 Terminal velocity is defined as the constant velocity

attained by a body falling in a fluid when the sum of
upward forces is equal to the weight of the body.
Graphically:

Chapter Three ENERGY, WORK , POWER AND MACHINES

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Specific objectives Content

By the end of this topic, the leaner should be able to: 1. Forms of energy and energy transformations

a) Describe energy transformations 2. Sources of energy

b) State the law of conservation of energy  Renewable

c) Define work, energy, power and state their SI  Non- renewable

units
3. Law conservation of energy
d) Define mechanical advantage velocity ratio and
efficiency of machines 4. Work ,energy and power (work done by resolved
force not required)
e) Solve numerical problems involving work,
energy, power and machines. 5. Kinetic and potential energy

6. Simple machines

7. Problems on work, energy, power and machines

Energy  Note: potential energy is the energy possessed

by a body due to its relative position or state
 Energy is the capacity to do work. The SI unit of while kinetic energy is the one possessed by a
energy is the joule (J) after the physicist James body due to its motion.
Prescott Joule who was also a brewer.
Conservation and Transformation of Energy
Sources of Energy
The Law of Conservation of Energy
 They are classified into renewable and
nonrenewable sources.  This law states that “Energy can neither be
created nor destroyed but can only be
i. Renewable sources transformed from one form to another.”
 These are sources whose supply can be renewed Energy Transformation
again and again for use. Examples are; water, solar,
wind, geothermal etc.  Any device that facilitates the transformation of
energy from one form to another is called a
ii. Non-renewable sources transducer. The following are some examples:
 These are sources of energy whose supply cannot Initial form Final form Transducer
be renewed again and again for use. Examples are; of energy of energy
fossils, firewood, nuclear source etc.
Solar Heat Solar panel
Forms of Energy

 The various forms of energy include: Electrical Kinetic Motor

o Mechanical (potential and kinetic) Kinetic Electrical Dynamo

o Chemical – stored in batteries and foods Solar Electrical Solar cell

o Electrical Heat Electrical Thermocouple

o Light
electrical Sound Loudspeaker

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o Nuclear chemical Electrical Battery

o Wave  Note: Energy transformations are represented by

charts.

Examples Examples

Describe the energy transformation that takes place in each 1. Calculate the amount of work done by:
of the following:
a) A machine lifting a load of mass 50 kg through a
a) A car battery is used to light a bulb vertical distance of 2.4m

Solution

b) Coal is used to generate electricity work done, W = force, F ×distance

work done = mg ×distance

= (50 ×10)N ×2.4 m = 1200 J

c) A pendulum bob swing to and fro

b) A laborer who carries a load of mass 42kg to a

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height of 4.0m

d) Water at the top of a waterfall falls and its

temperature rises on reaching the bottom Solution

work done, W = force, F ×distance

work done = mg ×distance

= (42 ×10)N ×4.0 m = 1680 J

2. A man of mass 70 kg walks up a track inclined at an

Work and Energy angle of 300 to the horizontal. If he walks 20 m, how
much work does he do?
 Work is defined as the product of force and distance
moved in the direction of application of the force.
Solution

work done, W = force, F ×distance moved in

the direction of

the applied force, d

W = F×d

 Work is therefore said to be done when an applied work done, W = force, F ×distance
force makes the point of application of the force
work done = mg ×distance, h
move in the direction of the force. No work is done
when a person pushes a wall until he sweats or = (70 ×10)N ×(20 sin 30)m = 7000 J
carrying a bag of cement on his head for hours while
standing. Exercise

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 The SI unit of work is the joule (J). 1 1. A girl of mass 40 kg walks up a flight 10 steps. If each
joule (J) = 1 newton metre (Nm) step is 40 cm high, calculate the work done by the girl.

N/B: Joule is the work done when the point of 2. A body is acted upon by a varying force F over a
application of a force of 1 newton moves through 1 distance of 35 m as shown in the figure below.
metre in the direction of the force.

Notes:

I. Work done is equivalent to energy converted

while doing work.
Calculate the total work done by force
II. The area under force-distance graph represents
work done by the force or energy converted. 3. Sometimes work is not done even if there is an applied
force. Describe some situations when this can happen.

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Variation of K.E and P.E for A Body Projected

Upwards
Gravitational Potential Energy
 Consider a body of mass m projected vertically
 This is the energy possessed by a body due to its upwards. Gravitational force is the only force
height above some surface. Consider a block of acting on it, assuming negligible air resistance.
mass m raised through the height hthe ground. At As it raises kinetic energy decreases since the
that height the block has gravitational potential velocity decreases (the body decelerates
energy. upwards). At the same time, the potential energy
of the body increases and becomes maximum at
the highest point, where K.E is zero. As the body
falls from the highest point, P.E decreases while
K.E increases. The curves for variation of K.E and
P.E of the body with time are shown below.

Potential energy, P.E gained = work done in raising the blockP.E

= weight of the block X height

P.E = mgh

Elastic Potential Energy

 This is the energy stored in a stretched or

compressed spring. The energy is equal to work
 Therefore, at any given points;total energy,
done in stretching or compressing the spring.
E = P.E + K.E = Constant.
work done = Force ×distance moved in direction of force

work done = Average Force ×change in length of spring

Examples
(compression or extension) work done = o+F ×e;
2 A stone of mass 2.5 kg is released from a height of 5.0 m
above the ground:
F
work done = ×e ,
2
a) Calculate the velocity of the stone just before it strikes
but F = ke, where k is the spring constant ∴ the ground.

work done = ( )
1
2
ke e,
b) At what velocity will the stone hit the ground if a
constant air resistance force of 1.0 N acts on it as it
falls?
1 2
work done = ke
2
Solution
Kinetic Energy, K.E
1 2
a) mgh = mv
2
 Consider a body of mass m being acted upon by a
steady force F. the body accelerates uniformly from 1 2
2.5×10×5.0 = ×2.5×v
rest to final velocity v in time t seconds. If it covers a 2
distance s;
100 -1
v= = 10 ms
work done in accelerating the body 1

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= the K.E gained by the body 1 2

b) Resultant force ×h = mv ;
2
= Force, F×distance,s
1
Method 1 (mg-resistance)h = mv2
2

K.E = F×s ;
(2.5×10-1.0)×5 = 1 ×2.5×v2
2
K.E = ma ×(average velocity ×time)
240
( )
-1
v-u u+v v= = 9.798 ms
K.E = m ×( ×t) 2.5
t 2

K.E = m ( )( )
v-0 0+v
t
×
2
×t =
mv vt
×
t 2

1 2
K.E = mv
2

Method2 Exercise

(1 2
K.E = F×s ; K.E = ma × ut+ at
2 ) 1. A stone of mass 5 kg moves through a horizontal
distance 10 m from rest. If the force acting on the
stone is 8 N, calculate:
K.E = m ( )
v-u
t
1 v-u 2
×(0×t + (
2 t
)t )
a) the work done by the force

K.E = m ( )(
v-0
t
1 v-0 2
× (0×t+ (
2 t
)t ) = )
mv vt 1 2
× K.E = mv
t 2 2
b) the kinetic energy gained by the stone

c) the velocity of the stone

2. Calculate the amount of energy needed by a catapult to Power

throw a stone of mass 500g with a velocity of 10ms-1
 Power is defined as the rate of doing work (i.e.
3. A tennis ball is dropped from a height of 1.8m. it rebounds work done per unit time). Since work done is
to a height of 1.25m.
equivalent to energy used, and energy cannot be
a) Describe the energy changes which take place destroyed or created but converted from one
form to another,
b) With what velocity does the ball hit the ground?
 Power can also be defined as the rate of energy
c) With what velocity does the ball leave the ground? conversion OR the rate of transfer of energy.
4. A ball rolls on a table in a straight line. A part from the work done energy converted
Power = or Power =
transitional kinetic energy, state the other form of kinetic time taken time taken
energy possessed by the ball.
 The SI unit of power is the watt; named after the
5. A body has 16 Joules of kinetic energy. What would be its physicist James Watt. 1 watt(W) = 1joule per second
kinetic energy if its velocity was double? (Js )
-1

6. A force of 8N stretches a spring by 10cm. How much Relationship between power and velocity
work is done in stretching this spring by 13cm?

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7. A simple pendulum is released from rest and it swings Power =

work done
;
towards its lowest position. If the speed at the lowest time taken
position is 1.0m/s, calculate the vertical height of the bob
Force×displacement of point of application of force
when it is released. Power =
time taken

8. A metal ball suspended vertically with a wire is displaced displacement

Power = Force×
through an angle θ as shown in the diagram below. The time taken
ball is released from A and swing back to B.
Power = Force×velocity

Given that the maximum velocity at the lowest point B is

2.5ms-1. Find the height h from which the ball is released

9. A 30g bullet strikes a tree trunk of diameter 40cm at

200ms-1 and leaves it from the opposite side at 100ms-1. Examples
Find:
1. An electric motor raises a 50 kg mass at a constant
I. The kinetic energy of the bullet just before it strikes velocity. Calculate the power of the motor if it takes 30
the tree. seconds to raise the mass through a height of 15 m

II. The kinetic energy of the bullet just before it leavees Solution
from the tree.
displacement
Power = Force×velocity; Power = mg×
time taken
III. The average force acting on the bullet as it passes
through the tree. 15 m
power = 50 N× = 25 W
30 s
10. The initial velocity of a body of mass 20kg is 4ms-1. How
long would a constant force of 5.0N act on the body in 2.A soldier climbs to the top of the watch tower in 15
order to double its kinetic energy? minutes. If the work done by the soldier against gravity is
60 kJ, what is his average power in climbing?
11. A compressed spring with a load attached to one end and
fixed at the other and is released as shown below. Solution

work done
Power =
time taken

Sketch on the same axis the variation of potential energy, 60×1000

power = = 66.67 W
15×60
kinetic energy and total energy with time
Exercise
12. The figure below shows how the potential energy (P.E) of

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a ball thrown vertically upwards varies with height 1. A crane lifts a load of 200 kg through a vertical
distance of 3.0m in 6 seconds. Determine the;

I. Work done

II. Power developed by the crane

2. A load of 100N is raised 20m in 50s. Calculate;

I. The gain in potential energy

On the same axes plot a graph of the kinetic energy of the ba
II. The power developed
ll
3. Water falls through a height of 60m at a rate of flow of
10×10 litres per minute. Assuming that there are no
5

energy losses, calculate the amount of power

generated at the base of the water fall. (the mass of 1
liter of water is 1 kg)

4. If 50 litres of water is pumped through a height of 15m

in 30 seconds, what is its power rating of the pump is
80% efficient? (the mass of 1 liter of water is 1 kg)

5. A small wind pump develops an average power of 50N.

It raises water from a borehole to a point 12N above
the water level. Determine the mass of water delivered
in one hour.

Simple Machines  N/B Efficiency, just like M.A of a machine

depends on friction between moving parts of a
 A machine is a device that makes work easier OR Is machine and weight of the parts that have to be
any device by means of which a force applied at one lifted. These reasons explain why the efficiency
point of it can be used to overcome a force at some of a machine is always less than 100%.
other point of it.
Examples
Terms Associated with Machines
1. A certain machine uses an effort of 400N to raise a
1. Effort, E load of 600N. If the efficiency of the machine is 75%,
determine its velocity ration.
 This is the force applied to the machine. The SI unit
of effort is the newton (N). Solution

2. Load, L load
M.A =
effort
 This is the force exerted by the machine. The SI unit 600
M.A = = 1.5
of load is the newton (N). 400

3. Mechanical advantage, M.A η=

M.A
×100%⇒75 =
1.5
×100%
V.R V.R

 This is the ratio of the load to the effort. It has no 1.5

V.R = ×100% = 2
units since it is a ratio of two forces. 75

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load 2. A crane lifts a load of 200 kg through a vertical

M.A =
effort distance of 3.0m in 6 seconds. Determine the;

 For most machines, M.A is greater than one since I. Work done
load is greater than effort. In a few machines M.A. is
less than one (i.e effort is greater than load) e.g. a II. Power developed by the crane
bicycle. III. Efficiency of the crane given that it is
operated by an electric motor rated
Factors Affecting M.A of a Machine
1.25 kW.
I. Friction between moving parts of the machine-The Solution
greater the friction, the less the mechanical
advantage I. work done = mgh

II. Parts of the machine that have to be lifted – The work done = 200×10×3.0 = 6000 J
heavier the weight, the less the mechanical work done
advantage. II. Power =
time taken

4. Velocity Ratio, V.R 6000

Power = = 1000 W or1kW
6
 It is the ratio of the distance moved by the effort DE
power output
to the distance moved by the load DL in the same III. η = ×100%
power input
time.
1000
distance moved by the effort,DE
η= ×100% = 80%
Velocity ratio, V.R = 1250
distance moved by the load, DL
Exercise
D
V.R = E
DL 1. When an electric pump whose efficiency is 70% raises
water to a height of 15m, water is delivered at the rate
 Note: If two machines A and B with velocity ratios V.RA
of 350 litres per minute.
and V.RB respectively are combined, the resultant velocity
ratio V.R will be given by: I. What is the power rating of the pump?

V.R = VRA×VRB II. What is the energy lost by the pump per second?

5. Efficiency, η 2. An electric pump can raise water from a lower-level

reservoir to the high level reservoir to the high level
 It is the ratio of the useful work done by the machine reservoir at the rate of 3.0 x 105 kg per hour. The
(work output) to the total work put into the machine vertical height of the water is raised 360m. If the rate
(work input) expressed as a percentage. of energy loss in form of heat is 200 kW, determine the
efficiency of the pump.
work doneby the machine (work output)
η= ×100%
total work into the machine (work input) 3. Define the efficiency of a machine and give a reason
why it can never be 100%
Relationship between Mechanical Advantage, Velocity Ratio
and Efficiency 4. A pump uses 1g of a mixture of petrol and alcohol in
the ratio 4:1 by mass to raise 1000 kg of water from a
work done on load (work output)
η= ×100% well 200m deep.
work done by effort (work input)

I. How much energy is given by 1g of mixture?

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η=
L×DL
×100%
II. If the pump is 40% efficient, what mass of this
E×DE mixture is needed to raise the water?
(1g of alcohol = 7000J, of petrol= 48000J)
L DL
η= × ×100%
E DE
5. In a machine, this load moves 2m when the effort
D
moves 8m, if an effort of 20N is used to raise a load of
L 1
but = M.A and L = 60N, what is the efficiency of the machine?
E DE V.R

1
η = M.A× ×100%
V.R

M.A
η= ×100%
V.R

Types of Simple Machines Exercise

1. Levers The figure below shows a lever

 A lever is a simple machine whose operation relies I. Determine the force FA in each case
on the principle of moments. It consists of the effort
II. Determine the M.A and V.R in each case
arm, load arm and pivot furculum. The effort armEA
is the perpendicular distance of the line of action of III. Calculate efficiency in each case
the effort from the pivot. The load can, LA is the
perpendicular distance of the line of action of the
load from pivot.

 Consider the figure of simple levers shown below

Classes of Levers

A. Levers with pivot between load and effort e.g.

pliers, hammer etc.

B. Levers with the load between pivot and effort

e.g. wheel barrow, bottle openers etc.

V.R of laver =
distance moved by the effort, DE C. Levers with the effort between the load and the
distance moved by load, DL pivot e.g. sweeping brooms, a fishing rod and

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Using concept of similar triangles;

DE EA
= hammer arm.
DL LA

effort arm, EA
Therefore, for the lever,V.R =
load arm, LA 2. Wheel and axle

 Consists of large wheel of radius R attached to

axle of radius r, the effort is applied on the wheel
while the load is attached to the axle. An example
of the wheel and axle is the winch used to draw
water from well
Example

The figure below shows a lever

 In one complete revolution the wheel moves through a

distance 2πR while the load moves through 2πr.
a) Determine the forceFA
2πR R Radius of wheel
V.R of wheel and axle = = , V.R =
2πr r Radius of axle
b) Determine the M.A and V.R

c) Calculate efficiency
Example
Solution
A wheel and axle is used to raise a load of 300N by a force
a) clockwise moment = anticlockwise moment of 50N applied to the rim of the wheel. If the radii of the
wheel and axle are 85cm and 10cm respectively, calculate
the M.A, V.R and efficiency.
F A×5 = 75×2
Solution
150
⇒FA = = 30 N
5
load
M.A = ;
effort

300
load M.A = =6
b) M.A = ; 50
effort
Radius of wheel 0.85 m
75 V.R = ; V.R = = 8.5
M.A = = 2.5 Radius of axle 0.10 m
30
M.A 6
effort arm, EA η= ×100%; η = ×100% = 70.59 %
V.R = ; V.R 8.5
load arm, LA

5
V.R = = 2.5
2

M.A
c) η = ×100%;
V.R

2.5
η= ×100% = 100%
2.5

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3. The Inclined Plane V.R of screw =

circumference of the screw head
=
2πR
pitch pitch
 Consider the plane below inclined at an angle θ to
the horizontal.
Where R is the radius of the screw head. A screw
combined with a lever is used as a jack for lifting
heavy loads such as cars.

Example

The figure below shows a car- jack with a lever arm of 40

effort distance L cm and a pitch of 0.5 cm. If the efficiency is 60 %, what
V.R of the inclined plane = =
load distance h
effort would be required to lift a load of 300 kg.
h
but sin θ = ⇒h = Lsinθ
L

L 1
V.R of the inclined plane = ; V.R =
L sinθ sinθ

Example

A man uses the inclined plane to lift 100kg load through a

vertical height of 8.0m. The inclined plane makes an angle of Solution
400 with the vertical. If the efficiency of the inclined plane is
M.A M.A
85%, calculate η= ×100% ⇒ η = ×100%
V.R 2πR
pitch
I. The effort needed to move the load up the inclined
plane at a constant velocity. M.A
60 = ×100%
2π×0.4
II. The work done against friction in raising the load 0.005
through the height of 8.0m
(2π×0.4)
60×
0.005
⇒ M.A = = 301.63
100

Solution Load(mg) 300×10

M.A = ⇒ 301.63 =
Effort Effort
M.A M.A
I. η = ×100%; 85 = ×100%;
V.R 1 300×10
sin 50 Effort = = 9.46 N
301.63

1
85 × Exercise
sin 50
M.A = = 1.110
100
A car weighing 200kg is lifted with a jack of 15mm pitch. If
the handle is 32cm from the screw, find the applied force.

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M.A =
load (mg)
; 1.110 =
1000
;
5. Gears
effort effort
 A gear is a wheel which can rotate about its
1000
effort = = 900.9 N centre and has equally spaced teeth or cogs
1.110
around it. Two or more gears are arranged to
make a machine which can be used to transmit
motion from one wheel to another.
II. 15 % of work input is used to overcome friction

i.e. 15 % of (effort × distance moved by effort)

15
100 (
× 900.9×
8
sin 50 )
= 1411.26 joules

4. The Screw

 If the driver wheel has P teeth and the driven

wheel Q teeth, then, when the driver wheel makes
P
one revolution, the driven wheel makes
Q
revolution

revolutions made by the driver wheel 1 Q

V.R = ; =
revolution made by the driven wheel P P
 The distance between two successive threads of a Q

screw is called the pitch of the screw. V.R of a gear system

number of teeth in driven wheel
=
 In one complete revolution, the screw moves number of theeth in the driver wheel
forward or backward through a distance equal to
one pitch.

Exercise

A certain gear has 30 teeth and drives another with 75 teeth.

How many revolutions will the driver gear when the driving
gear makes 100 revolutions?

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6. Pulleys

 A pulley is a wheel with a groove for

accommodating a string or rope. V.R for a pulley
system is the number of ropes supporting load.
There is the three common pulley systems.

A) Single Fixed Pulley

NB For a block and tackle with an odd number of

pulleys it is convenient to have more pulleys fixed
than movable.

Example

A block and tackle system is used to lift a mass of 400 kg.

If this machine has a velocity ratio of 5 and an efficiency of
75 %

The velocity ratio of single fixed pulley is 1. a) Sketch a possible arrangement of the pulleys
showing how the rope is wound

 Solution
B) Single Movable Pulley

b) Calculate the effort applied.

 Solution

The upper pulley in (b) makes it possible for effort to be η=

M.A
×100% ⇒ 75 =
M.A
×100%
V.R 5
applied downward. The velocity ratio of each of the

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pulleys (a) and (b) is 2 since two ropes are supporting M.A =
75×5
= 3.75
100
the load.
Load 400×10
M.A = ; 3.75 =
Effort Effort

C) Block and tackle ⇒Effort =

4000
= 1066.7 N
3.75
This system consists of two or more sets of pulley
blocks. Below are examples.

Exercise

1. An effort of 125N is used to lift a load of 500N through

a height of 2.5m using a pulley system. If the distance
moved by the effort is 15m, calculate

a) The work done on the load

b) The work done by the effort

c) The efficiency of the pulley system.

2. Draw a lock and tackle pulley system of V.R 6 to show

how the pulley can be used to raise a load L by
applying an effort E

7. Pulley Belts Example

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The radius of the effort piston of a hydraulic lift is 2.1cm

while that of the load piston is 8.4cm. This machine is used
to raise a load of 180kg at a constant velocity through a
height of 5m. Given that the machine is 75% efficient,
calculate:

a) The effort needed

b) The energy wasted in using this machine.

Solution

 They are found in posh mills, sewing machines, (a) η =

M.A
×100% but,
V.R
motor engines etc. If the radius of the driver pulley is
R and that of the driven pulley is r, the belt turns a cross-section areaof load piston πRL
2

V.R = =
distance of 2πR when the driving wheel makes the
2
cross-section area of effort piston πRE
revolution. The load wheel (driven wheel) at the 2
π×0.084
same time makes V.R =
π×0.021
2 = 16

2πR R M.A 75×16

= revolutions 75 = ×100% ⇒M.A = = 12
2πr r 16 100

number of revolutions made by effort 1 r L 180 ×10

V.R = = = E= ⇒E = = 150 N
number of revolutions made by load R R M.A 12
r

radius of driven wheel

V.R =
radius of driver wheel (b)25 % of work input is equivalent to energy wasted, i.e. 15 % of
((work output)/Efficiency ×100)

8. Hydraulic machines 100 75 (

25 1800 ×5
× )
×100 = 3000 N

Exercise

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1. The diagram below shows hydraulic brake system.

a) State three properties of the hydraulic brake oil.

b) A force of 20N is applied on a foot pedal to a

piston of areas 50cm2 and this causes stopping
force of 5000N.

I. Pressure in the master cylinder

When the effort piston moves downwards the
load piston is pushed upwards. II. Area of the slave piston

volume of liquid that leaves effort cylinder III. Velocity ratio of the system
= volume of liquid that enters load cylinder
2. Study the figure below of a hydraulic lift and answer
distance moved by effort×cross - section of effort piston
the question below.
= distance moved by load×cross
-section area of piston

distance moved by effort cross-section areaof load piston

=
distance moved by load cross-section area of effort piston

Velocity ratio =

The areas of cross- sections of the pistons and the length

of the arm are as indicated. Find Fo, M.A and efficiency of
the machine.

Revision Exercise

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1. The figure below shows a system of gears for

transmitting power. Gear A has 200 teeth and act as the
driving gear. Gears Band C with 40 teeth and 100 teeth
respectively are mounted on the same axle and they
transmit motion to the last gear D which has 50 teeth.

I. In what direction(s) would gear C and D rotate? If

gear A is rotated in clockwise direction.

II. Find the velocity ratio of the gear system

2. The figure below shows the rear wheel of a bicycle and

the crank wheel A, connected to the sprocket B by a chain.
If wheel A has 40 teeth while B has 25 teeth and the radius
of the rear wheel is 42 cm, calculate:

a) the velocity ratio of the machine,

b) the distance travelled by the bicycle in one revolution

of the crank wheel.

3. The pulley system above has a MA OF 3 calculate: i) the

total work done when a load of 60N is raised through a
height of 9m.ii) the efficiency of the machine.

Chapter Four REFRACTION OF LIGHT

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Specific Objectives Content

By the end of this topic the leaner should be able 1. Refraction of light – laws of refraction (experimental
to: treatment required)

a) Describe simple experiments to illustrate 2. Determination of refractive index

refraction of light
 Snell’s law
b) State the laws of refraction of light
 Real/ apparent depth
c) Verify Snell’s law
 Critical angle
d) Define refractive index
3. Dispersion of white light (Experimental treatment is
e) Determine experimentally the refractive index required)

f) Describe experiment to illustrate dispersion of 4. Total internal reflection and its effects: critical angle
white light
5. Applications of total internal reflection
g) Explain total internal reflection and its effects
 Prism periscope
h) State the applications of total internal reflection
 Optical fibre
i) Solve numerical problems involving refractive
index and critical angle. 6. Problems on refractive index and critical angle

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Definition of Refraction of Light  Refraction of light is the reason as to why;

 Refraction of light refers to the change in a) a stick appears bent when part of it is in water
direction of light at the interface as it travels
from one medium to another at an angle, for
example, a ray of light from air to water. The
cause of refraction of light is the change in
velocity of light as it travels from one medium to
another. The change in velocity is due to
variation of optical density of media.

b) a coin in a beaker of water appears near the

surface than it actually is,

c) a pool of water appears more shallow when

viewed more obliquely etc. (Students to perform
this practically)

 A ray that travels perpendicular to interface

proceeds across the interface not deviated since
the angle of incidence to the normal is zero. Optical density (transmission density) and refraction of
light

 A ray of light travelling from an optically less dense

medium to an optically denser medium bends
towards the normal after refraction e.g. a ray from air
to glass block as in (a) below. The angle of incidence
in this case is greater than angle of refraction.

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 A ray of light travelling from an optically dense sin i

= constant.
medium to an optically less dense medium sin r
bends away from the normal after refraction e.g.
The constant is called refractive index.
a ray from glass to air as in (b) below. The angle
of incidence in this case is less than angle of  A graph of sin i against sin r is a straight line passing
refraction. through the origin and slope of the graph gives the
refractive index of a material.

 NB: some media are physically denser but

optically less dense than others e.g. kerosene is Refractive Index, n
physically less dense but optically denser than
 Refractive index is defined as: the ratio of the sine of
water.
the angle of incidence (i) to the sine of the angle of
Exercise refraction (r) for a ray passing from one medium to
another.
1. Define the term refraction
Consider a ray of light travelling from medium 1 to
2. Draw a diagram to show refraction for a ray of light medium 2.
across the following boundaries in the order they
appear  For the two media,

a) air- water sin i

= refractive index, 1n2
sin r
b) water- glass
(read as the refractive index of medium 2 with
c) glass- air respect to medium 1)
d) glass- air- water
 By the principle of reversibility of light, a ray travelling
3. The figure below shows how refraction occurs. from medium 2 to medium 1 along the same path is
refracted making the same angles.

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sin r
=2n1. r is the angle of incidence in this case.
Which of the two media is optically denser? sin i
Explain.
sin i 1
but, =1n2=
4. Explain with the help of a diagram why pencil placed sin r sinr
partly in water appears bent. sini

1
1n2=
.2n1

sin r
=2n1. r is the angle of incidence in this case.
sin i
Laws of Refraction
sin i 1
but, =1n2=
Law 1 sin r sinr
sini
 The incident ray, the refracted ray and the
normal all lie in the same plane at the point of 1
1n2=
incidence. .2n1

Law 2 (Snell’s law)

 It states that; “the ratio of the sine of the angle

of incidence (i) to the sine of the angle of
refraction (r) is a constant for a given pair of
media”.

Note: 3. Use the information given in the figures (a) and (b) below to
calculate the refractive index anw and the angle θ
Absolute refractive index is the refractive index of a
material with respect to vacuum. A vacuum has a
refractive index of 1.000.

Examples

1. A ray of light passes through air into a certain

transparent material. If the angles of incidence and
refraction are 600 and 350 respectively, calculate the
refractive index of the material

Solution

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4. State the principle of reversibility of light.

sin i
Refractive Index in Terms of Velocity
Refractive index =
sin r
 Light travels faster in an optically less dense medium
sin 60 than in an optically denser medium. Consider a ray of
Refractive index = = 1.510
sin 35
light crossing the boundary from medium 1 with
speed v1 to median 2 with speed v2, where v1 is
greater than v2 as shown below.

2. Given that refractive index of glass is 1.5, calculate the

angle of incidence for a ray of light travelling from air to
glass if the angle of refraction is 100.

Solution

 Refractive index, 1n2 of medium 2 with respect to

medium 1 is given as:

sin i v1
1n2= =
sin r v2
sin i
Refractive index =
sin r
velocity of ligth in medium1
1n2=
1.5 =
sin i velocity of ligth in medium2
o
sin 10
 Absolute refractive indexnis the refractive index of
Angle of incidence, i = Sin (1.5×sin 10 ) = 15.09
-1 o o

the medium when light is travelling from the vacuum

to the medium.

Absolute refractive index,

3. Calculate the refractive index for light travelling from velocity of ligth in vacuum
n=
glass to air given that ang = 1.572. velocity of ligth in medium

Solution  Consider the diagram below;

1
= = 0.6361
1.572

Exercise  If v1is the velocity of light in medium 1 of refractive

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1. A ray of light striking a transparent material is refracted index n1 and v2 the velocity of light in medium 2 of
as shown below. refractive index n2 then;

sin θ1 n2 v1
1n2= = = ;
sin θ2 n1 v2

⇒n1sin θ1 = n2sin θ2;

Calculate the refractive indices: ⇒n sin θ = constant

a) 1n2  Therefore, the product of the refractive index of a

medium and the angle a ray makes with the normal
b) 2n1
in the medium is a constant.

2. Calculate the angle of refraction for a ray of light

striking an air glass interface making an angle of 500 with
the interface (ang=1.526)

Examples 5. The figure below shows a glass prism of refractive index

1.5 with equilateral triangle cross section. Find the angle of
1. Given that the refractive index of diamond is 2.51 and deviation D.
the velocity of light in air is 3.0x108 ms-1, calculate the
velocity of light in diamond.

Solution

refractive index of diamond

velocity of ligth in air
=
velocity of ligth in diamond

8
3.0 ×10 ms
-1 6. The speed of light in medium m1 is 2.0x108ms-1 and the
2.51 = ;
velocity of ligth in diamond medium m2 1.5x 108 ms-1. Calculate the refractive index of
8 -1 medium m2 with respect to m1
3.0 ×10 ms 8 -1
⇒velocity of ligth in diamond = = 1.195 ×10 ms
2.51
7. Calculate angle θ below, given that refractive indices of
3 4
glass and water are and respectively. Ray is from
2 3
2. Given that the velocity of light in water is 2.27x108 ms-1 water to glass
and in glass is 2.1x108 ms-1, calculate angle θ below.

Solution 8. A ray of light is incident on a paraffin glass interface as

shown in the figure below. Calculate r.
sin θwater vwater
=
sin θglass vglass

8
sin θ 2.27×10
= 8 ;
sin 22 2.1×10

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( )
8
-1 2.27×10
⇒θ = sin 8 ×sin 22
2.1×10
o
= 23.89

3. A ray of light is incident on a water-glass interface as

shown below. Calculate r. (take refractive indices of glass
3 4
and water and respectively)
2 3

Solution

nwsin θw = ngsin θg

4
sin 40 = 3 sin r
3 2

r = sin
-1
( 4
3
sin 40×2
3
) Refraction through successive media
o
= 34.85
 Consider a ray of light travelling through multiple
layers of transparent media whose boundaries are
parallel to each other as shown below.

Exercise
sin i sin r1
1n2= ; 2n3=
3 sin r1 sin r2
9. If the refractive index of glass is , calculate the
2
refractive index of the medium in the figure below
sin i sin r1 sin i
1n2 x 2n3 = × = ……..(1)
sin r1 sin r2 sin r2

sin r2 sin i
3n1 = ; ⇒ 1n3= ………… (2)
sin i sin r2

10. Explain why the light bends when it travels from one  Therefore, from equations (1) and (2); 1n3 = 1n2 x 2n3

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medium to another. For k successive media arranged with boundaries

parallel; 1nk = 1n2 x 2n3 …………….k – 1nk

Examples. Exercise

1. A ray of light travels from air into medium 1 and 2 as shown.

1. The refractive index of water is 4 and that of glass 3 .
3 2
Calculate the refractive index of glass with respect to
water.

Solution

wng = wna x ang

1 3
wng= × ;
4 2
3
Calculate;

I. The refractive index of medium 1

= 3 × 3 = 1.125
wng
4 2 II. Critical angle of medium 1

III. The refractive index of medium 2 relative to medium

(1n2)
2. A ray of light travels from air through multiple layers
of transparent media 1, 2 and 3 whose boundaries are 2. A ray of light from air travels successively through parallel
parallel as shown in the figure below. layers of water, oil, glass and then into air again. The refractive
4 6 3
indices of water, oil, and glass are , and respectively the
3 5 2
angle of incidence in air is 60%

a) Draw a diagram to show how the ray passes through

the multiple layers

b) Calculate:

I. The angle of refraction in water

II. The angle of incidence at the oil glass

Calculate : interface

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a) Angle θ Refractive Index in Terms of Real and apparent depth

b) The refractive index of m2  An object under water or glass block appears to be

nearer the surface than it actually is when viewed
c) Speed of light in m1( speed of light in
normally or almost normally. This is due to refraction
air= 3.0×10 ms-1)
8

of light.
d) The refractive index of m3 with respect to m1
 Real depth is the actual depth of the object in the
medium while apparent depth is the virtual depth of
the object in the medium. The difference between
Solutions
real depth and apparent depth is called vertical
a) nasin θa = n1sin θ1 displacement.

1 sin 35 = 1.5 sin θ

θ = sin (
-1 1 sin 35
1.5 )
= 22.48
o

b) n1sin θ1 = n2sin θ2

1.5 sin 22.48 = n2 sin 27

1.5 sin 22.48  Refractive indices of materials can be expressed in

n2 =
sin 27 terms of real and apparent depths.
= 1.263

real depth
Refractive index, n =
sin θa va apparent depth
c) =
sin θ1 v1

8
sin 35 3.0×10
=
sin 22.48 v1 Condition for Use of the Formula: This formula applies
8
only when the object is viewed normally.
sin 22.48×3.0×10
v1 =
sin 35

8
= 2.0×10

n2sin θ2
d) n3 = ;
sin θ3

1.263sin 27
⇒ n3 = = 1.357
sin 25

1n3 = 1n2 x 2n3

sin 22.48 sin 27

1n3= × = 0.9040
sin 27 sin 25

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Examples. below

1. A coin in a glass jar filled with water appears to be

24.0cm from the surface of water. Calculate:

I. The height of the water in the jar, given that

4
refractive index of water is .
3
If the speed of light in the material is 1.25x108 ms-1
II. Vertical displacement calculate:

Solution a) The apparent depth of the mark

real depth b) The vertical displacement of the mark

I. Refractive index, n =
apparent depth ( speed of light in air = 3.0x108 ms-1

4 real depth 5) A pin is placed at the bottom of a tall parallel sided glass
=
3 24 jar containing a transparent liquid when viewed normally
from the top, the pin appears nearer the surface than it
4 actually is:
Real depth = ×24 = 32 cm.
3
With the aid of diagram, explain this observation
This is the height of water in jar.
6) The table below shows the results obtained when such an
II. Vertical displacement
experiment was carried out using various depths of the
= real depth - apparent depth
liquid
Vertical displacement = (32-24)cm = 8 cm
Real depth 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.2 12.8 14
(cm) .0

2. Calculate the displacement and apparent depth of the Apparent 2.4 3.6 4.8 6.10 7.32 8.
object shown in the figure below assuming that the depth (cm) 4 6 8 54
object is viewed normally and boundaries of the
media are parallel. a) Plot a graph of apparent depth against real depth

b) Using the graph, determine the refractive index of

the liquid

c) What is the vertical displacement of the pin when

the apparent depth is 1.22cm?

7) How long does it take a pulse of light to pass through a

glass block 15cm in length?(Refractive index of glass is 1.5
and velocity of light in air is 3.0x108 ms-1)
Solution

real depth
apparent depth =
Refractive index, n
Total Internal Reflection
12 8 9
Total apparent depth = + + = 20 cm
4 8 3  Total internal reflection refers to the complete
3 5 2 bouncing off of light at the boundary between two
media in the optically denser medium. The laws of
Vertical displacement
= total real depth reflection are obeyed in total internal reflection.
-total apparent depth

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Vertical displacement = (12+8+20)cm - 20 cm

= 20 cm

Exercise

1) A tank full of water appears to be 0.5m deep. If the

height of water in the tank is 1.0m, calculate the Conditions for Total Internal Reflection
refractive index of water.
 For internal reflection to occur:
2) A glass block of thicken 12cm is placed on a
mark drawn on a plain paper. The mark is viewed a) Light must be travelling from optically denser to
normally through the glass. Calculate the apparent optically less dense medium.
depth of the mark hence the vertical displacement
3 b) The angle of incidence in the optically denser
(refractive index of glass =
2 medium must be greater than the critical angle

3) A beaker placed over a coin contains a block of Critical Angle

glass of thickeners 12cm. over this block is water of
depth 20cm. calculate the vertical displacement of the Critical angle is the angle of incidence in optically denser
coin and hence, its apparent depth if it is viewed medium for which the angle of refraction in the optically
normally. Assume the boundaries of the media are less dense medium is 900
parallel and take refractive indices of water and glass to
4 3
be and respectively
3 2

4) A mark on a paper is viewed normally through a

rectangular block of a transparent material as shown

Solution

n1sin θ1 = n2sin θ2

2.4 sin c = 1.467sin 90

c = sin (
-1

2.4 )
1.467 sin 90
= 37.66
o

Relationship between Critical Angle and Refractive

Index Exercise

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 Consider a ray of light striking a glass-air 1. What do you understand by the term total internal
interface as shown below reflection?

2. State the conditions necessary for total understand

refraction

3. Define critical angle. Derive an expression for the

relationship between critical angle and refractive index

4. The figure below shows a plane mirror at 300 to face of a

right angled isosceles prism of refractive index 1.50.
Complete the path of light ray after reflection.
From Snell’s law,

sin c
 gna= 0
sin90
0
sin90
 But ang= 1/ gna=
sin C
5. Calculate critical angle for diamond-water interface
0
 sin 90 = 1 (anw = 1.33, and = 2.46)

1
 ang=
sin C

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1 Effects of Total Internal Refraction

Thus, refractive index, n =
sinC
1. Mirage

 Mirage refers to optical illusion of an inverted pool of

water that is caused by total internal reflection light.

 During a hot day air near the ground is warmer and

therefore physically less dense than air away from
Examples the ground. Therefore on a hot day the refractive
1. The figure below shows the path of a ray of light index increases gradually from the ground upwards.
passing through a rectangular block of Perspex placed in
air  A ray of light travelling in air from sky to ground
undergoes continuous refraction and finally reflected
internally.

Calculate the refractive index of Perspex

Solution

1
n=
sinc

1
n= = 1.467
sin 43  Mirages are also witnessed in very cold regions in
which the refractive index increases gradually from
the ground upwards. Images appear inverted in the
2. A ray of light travels from a transparent medium into sky.
Perspex as shown in the figure

i. Which of the two media is optically denser?

Transparent material

ii. Calculate the critical angle C

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2. Atmospheric Refraction IV. Inversion without deviation

 This is a phenomenon in which light rays from

the sun are refracted and then reflected
internally towards the earth. As a result, the sun
is seen even after it has set or before it rises.

Applications of Total Internal Reflection

1. Periscope

 Light is deviated through 900 by first prism before the

second prisms deviates it further through 900 in the
opposite direction. An upright virtual image is formed

Total Internal Reflection Prisms

 Right-angled isosceles glass or Perspex prisms

are used.

I. To turn a ray of light through 900

Note: Prisms are preferred to plane mirrors for use in

periscopes and other optical instrument because:

a) Mirrors absorb some of the incident light

b) The silvering on mirrors can become tarnished and

peel off
II. To turn a ray through 1800
c) Thick mirrors produce multiple images

2. Optical Fibre

 An optical fibre is a thin flexible glass rod of small

diameter in the order of 10-6m. The central case of
the glass is coated with glass of lower refractive
index (cladding)
III. Inversion with deviation

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 A ray of light entering the fibre undergoes total

internal reflections on the boundary of the high and
low refractive index glass. The light therefore travels
through the entire length of the fibre without any
getting lost.

Advantages of optic fibers over ordinary cables.

-they have high carrying capacity

-they are thinner and lighter

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Uses of Optical Fibre Revision Exercise

I. Used in medicine to view internal organs of the 1. The diagram below show two prisms
body.

II. Used in telecommunication where they have

higher advantage than ordinary cables since
they have higher carrying capacity, they are
thinner and lighter.

Given that the critical angle of the glass in both prisms

Dispersion of White Light is 420 sketch the paths of the two beams of
monochromatic light until they leave the flasks.
 Dispersion of light is the splitting of white light
into its component colors. .White light is a 2. The figure below show how white light behaves when it is
mixture of seven colors. incident on a glass prism.

 The components of white light travel with same

velocity in vacuum but their velocities are not the
same in other media.

I. Determine the critical angle of the glass

material

II. Determine the refractive index of the glass

material

3. The diagram below shows a transparent water tank

containing water. An electric damp covered with a shield
which has a narrow slit fixed at one near of the tank. A light
ray from the slit reaches the water surface at an angle of
420 as shown below.
 Cause of Dispersion of White Light: The
separation of white light into constituent colours
is due to their different velocities in a given
transparent medium.

 The velocity of red is highest while that of violet

is the least. Red colour has longest wavelength I. Determine the angle of refraction for the ray
while violet the least wavelength (v = λf) shown in the diagram

II. Determine the angle of incidence for which

the angle of refraction is 900 (refractive index
The Rainbow of water =1.33)

 Rainbow is a bow-shaped colour band of the 4. The diagram below shows a ray of light incident on the
glass – air interface from the inside of the glass. The angle

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visible spectrum seen in the sky. It is formed of incidence I, is slightly smaller than the critical angle of
when white light from the sun is refracted, glass.
dispersed and totally internally reflected by rain
drops.

State and explain what would be observed on the ray if

a drop of water was placed at the point of incidence, o

Chapter Five GAS LAWS

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Specific objectives Content

By the end of this topic, the leaner should be able 1. Boyle’s law, Charles’ law, pressure law, absolute
to: zero

a) state the gas laws for an ideal gas 2. Kelvin scale of temperature

b) verify experimentally the gas laws 3. Gas laws and kinetic theory of gases

c) explain how the absolute zero temperature pv

4. Problems of gas laws (including =constant)
may be obtained from the pressure – T
temperature and volume-temperature
graphs

d) convert Celsius scale to kelvin scale of

temperature

e) state the basic assumption of the kinetic

theory of gases

f) explain the gas laws using the kinetic theory

of gases

g) solve numerical problems involving gas laws

Introduction Characteristics of ideal gas

 To study the behaviour of gases, pressure, I. Ideal gas contains identical particles of negligible
volume and temperature of the gas are volume
considered. A change in one of these variables
causes the others to change. The gas laws deals II. There is no intermolecular forces of attraction
with relationship between this parameters. between particles

III. Molecules undergo perfectly elastic collision with

 NB Gas laws apply for ideal gases only. An ideal
other molecules and with the walls of the container.
gas is one that obeys the gas laws.

Relationship between Kelvin (Absolute) and Celsius

Scales of Temperature The Gas Laws
 Absolute zero temperature refers to the lowest Charles’ law
temperature a gas can fall to. It is -2730celcius
(0 Kelvin).The kelvin scale of temperature starts  It states that,“the volume of a fixed mass of a gas is
at -2730c (0 K). directly proportional to the absolute (kelvin)
temperature at constant pressure”.
 The Kelvin (K) scale is related to the Celsius (oC)
by:  Mathematically, Charles’ law can be expressed as:

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Temperature in kelvin, TK(K) V ∝ T(at constant pressure);

o
= Temperature in celcius, TC( .c) + 273 ⇒V = kT wher k is a constant of proportionality

V
Note: All temperatures must be expressed in kelvin T
= constant
any calculation.
Where V is the volume and T is the kelvin temperature

V1 V2
Therefore, =
T1 T2

Where V1 , V2 and T1 , T2are the initial and final

values of volume and temperature respectively.

Exercise

1. Convert the following temperature to kelvin

I. -400C

II. 550C

2. Convert the following values of temperature to degrees

values

I. 45K

II. 300K

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Graphically, Charles’ law can be expressed III. Describe how the set up can be used to verify Charles’
as shown below; law.

 The initial length of the air column is taken and recorded

as well as the initial thermometer reading.

 The water bath is heated and new height (column) of air is

taken and recorded with its corresponding temperature
reading

 This is repeated several times at suitable temperature

intervals to get several pairs of results

 A graph of volume (height, h (cm)) against absolute

temperature is plotted.

 It is a straight line with positive gradient.

 This shows that the volume is directly proportional to

absolute temperature.

3. The volume of a gas enclosed with a movable piston is 300

cm3 when the temperature is 2o o C. Determine the temperature
at which the volume of the gas increases to 355 cm3. (Assume
pressure does not change)

Solution
3 3 o
V1 = 300 cm , V2 = 355 cm , T1 = 20 .C = (20+273)K
= 293 K, T2 = ?

Sample questions on Charles’ law V1 V2

=
T1 T2

3 3
300 cm 355 cm
=
1. State Charles’ law for an ideal gas. 293 K T2

The volume of a fixed mass of a gas is directly 3

355 cm ×293 K
T2 = = 346.72 K
proportional to the absolute (kelvin) temperature at 300 cm
3

constant pressure.
o
In celsius scale, T2 = 346.72 - 293 = 53.72 .C
2. The set-up below shows an arrangement that can be
used to determine the relationship between temperature Exercise

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and volume of a gas at constant pressure. 1. In an experiment to find the relationship between the volume
and temperature of a mass of air at constant pressure, the
following results were obtained:

Volume 31 3 3 3 4 43
(cm) 3 5 8 0

Temperatur 0 2 4 6 8 100
e 0c 0 0 0 0

Draw a graph to show the relationship between volume and

I. State any two uses of sulphuric acid. temperature and use the graph to calculate the increase in
volume of the gas per unit rise in temperature
 Used as a pointer to volume of the gas on the scale
2. Some results of an experiment to study the effect of
 Used as a drying agent for the air
temperature on volume of a fixed mass of a gas at a constant
 Used to trap air pressure are displayed in the table below.

II. What is the use of the stirrer? Volume 2 2 4

(cm)3 0 5 0
To stir the water bath for uniform distribution of heat
Temperatur 0 - 20
III.
State the measurement that used to be taken in e (0c) 136 5
this experiment.
Fill the missing results
 Temperature
3. The volume of a gas enclosed with a movable piston is 0.02
 Air column height which corresponds to volume m3 when the temperature is 42 0c. Determine the temperature
at which the volume of the gas increases to 0.4 cm3 (assume
pressure does not change)

4. A tube contains a gas enclosed with a thread of mercury. The

tube was placed horizontally in a water bath. The initial
temperature of the water was 200c and the length of the gas
column was 25cm. Determine the temperature at which the
length of air column would be 20cm (Assume the pressure
does not change)

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Pressure law II. Describe how the set- up can be used to verify pressure law

 Pressure law states that, “the pressure of a fixed  The initial temperature and pressure reading are taken
mass of a gas is directly proportional to the and recorded
absolute (kelvin) temperature at a constant  The water bath is heated gently and some more pairs
volume”. of pressure and temperature readings are taken and
recorded at suitable temperature intervals
 Mathematically, pressure law can be expressed
as:  A graph of pressure against temperature is plotted.

P ∝ T(K), at constant temperature  It is a straight line with positive gradient.

P  This shows that the pressure is directly proportional to

= constant ( at constant volume)
T(k) absolute temperature.

P1 P2 3. A gas in container has pressure of 3.0x105 Pa when the

therefore, = 0
T1 T2 temperature is 20 c. Determine the pressure of the gas when
the temperature lowered to -5 0c (assume there is no change in
Where P1, P2 and T1, T2 are initial and final volume)
pressure and temperature values
o o
respectively T1 = 20 .C = 293 K, T2 = -5 .C = 268 K, P1
5
= 3.0×10 Pa, P2 = ?
 Graphically, pressure law can be expressed as:
P1 P2
=
T1 T2

5
3.0×10 Pa P2
=
293 K 268 K
5
3.0×10 Pa×268 K 5
P2 = = 2.744 ×10 Pa
293

Exercise

1. 80 cm3 of hydrogen gas was collected at a temperature of 15

o
C and normal atmospheric pressure. Determine the pressure
of a gas when the temperature is lowered to 0o C at constant
volume.

2. In an experiment to determine the absolute zero temperature

(0 K), the pressure of a gas at constant volume was measured
as the temperature was varied gradually. The table below
shows the results obtained.

Pressure 75 77 80 82 85 88 9
Sample questions on Pressure law
(mmHg) 0 6 2 8 4 0 0

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1. State pressure law. Temperature0 15 25 35 45 55 65 7

C 5
The pressure of a fixed mass of a gas is directly
proportional to the absolute (kelvin) temperature at a I. Plot a graph of pressure against temperature
constant volume.
II. Determine the value of absolute zero from the graph
2. The set up below shows an arrangement used to
determine the relationship between temperature and III. Give a reason why the temperature in II above could
pressure of a gas at constant volume. not be practically obtained

Boyle’s Law

 Boyle’s law states that, “the pressure of a fixed mass

of a gas is inversely proportional to its volume at a
constant temperature”.

 Mathematically, Boyle’s law can be expressed as:

I. State the measurement that need to be taken in this
experiment 1
P∝ (at constant temperature)
V
a) Temperature
PV = constant (at constant temperature)
b) Pressure
therefore, P1V1= P2 V2

where P1 ,P2 andV1, V2are initial and final values of

pressure and volume respectively.

 Graphically, Boyle’s law can be expressed as: Sample questions on Pressure law

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1. State Boyle’s law.

The pressure of a fixed mass of a gas is inversely proportional

to its volume at a constant temperature.

2. The set- up below shows an arrangement used to determine

the relationship between pressure and volume of a gas at
constant temperature.

Describe how the set up can be used to verify Boyle’s law.

 With the tap open, air is pumped until the oil raises a small
but measurable height. The tap is then closed.

 The value of pressure and its corresponding height is read

and recorded.

 This is repeated to obtain more pairs of values of pressure

and corresponding heights.

 A graph of pressure versus volume is plotted using the

result.
 If the experiment on Boyle’s law is repeated at
different fixed temperatures and the results  It is a smooth curve with negative instantaneous gradient
plotted, isothermal curves are obtained.
 This shows that the pressure is inversely proportional to
volume.

3. A bubble of air of volume 1.2cm3 is released at the bottom of

a water dam 15m deep. The temperature of the water is 20 0c.
Determine the volume of the bubble as it emerges on the water
surface where the pressure is the normal atmospheric pressure
(take ρ of water =1000kgm-3 and normal atmospheric pressure
1.0x105pa)

Solution

P1 V1= P2 V2

P1 = Patm + ρgh

5 -3 N -1 5
1.0×10 pa + 1000 kgm ×10 kg ×15m = 2.5×10 pa

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5
P2 = 1.0×10 pa

3
V1 = 1.2cm

P1 V
V2 = ?, V2 = 1

P2

5 3
2.5×10 pa×1.2cm 3
= 5 = 3.0cm
1.0×10 pa

3. A narrow uniform glass tube contains air enclosed by a 10cm

thread of mercury. When the tube is held vertical, the air column
is 600 mm long. When titled slightly, the air column is 679 mm
long. The temperature is the same in both cases (i.e.
temperature is constant)

I. Give the reason for the differences in length of the air column
for the two positions.

When vertical, the mercury exerts pressure on the air, reducing

the volume.

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II. Determine the atmospheric pressure at the place (ρ of P1 V1 PV

= 2 2
mercury =13.6gcm-3) T1(K) T2(K)

Solution 5
1.0×10 Pa×1 m
3
P ×0.06 m
3

= 2
100 K 293 K
5 3
1.0×10 Pa×1 m ×293 K 6
P2 = 3 = 4.883×10 Pa
100 K×0.06 m

Exercise

1. A container carries 3000cm3 of oxygen at a pressure of

P1 V1 = P2 V2
1.0x106pa a temperature of 200c in a cylinder. What is the
P1 volume of the gas in the cylinder at the top of the mountain
= Patm + ρgh; P1=Patm where pressure is 0.8x106pa and temperature is -170c?
-3 -1
+13600kgm ×10Nkg ×0.1m
4
= Patm + 1.36×10 pa
Kinetic Theory of Gases
P2 = Patm
 The kinetic theory of gases proposes that the
Let the cross –sectional area of the tube be A
molecules of a gas are in a continuous random
V1 = 60A cm ,
3
V2 = 67.9A cm
3
motion.
4 3
(Patm + 1.36×10 pa) ×60A cm = Patm×67.9 A cm
3
Basic Assumptions of the Kinetic Theory of Gases

Patm =
8.16×10 pa
5
5
= 1.03×10 pa.
I. Attraction between the molecules of a gas is
7.9 negligible.
Exercise
II. The volume of the molecule of the gas is zero.
1. A column of air 26 cm long is trapped by mercury
III. Collisions between the molecules and with the
thread 5 cm long when vertical. When it is placed
walls of the container and perfectly elastic.
horizontally, the air column is 28 cm. Find the
atmospheric pressure in mmHg.

2. The table below shows the results obtained in an

Kinetic Theory of Gases and Gas Laws
experiment to study the variation of the volume of a
fixed mass with pressure at constant temperature. Boyle’s Law and Kinetic Theory
Pressure (cm Hg) 60 - 90 -
 When temperature is constant, a change in volume of
Volume (cm ) 3
36 80 - 40 gas results in a change in number of collisions per
unit time between molecules and between molecules
Fill in the missing results. and walls of container. As a result, pressure changes.

3. Explain why a bubble increases in size and finally Charles’ Law and Kinetic Theory
burst when it reaches the surface.
 When pressure is constant and temperature is raised,
the speed of molecules rises causing them to occupy

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General Gas Equation (Equation of State) for Ideal a larger volume of the container.
Gases
Pressure Law and Kinetic Theory
 It is obtained by combining any two of the three
gas law.  A change in temperature changes the kinetic energy
and hence the speed of molecules of a gas and
PV
= constant
therefore if volume of gas is constant, pressure
T(K) changes as a result change in temperature. Pressure
is caused by collisions between molecules of the gas
P1 V1 PV
Therefore, = 2 2 and with the walls of the container.
T1(K) T2(K)
Limitation of Gas Laws
where P1 , P2 ;V1, V2 and T1 T2 are the initial and
final values of pressure, volume and  Gas laws do not apply in real gases. Real gases
temperature respectively. liquefy before the volume of the gas reduces to zero.

Example

In the manufacture of oxygen 1m3 of the gas produced at -

1730c and normal atmospheric pressure is compressed
into a cylinder of volume 0.06 m3 and stored at a
temperature of 20 0c. What is the pressure of the gas in
the cylinder? (Normal atmospheric pressure, Patm =
1.0x105 pa)

Solution
5 3 3
P1 = 1.0×10 Pa, P2 = ? , V1 = 1 m , V2 = 0.06 m ,

o o
T1 = -173 .C=100 K, , T2=20 .C=293 K,

Revision Exercise

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1. A balloon filled with organ gas a volume of 200 cm3 at

the earth’s surface where the temperature is 200C,
and the pressure 760mm of mercury. If it is allowed
to ascend to a height where the temperature is 00C
and the pressure 100mm of mercury, calculate the
volume of the balloon.

2. A fixed mass of Oxygen occupies a volume of 0.01m3

at a pressure of 1 x 105 Pa and a temperature 00C. If
the pressure is increased to 5 x 106 pa and the
temperature is increased to 250C. What volume will
the gas occupy?

3. An empty barometer tube of length 90cm is lowered

vertically with its mouth downwards into a tank of
water. What will be the depth at the top of the tube
when the water has risen 15cm inside the tube, given
that the atmospheric pressure is 10 m of water?

4. A hand pump suitable for inflating a football has a

cylinder which is 0.24m in length and an internal cross
-sectional area of 5.0 x 10-4 m2. To inflate the football
the pump handle is pushed in and air is pumped
through a one-way valve. The valve opens to let air in
to the ball when the air pressure in the pump has
reached 150 000 pa. (Assume the air temperature
remains constant}

I. If the pressure in the pump is initially 100 000 pa,

calculate how far the piston must be pushed
inwards before the one way valves opens.

II. When the one-way valve opens the total pressure

in the cylinder will be 150 000 pa. What force will
be exerted on the piston by the air in the cylinder?

5. The graph in figure below shows the relationship

between the pressure and temperature for an ideal
gas. Use this information in the figure to answer
questions that follow.

I. State the unit of the horizontal axis

quantity.

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II. Write a statement of the gas law

represented by the relationship.

6. Draw axes and sketch a graph of pressure (p) against

reciprocal of volume (1/v) for a fixed mass of an ideal
gas at a constant temperature.

7. A balloon is filled with air to a volume of 200ml at a

temperature of 293 k. Determine the volume when the
temperature rises to 353 k at the same pressure

8. Show that the density of a fixed mass of gas is

directly proportional to the pressure at constant
temperature.

9. The pressure of helium gas of volume 10cm3

decreases to one third of its original value at a
constant temperature. Determine the final volume of
the gas.

Chapter Six WAVES II

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Specific objectives Content

By the end of this topic the learners should be able 1. Properties of waves including sound waves:
to: Refraction, diffraction, interference (experimental
treatment required)
a) Describe experiments to illustrate properties
of waves 2. Constructive interference and destructive
interference (Qualitative treatment only)
b) Explain constructive and destructive
interference 3. Stationary waves (qualitative and experimental
treatment required)
c) Describe experiments to illustrate stationary
waves

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The Ripple Tank

 A ripple tank is used to demonstrate properties

of waves in the laboratory. It consists of a tray
containing water, a point source of light above
the tray, a white screen placed underneath and a
small electric motor (vibrator).

 The waves are generated by an electric vibrator

as ripples and they travel across the surface of
the shallow water in the tray. Crests appear
bright while troughs appear dark when the wave
is illuminated. Note that crests act as plano-
convex lens and therefore converge rays on
them while troughs act as plano-concave and
therefore diverge ray incident on them.

2. Reflection of Waves

 Reflection is the bouncing off of a wave from an

 A bar attached to vibrator produces plane waves
obstacle. When reflection takes place, only the
while circular waves are produced by fixing a
direction of the wave changes; Wavelength,
small ball to the bar.
frequency and speed of the wave do not change.
Reflection of waves obeys the laws of reflection
which are applicable to the reflection of light.
Properties of Waves

1. Rectilinear Propagation

 Rectilinear propagation is the property of the

waves to travel in a straight line and
perpendicular to the wave fronts.

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a) Plane waves on a straight reflector at an angle After reflection, the waves appear to be diverging from a
point behind the mirror convex reflector has a virtual
focus.

e) Circular waves on a straight reflector

b)Plane waves on a straight reflector at an angle of

90o

f) Circular waves on a concave reflector

c) Plane waves on a concave reflector

3. Refraction of Waves

 Refraction of a wave refers to change in direction of

the wave. When a wave is refracted, it changes its
After reflection, the waves converge to a point in speed, direction and wavelength but not its
front of the reflecting surface. Hence, the concave frequency.
reflector has a real focus
 When water waves cross into shallow region from a
d) Plane waves on a convex reflector
deep region, the separation between wave fronts
becomes smaller i.e. the wavelength decreases

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a) Wave fronts parallel to boundary

 During the night air close to ground is cooler than

that higher above. Sound waves produced close to
b) Wave fronts meeting the boundary at an angle ground are refracted downwards because the wave
fronts near the ground move slower than those on
the upper parts. This is why sound waves travel far
from source during the night.

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c) Refraction of straight water waves on shallow Exercise

convex surface
The figure below shows plane waves travelling in a shallow
region of a ripple tank. The shallow region is incident on a
deeper region at an angle of 450 as shown.

a) Describe how the waves are generated in a ripple tank

d) Refraction of straight water waves on shallow b) Complete the diagram to show the appearance of the wave
concave surface fronts in the deep region

c) What property of waves is illustrated in the diagram you

have drawn?

4. Diffraction of Waves

 Diffraction is the spreading of a wave as it goes

around an obstacle or through a small aperture.
When diffraction occurs there is a change indirection
but not in velocity, frequency or wavelength.

Refraction of Sound Waves

 During the day air close to ground is much

warmer than the air higher above. Sound waves
produced close to the ground are refracted
upwards because wave fronts near the ground
move faster than those on the upper parts. This
is why sound waves are not heard far from
source during the day.

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 When aperture is wider than the wavelength of 5. Interference of Waves

the plane wave, the wave passes through as
plane waves but when the width of the aperture  Interference is the interaction of two or more waves
is nearly equal or less than the wavelength of the of the same frequency emitted from coherent
plane wave, the wave fronts emerge circular sources. The result of interference can be a much
longer wave, a smaller wave or no wave at all.

 Interference is an import of the principle of

superposition which states that:“the resultant effect
of two waves travelling at a given point in the same
medium is the vector sum of their respective
displacement”

Condition for interference

The wave sources must be coherent i.e.

I. Have same frequency or wavelength

II. Have equal or comparable amplitudes

III. Have constant phase difference

Types of interference

 Diffraction of sound waves is the reason as to a) Constructive interference

why sound from a loud speaker in a room is
heard round a corner without the source being  It occurs when the wave amplitudes reinforce each
seen. other building a wave of even greater amplitude

Exercise

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1. Explain why diffraction of light waves is not a common

phenomenon.

2. Give the definition of the following terms as connected

with waves

a) Wavelength

b) Frequency
b) Destructive interference
c) Wave front
It occurs when the wave amplitude oppose each other
3. Five successive wave fronts in a ripple tank are resulting in waves of reduced amplitude.
observed to spread over a distance of 6.4cm. If the
vibrator has a frequency of 8Hz, determine the speed of
the waves

4.

a) What is diffraction?

b) What factors determine the extent of diffraction

that occurs?

c) Describe an experiment that can be set to

illustrate this phenomenon
 For this case, the waves undergo complete
5. Diffraction, refraction and reflection are all properties of destructive resulting in a pulse (a wave) of zero
waves which one of these affects: amplitude

a) Direction but not speed?

Speed and direction of travel of the waves?

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Interference in water (using a ripple tank) Interference in light (Young’s double slit experience)

 Coherent water waves are generated by  Interference in light is evidence that light is a wave. It
attaching two similar balls on the bar in contact can be demonstrated by young’s double slit
with vibrator. experiment whose pioneer is the Physicist Thomas
Young.

 Observation: Alternate dark lines (in regions of

destructive interference) and bright lines (in  A monochromatic light source is used in the double
regions of constructive interference) are seen on slit experiment. The slit S1 diffracts light falling on it
the white screen. illuminating both slit S2 and S3 in front of it.

 A series of alternate bright (in regions of constructive

interference) and dark (in regions of destructive
Interference in sound
interference) vertical bands/fringes are formed on
 Coherent sources of sound can be obtained by the screen.
connecting two identical loud speakers in
 The central fringe is the brightest (region of
parallel to an audio- frequency generator as
constructive interference).
show below.

S2 O = S3O implying that path difference is zero

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S3P - S2P = 1λ i.e.path difference one wave.

 Alternate loud (in regions of constructive 1 1

S3R - S1R = λ i.e. path difference = wave
interference) and soft sound (in regions of 2 2
destructive interference) is heard along XY.

 Along CO only loud sound is heard

 If waves from one speaker are exactly out of

phase with those from the other soft sound will
be heard along CO i.e. destructive interference

 Connecting the speakers to same audio

frequency generator makes they satisfy the
condition of being coherent sources.

 If the frequency of the signal is increased, the

points of constructive interference (loud
sounds) along XY will become more closely
spaced and same way to those of destructive
interference

Example

1. I. Distinguish between diffraction and refraction of waves

II. The figures below shows plane waves approaching slits

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Complete the diagrams to show the pattern across the  A node is a point of zero displacement of a
slits. stationary wave while an antinode is a point of
maximum displacement of a stationary wave.

III. The figure below shows two rays of monochromatic

light incident on two adjacent slits S2 and S3.
2. Stationary longitudinal wave

 An example is a slinky spring with one end fixed and

the other end moved to and fro rapidly in a horizontal
direction.

Give an expression for the wave length of the light in

terms of d, x, and y
 Another example is when two speakers connected to
IV. In the space below, sketch the interference pattern same audio- frequency generator are arranged to
observed if white light was used instead of face each other.
monochromatic light

V. Explain the variation of frequency across the pattern

displayed in (IV) above

VI. Give that the wavelength of the monochromatic light

used in (III) above is 1.0x107 m, calculate its frequency
(speed of light is 3.0x108ms-1)

2. Two observers P and Q are stationed 2.5km a part, each

equipped with a starter gun. Q fires the gun and observes
P record the sound 7.75 seconds after seeing the smoke
from the gun. Later P fires the gun and observes Q record
sound 7.25 seconds after seeing the smoke from the gun.
Determine;
 Alternate loud (at antinode) and soft (at node) is
a) The speed of sound in air
heard along AB.
b) The component of the speed of the wind along the

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straight  Diagram b) shows the wave form formed on the

screen of a CRO when a microphone connected to
line joining P and Q
the CRO is moved along AB.

Stationary(Standing) Waves
Exercise
 It is defined as a wave formed when two equal
The diagram below shows an arrangement that can be used to
progressive waves travelling in opposite determine the speed of sound in air.
directions are superposed on each other.

Types of stationary waves

1. Stationary transverse wave

A microphone connected to a CRO with its time base on is
moved along an imaginary line AB between the wall and the
 An example this case is a wave produced when
loud speaker.
jerking a string fixed at one end. A transverse
wave travels along the string to the fixed end I. Use a diagram to explain what is observed as the
and then reflected back. The two waves microphone is moved from A to B
travelling in opposite directions along the string
II. If the frequency of the sound emitted by the loud
then combine/ superpose to form a stationary
speaker is 1650 Hz and the distance between a
transverse wave.
minimum and the next maximum is 0.05m, calculate the
velocity of sound air.

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III. If the frequency of the vibrating loud speaker is

decreased what happens to the distance between two
adjacent maximum?

Conditions Necessary for Formation of Stationary 5. The sketch graph shows the results of an experiment to
Waves study diffraction patterns using double slit.

 The two progressive waves travelling in opposite

directive to form a stationary wave must be:

I. Same speed

II. Same frequency i. Sketch an experimental set up that may be used to

obtain such a pattern.
III. Same or nearly equal amplitudes
ii. Name an instrument for measuring intensity

iii. Explain how the peaks labelled A and B and troughs

Properties of a Stationary Wave labeled C are formed.

i. A stationary wave is produced by 6. What measurable quantity is associated with colours of

superposition of two progressive waves light?
travelling in opposite directions. 7. Circular water waves generated by a point source at the
centre O of the pond are observed to have the pattern
ii. The wave has nodes at points of zero
shown in the Fig. Explain the pattern.
displacement and antinodes at points of
maximum displacement.

iii. In the wave, vibration of particles at points

between successive nodes is in phase.

iv. Between successive nodes particles have

different amplitudes of vibration.
8. In an experiment to observe interference of light waves, a
v. The distance between successive nodes or double slit is placed close to the source.
λ
antinodes is . i. State the function of the double silt.
2
ii. Describe what is observed on the screen.
Differences between stationary and progressive

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waves iii. State what is observed on the screen when

Stationary waves Progressive waves a) The slit separation S1S2 is reduced.

b) White light is used instead of monochromatic source.

They do not transfer They transfer energy from
energy from one point one point to another since 13. The Fig. shows an experimental arrangement. S1 and S2 are
to another since the the wave forms more narrow slits.
wave forms do not through the medium
move through the
medium

The distance between Distance between

two successive nodes successive troughs or
λ crests is λ
or antinodes is
2

Vibrations of particles Phase of particles near

at points between each other are different
State what is observed on the screen when the source is:-
successive nodes are
in phase i) Monochromatic (ii) White light

14. The fig shows the displacement of a practice in progressive

wave incident on a boundary between deep and shallow
The amplitudes of The amplitude of any two
regions.
particles between particles which are in
successive nodes is phase are the same
different

Revision Exercise

I. Complete the diagram to show what is observed after

boundary. (Assume no loss of energy).
1. Name a property of light that shows it is a
transverse wave.
II. Explain the observation in (i) above.
2. In an experiment using a ripple tank the frequency, f
of the electric pulse generator was reduced to one
third of its original value. How does the new wave
length compare with the initial wavelength? Explain
your answer.

3. Distinguish between stationary and progressive

waves.

4. State the condition for a minimum to occur in an

interference pattern.

Chapter Seven CURRENT ELECTRICITY II

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Objectives Content

By the end of this topic the leaner, should be able 1. Scale reading ammeter, voltmeter
to:
2. Electric circuits: current, potential difference
a) Define potential difference and state its units
3. Ohm’s law (experimental treatment required
b) Measure potential difference and current in a
circuit 4. Resistance types of resistors, measurements of
resistance units
c) Verify Ohm’s law
5. Electromotive force(emf) and internal resistance of
d) Define resistance and state its unit a cell(E = V + Ir)

e) Determine experimentally the voltage-current 6. Resistors in series and in parallel

relationships for various conductors
7. Problems on ohm’s law, resistors in series and in
f) Define emf and explain internal resistance of the parallel.
cell

g) Derive the formulae for effective resistance of

resistors in series and in parallel

h) Solve numerical problems involving ohm’s law

resistor in the series and in parallel

Electric Current I=
ne
n=
It
t e
 Electric current refers to the rate of flow of -19
NB charge on an electron, e = 1.6×10 coulomb
charge.

 The movement of charged particles called

electrons constitutes an electric charge and the Example
conducting path through which electrons move
is called an electric circuit. Calculate the amount of charge that passes through a point in a
circuit in 3seconds, if the current in the circuit is 0.5A.
change, Q
current, I = Solution
time, t

Q Q = It
I=
t
Q = 0.5 A ×3s = 1.5 C
 SI unit of electric current is the ampere (A)after
the famous physicist Marie Ampere.
Exercise
 Sub-multiples of the ampere are milli-

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ampere(mA) and micro-amperes (μA) 1. A current of 0.08A passes in a circuit for 2.5 minutes.

-3 -6
I m A = 1×10 A, I μ A = 1×10 A I. How much charge passes through a point in the
circuit?

II. Calculate the number of electrons passing through

Definition of the ampere the point per second

 An ampere refers to an electric current that 2. A current of 0.5A flows in a circuit. Determine the quantity
flows in a conductor when a charge of 1 of charge that crosses a point in 4 minutes.
coulomb flows per unit time

Total charge passing through a point in a circuit Measurement of Electric Current

 Ifn electrons pass through a point and that each  Electric current is measured using an ammeter.
electron carries a charge e then the total charge
Q passing through the point is equal to ne
coulombs i.e. Q = ne; but Q = It, ⇒ne = It

Example

In moving a charge of 30 coulombs from point B to A 150

joules of work done what is the decimal place between A and
B?

Solution

W
p.d =
Q

150
p.d = =5V
30

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 Zero error, if any, should be rectified using the

adjustment screw before using the ammeter.
Definition of the volt
 The ammeter is connected in series with other
 A volt is defined as the energy needed to move one
components in the circuit since it is an
coulomb of charge from one point to another
instrument of low resistance.

Measurement of Potential Difference

 Potential difference is measured using a voltmeter.

 An appropriate scale should be chosen to safe
guard the coil of the ammeter from blowing up

 Accuracy of each scale of the ammeter must be

observed when recording readings.

Exercise

Give the readings shown by both scales of the ammeter

 Zero error, if any, should be rectified using the
below.
adjustment screw before using the voltmeter.

 The voltmeter is connected in across (in parallel) the

components in the circuit since it is an instrument of
high resistance.

 An appropriate scale should be chosen to safe guard

the coil of the voltmeter from blowing up.

 Accuracy of each scale of the voltmeter must be

observed when recording readings.

Exercise

Give the readings shown by both scales of the voltmeter below.

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Potential Difference (Voltage)

 Electric potential difference between two points

refers to work done (in joules) in moving one
coulomb of charge from one point to the other.

 The SI unit of potential difference is the volt (v).

 The battery is the source of power for moving

charge through the circuit.

work done, W(in joules)

potential difference =
Change moved, Q (in coulombs)

W
p.d =
Q

Current and voltage in series arrangement

I. Current in series arrangement

 Consider the set-up below:

Note: For both the ammeter and voltmeter, the

negative terminal is connected to negative terminal
of the battery and positive terminal to positive
terminal of battery.

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Current and Voltage in Parallel Circuit Arrangement  When the switch is closed, it is observed that;

Reading on A1 = reading on A2 = reading on A3 = reading on A3

I. Current in Parallel  Therefore, when components are connected in

series, same current flows through each of the
 Consider the circuit shown below: components even if the components are not identical

II. Voltage in Series Arrangement

 Consider the set-up below

 When the switch is closed, it is observed that:

Reading on A1 + reading on A2

+ reading on A3 = Reading on A4

 Therefore, the sum of the currents in parallel

circuits is equal to the total current. The total
current flowing into junction is equal to total
current flowing out.  When the switch is closed, it is observed that:

Reading on V1 + reading on V2 + reading on V3 = reading on V4

II. Voltage in Parallel  Therefore, when components are connected in

series, the sum of the voltage drop across the
 Consider the diagram below: components is equal to the voltage supply.

Exercise

1. Using the diagram below, find:

I. The current passing through L1 in the figure below

given that ammeter A reads 1.2A and currents through
L2 and L3are 0.34A and 0.52A respectively.

II. V1 V2 and V3 readings, given that V4 reads is 3.0V

 When the switch is closed, it is observed that:

Reading on V1 = reading on V2 = reading on V3

= reading on V4

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 Therefore, for components in parallel

arrangement, the same voltage drops across
each of them (since their terminals are at the
same electric potential.

2. In the circuit shown below, what is the p.d across the

bulb, and the switch when:

I. The switch is open?

II. The switch is closed?

 From the graph, voltage is directly proportional to the

current and this is graphical representation of Ohm’s
law.
3. Define a volt
 The slope of the graph gives resistance.SI unit of
4. Two cells, A and B connected with parallel are in resistance is the ohm(Ω)
series with a bulb as shown below.
∆V
=R
∆I

 Multiples of an ohm are:

1 kilohm (1 kΩ) = 1000Ω (10 Ω)

3

6
I. Copy the diagram to show where the ammeter 1 megohm (1MΩ) = 1000000Ω(10 Ω)
should be connected in order to measure the
current through cell A

II. Voltmeter should be connected to measure the Definition of an ohm

potential difference a cross both bulb and cell B
 An ohm refers to the resistance of a conductor when
a current of 1 A flowing through it causes a voltage

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Ohm’s Law drop of 1 V across its ends.

 Ohm’s law relates the voltage a cross the  The reciprocal of resistance is a quantity called
conductor and the current flowing through it. It 1
conductance, ( ) whose SI units is Ω-1or Siemens (S)
is after the physicist George Simon Ohm. It R
states that, “the current flowing through a
conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference a cross its ends provided Example
that temperature and other physical properties
are kept constant”.

A current of 6mA flows through a conductor of resistance

4kΩ. Calculate the voltage a cross the conductor.

Solution

V = IR
 Mathematically, Ohm’s law can be expressed as:
-3 3
V = 6×10 ×4×10 = 24 V
V∝I

V = RI
Exercise
 ∴ V = IR,Where V is the potential difference, I is
1. Calculate the current in mill-amperes flowing through a
the current and R a constant of proportionality -1
conductor of conductance 0.2 mΩ when a 15v source is
called resistance.
connected to it
 If several values of current and their 2. In order to start a certain law a current of 36A must flow
corresponding values of voltage for nichrome through the starter motor. Calculate the resistances of the
wire are obtained and a graph of voltage against motor given that the battery provides a voltage of 12V
current plotted, a straight line through the origin ignore the internal resistance of the battery.
is obtained.

3. In an experiment to investigate the V-I relationship for Factors Affecting the Resistance of a Metallic Conductor
a conductor, the following results were obtained
1. Temperature
P.d (V) 2. 3. 4. 6.0
0 0 0  Resistance of a metallic conductor increases with
temperature. This is because heating increases the
Current, I (A) 1. 1. 2. 3.0
vibration of atoms thereby increasing the collisions
0 5 0
per cross- section area. The opposition to the flow of
Resistance, electrons thus increases as temperatures.
R(Ω)
2. Length of the conductor
I. Copy and complete the table
 The resistance of a uniform conductor of a given

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II. Plot a graph of I against the voltage material is directly proportional to its length i.e.

III. Determine the resistance of the conductor R ∝ l…….. (1)

IV. Comment on the nature of the conductor R = constant ×l

4. Two cells, each of 1.5 V are used to drive a current R

= constant
through a wire AB of resistance90Ω l

I. Calculate the current in the circuit 3. Cross- section area of the conductor

II. What would be the difference, if any to the  The resistance of a metallic conductor is inversely
current, if the two cells are connected in parallel? proportional to its cross-sectional area, A. A
conductor with larger cross-sectional area has many
free electrons to conductor hence better
Ohmic and non-ohmic conductors conductivity.

Ohmic conductors 1
R∝ ………….(2)
A
 These are conductors which obey Ohm’s law
1
and therefore voltage drop across them is R = constant×
A
directly proportional to current through them e.g.
metal conductors like nichrome and electrolytes RA = constant
like copper sulphate.

 For ohmic conductors a graph of voltage against

Resistivity of a metallic conductor
current is a straight line through the origin.
 Resistivity is the resistance of sample of material of
Non- ohmic conductors
unit length and unit cross sectional area at a certain
 These are conductors which do not obey Ohm’s temperature.
law and therefore their resistance changes with
 Combining equations (1) and (2) above;
current flow e.g. thermistor, thermionic diode,
filament bulb, semiconductor diode etc. l
R∝
A
 A graph of voltage against current for non-
ohmic conductors is not a straight. Pl
R=
A

RA
ρ= , where is ρ is the resistivity of the conductor
l

 The SI unit of resistivity is the ohm meter (Ωm)

Example

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Two meters of a resistance wire, area of cross sectional

0.50mm2, has a resistance of 220Ω. Calculate:

I. The resistivity of the metal

II. The length of the wire which, connected in parallel with

the 2 meter length, will give a resistance of 2.00Ω.

Solution
2 -5 2
l = 2 m, A = 0.50 mm = 5.0 ×10 m ,

R = 220 Ω

RA
ρ=
l
Electrical Resistance -5 2
220 Ω ×5.0 ×10 m -3
ρ= = 5.50 ×10 Ωm
2m
 Electrical resistance is the opposition offered by
a conductor to the flow of electric current.

 A material with high conductance has very low

electrical resistance e.g. copper. Electrical
resistance is measured using an ohmmeter.

Exercise b) Light dependent resistor (LDR)

1. Given that the resistivity of nichrome is 1.1 x 10-6  Its resistance decreases with increases in light
m, what length of nichrome wire of a diameter 0.42m is intensity.
needed to make a resistor of 20Ω?

2. Two wires X and B are such that the radius of Y is

twice that of Y and the length of Y is twice that of X. if the
two are of same material, determine the ratio
resistance of X
resistance of Y

Methods of Measuring Resistance

Resistors
1. Voltmeter-ammeter method
 These are conductors specially designed to
offer particular resistance to the flow of electric
current. The symbol of resistor is

 In this method, currentI through the resistor R and

corresponding voltageV across it are obtained and

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Types of resistors resistance of the resistor is determined using the

V
expressionR = .
I

1. Fixed resistors Disadvantages of voltmeter ammeter method

 These are resistors designed to give fixed  It is not accurate since voltmeter takes some current
resistance e.g. wire wound resistors, carbon and therefore not all current passes through the
(colour code) resistors etc. resistor

2. The meter-bridge method

 In this method a resistor of known resistance is used

in the determination of resistance of another resistor
whose resistance is not known.

 The figure below shows a set-up of Meter Bridge.

2.Variable resistors

 These are resistors whose resistance can be

varied. They include:

a) Rheostat

 This is two a terminal variable resistor

represented by any of the symbols below in
electrical circuits.  The bridge is balanced by adjusting the variable
resistor L until there is no galvanometer deflection
i.e. pointer at zero mark. At balanced state:

X L1
=
R L2


b)Potentiometer

 This is a three terminal variable resistor

represented by the symbol below.

3. Nonlinear resistors

 These are resistors in which current flowing

through them does not change linearly with the
voltage applied. They include:

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a) Thermistor

 This is a temperature dependent resistor whose

resistance decreases with increase in
temperature. Its electrical symbol is as below.

Resistors Networks a) Calculate the effective resistance

1. Resistors connected in parallel Solution

1 1 1 1 1
 Consider three resistors R1 R2 and R3 connected = + +
RT R1 R2 R3 R4
+
in parallel as shown below:
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + = 0.9333
RT 4 3 10 4

1
RT = = 1.074 Ω
0.9333

b) The current through the 10Ω resistor

Solution

Since the resistors are in parallel, the voltage drop

across each of them is the same i.e. 4.5 V.

IT = I1 + I2 I3 V
I=
R
VT V1 V2 V3
= + +
RT R1 R2 R3 10
I= = 2.222 A
4.5
But VT = V1 = V2 = V3
2. The figure below shows 3 resistors in series connected to
(for resistors ins parallel) power source. A current of 1.5A flow through the circuit.

1 1 1 1
= + +
RT R1 R2 R3

For nresistors in parallel

1 1 1 1
= + +
RT R1 R2 R3 Calculate:

 If two resistors R1 andR2 are connected in a) The total resistance

parallel then the equivalent resistance RE is
b) The voltage across the source
given by
c) The voltage drop across each resistor

Solution

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1 1 1 R1+R a) RT = R1 + R2 + R3
= + = 2

RE R1 R2 R 1 R
RT = 4 + 6 + 3 = 13 Ω
2

RR
RE = 1 2 b) V = IR
R1+R2
V = 1.5 ×13 = 19.5 V
2. Resistors connected in series
c) V4Ω = 1.5 ×4 = 6 V

V6Ω = 1.5 ×6 = 9 V

V3Ω = 1.5 ×3 = 4.5 V

VT = V1 + V2 + V3

IT RT = I1R1 + I2R2 + I3R3

But IT = I1 = I2 = I3

RT = R1 + R2 + R3

Exercise

1. The figure below shows five resistors and a source of

voltage of 6V.

Examples a) Find the effective resistance of the circuit

1. The circuit diagram in the figure below shows 4 b) Calculate the current through
resistors connected a cross a 4.5 v supply
3. Six resistors are connected in a circuit as shown in the figure
below.

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a) Calculate the total resistance of the circuit

b) The total current in the circuit

c) The current through the 3Ω resistor

d) The current through the 8Ω resistor

3. Two resistors connected in parallel as shown below Experimental Determination of Internal Resistance and
Emf

Method 1

 Consider the set up below:

a) Calculate:

I. the current that passes through R1

II. Terminal p.d across the battery

Electromotive Force (Emf) and Internal Resistance r If several values of current and their corresponding
values of voltage are collected and graph of voltage V
 Electromotive force (E) of the cell refers to the against current I is plotted. It is a straight line of negative
potential difference across its terminals when slope cutting through the voltage axis when extrapolated.
no charge is flowing out of it i.e. when the circuit
is open.

 Terminal voltage (V) is the voltage drop across

the terminals of the cell or battery when charge
is flowing out of it and it is due to external
resistance R.

 Using the equation E = V + Ir and therefore V = E - Ir,

the slope of the graph gives the internal resistance of
the cell while the voltage-intercept gives the emf (E)
of the cell.

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 Internal resistance (r) refers to the opposition  If several values of current and their corresponding
offered by the source of electromotive force to values of voltage are collected and graph of
the flow of the current that it generates. 1
reciprocal of current against R is plotted, a straight
I
 Lost voltage is the difference between 1
electromotive force and terminal voltage and it line with positive gradient which passes through
I
is due to internal resistance. axis is obtained.

Relationship between Emf (E), Terminal Voltage (V)

and Internal Resistance (r)

 Consider a resistor R connected in series with a

cell of internal resistance r

 The internal resistance of the cell r is considered

to connected in series with the external resistor,
R

 The current flowing through the circuit is given

by:

e.m.f
current =
total resistance

E
I=
R+r

E = I(R + r)

E = IR + Ir ⇒E = V + Ir

 Where IR = terminal voltage, Ir = lost voltage

1 Exercise
 The gradient of the graph gives and therefore
E
1. The table below shows reading obtained in an experiment to
the electromotive force of the cell can be
determine the e.m.f, E and internal resistance R of a
obtained while the R-intercept gives internal
accumulator
resistance of the cell r.
External resistance, R 0.3 0.3 2.
(Ω) 5 75

Examples Current, I(A) 2.5 1.0 0.

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1. Two dry cells each of the internal resistance 0.05Ω and 5

connected in series are used to operate an electric bell of
resistance 10Ω. The wiring of the circuit has a resistance Reciprocal of current,
of 0.2Ω. If the bell requires a current of 0.2A to ring, to 1
what value can the combined emf fall before the bell I
comes to ring?
a) Draw a suitable circuit used to get the above results
Solution
1
b) Plot the graph of against R
I

c) Determine the values of internal resistance r and

electromotive force

2. The circuit in the figure below shows the current at junction

P. Find the amount and direction of the current that passes
E = I(R+r) through the wire W.

E = 0.2 ((10+0.2)+0.05×2) = 2.06 V

2. You are provide with resistors of values 4Ω and 8Ω

a) Draw a circuit diagram showing the resistors in series

with each other and with battery. 3. Three resistors are connected as shown below

Calculate:
b) Calculate total resistance of the circuit (assume
negligible internal resistance) a) The total resistance in the circuit when:

Solution i. S1 is open

RT = R 1 + R2 ii. S2 is closed

RT = 4 + 8 = 12 Ω b) The current through each of the resistors when:

i. S1 is open

c) Given that the battery has an emf of 6V and internal ii. S1 is closed
resistance of 1.33Ω, calculate the current through
c) The potential difference across each resistor when S1 is
i. 8Ω when the two are in series. closed

Solution 4. A battery of emf 12V and internal resistance of 0.6Ω is

connected as shown below
E
I8Ω = I4Ω =
R+r

6
= = 0.4501 A
12+1.33

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ii. 4Ωresistor when the two are in parallel. a) Calculate the current through the 3Ω resistor when switch is:

Solution i. Open

ii. Closed

b) Find the total potential different across the 7Ω resistors

when S is open

5. A cell of emf of 6.0V and drives current of 2.0A through R1

RR when switch S is open
RT = 1 2 + r
R1+R2

4×8
RT = + 1.33 = 4Ω
4+8

V4Ω E-Vr
I4Ω = =
R4Ω R4Ω

Calculate:
6
6- ×1.33
4
I4Ω = = 1.001 A a) The current through the 2Ω resistor
4

b) The internal resistance of the cell

c) The current through each of the resistors when the

switch S is closed

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The circuit below can be used as a light sensor. 8. a) In the circuit diagram shown, calculate the effective
resistance between Y and Z.

a) Explain how it works as conditions change from

pitch darkness to bright light

b) If the resistance of LDR in dim light is 1x104Ω

b) Determine the current through the 3 resistor.
calculate the p.d a cross 1kΩ resistor
c) One of the 6 resistors has a length of 1m and cross-sectional
area of 5.0 x 10-5m2. Calculate the resistivity of the material.
Further Exercise
9. In the circuit diagram five resistors are connected to a
1. A student learnt that a battery of eight dry cells battery of emf. 4V, and negligible internal resistance.
each 1.5v has a total emf of 12V the same as a car Determine:
battery. He connected in series eight new dry batteries to
his car but found that they could not start the engine. Give
a reason for this observation

2.a)You are required to determine the resistance per unit

length of a nichrome wire x, you are provided with d.c
power supply, an ammeter and voltmeter.
i. The total resistance of the circuit.
I. Draw a circuit diagram to show how you would
connect the circuit. ii. The current flowing through the 5.5
resistor.
II. Describe how you would use the circuit in (a) (i)
above to determine the resistance per unit length iii. The potentials at points Y and O.
of x.
iv. The potential difference between Y and
c) 2. Four 5 resistors are connected to a 10V d. c. supply as O.
shown in the diagram below.
11. A student wishes to investigate the relationship between
current and voltage for a certain device X. In the space
provide, draw a circuit diagram including two cells,
rheostat, ammeter, voltmeter and the device X that would
be suitable in obtaining the desired results.

Calculate;- 12. In the circuit diagram shown in figure 7, the ammeter has
negligible resistance. When the switch S is closed, the
a. The effective resistance in the circuit. ammeter reads 0.13A.

b. The current I following in the circuit (through

the source)

3. Study the circuit diagram below and determine the

potential drop across the 3 resistor.

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4. State two conditions that are necessary for a

conductor to obey Ohm’s law.

5. a) Two resistors R1 and R2 are connected in series

to a 10V battery. The current flowing then is 0.5A.
When R1 only is connected to the battery the current
flowing is 0.8A. Calculate the

i. Value of R2

ii. Current flowing when R1 and R2 are connected in

parallel with the same batter.

6. A current of 0.08A passes in circuit for 2.5 minutes.

How much charge passes through a point in the
circuit?

7. An ammeter, a voltmeter and a bulb are connected in

a circuit so as to measure the current flowing and the
potential difference across both. Sketch a suitable
circuit diagram for the arrangement.

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Chapter Eight HEATING EFFECT OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT

Specific objectives Content

By the end of this topic the leaner should be able to: 1. Simple experiments on heating effect

a) Perform and describe experiments to illustrate 2. Factors affecting electrical energy, W = VIt,P = VI
heating effect of an electric current
3. Heating devices: electrical kettle, electrical iron
b) State the factors affecting heating by electric box, bulb filament, electric heater
current
4. Problems on electrical energy and electrical
c) Derive the equations for electrical energy and power
electrical power

d) Identify devices in which heating effect of an

electric current is applied

e) Solve numerical problems involving electrical

energy and electrical power

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Introduction Factors Affecting Heating by Electric Current

 When an electric current passes through a The heat produced by a conductor carrying current
conductor, it generates heat energy. This is depends on:
called the heating effect of an electric current
and it is due to the resistance offered by the a) Amount current passing through the conductor
conductor to the current. Heating effect of an
 The heat produced is directly proportional to the
electric current was first investigated by James
square of current through the conductor provided
Joule, a Manchester brewer in UK.
that same conductor is used for the same time. i.e

heat energy ∝ I .
2

Demonstrating Heating Effect of an Electric Current

Using a Coil of Wire

 The set-up below can be used to experimentally

demonstrate heating effect of an electric current
in the laboratory.

b) Resistance of the conductor

 Heat produced in a conductor carrying current is

 Precaution: the coil should be fully immersed in directly proportional to resistance of the conductor
water but should not touch the bottom or walls provided current and time are constant.heat
of the beaker. energy ∝ R.

 Observation: It is observed that the temperature

of water increases with resistance, current and
time.

 Explanation: Electrical energy is converted to

heat energy resulting in a rise in temperature.
The heat energy increases with resistance,
current and time.

c) Time for which current flows through Examples

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conductor 1. An electric bulb rated 40W is operating on 240V mains.

Determine the resistance of its filament.
 Keeping current and resistance constant heat
produced in a conductor is directly proportional Solution
to the time for which current flows. Heat energy 2
V
∝ t. P=
R
2
240
40 = ; ⇒R = 1440 Ω
R

2. When a current of 2A flows in a resistor for 10 minutes, 15KJ

of electrical energy is dissipated. Determine the voltage
across the resistor.

Solution

E = VIt

15×1000 = V ×2 ×10×60

15000
V vdA` V= = 12.5 V
1200

Q 3. How many 100W electric irons could be safely connected

to a 240V moving circuit fitted with a 13A fuse?
Electrical Energy, E
Solution
 Consider a current I flowing through a conductor
of resistanceR for a timet. If a potential P = VI
difference V drops across the ends of the (No. of irons) x 1000 = VI
conductor, then;
13 x 240
No. of irons =
W 1000
V=
Q
= 3.12 = 3 irons
(from definition of potential difference)

E = W = VQ
Exercise

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(where W is the electrical work done in moving 1. A heater of resistance R1 is rated P watts, V volts while
another of resistance R2 is rated 2P watts, v/2 volts.
charge Q) Determine R1/R2
This is electrical work done is converted to heat 2. State THREE factors which affect heating by an electric
current.
energy, E
3. What is power as it relates to electrical energy?
charge Q
but current, I = ; ⇒Q = It
time,t
4. An electrical appliance is rated as 240V, 200W. What does
E = V(It); ⇒E = VIt this information mean?

Since, V = IR (from ohms law); electrical energy 5. An electrical heater is labelled 120W, 240V.

can also be expressed as; Calculate;

E = VIt = (IR)It;
2
⇒E = I RT a. The current through the heating element
when the heater is on.

b. The resistance of the element used in the

Electrical Power, PE heater.

 Power is the rate of doing well 6. An electric toy is rated 100W, 240V. Calculate the
resistance of the toy when operating normally.
work
power =
time 7. An electric bulb with a filament of resistance 480 is
connected to a 240V mains supply. Determine the energy
electrical energy VIt dissipated in 2 minutes.
= = ;
time t

⇒Electrical power,PE = VI

Since V
= IR, electrical power can also be
expressed as;

PE = (IR)I

2
PE = I R

V V
Or from I = ; P = V( )
R R
2
V
PE =
R

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Electrical Devices for Lighting 3. A current of 3.3A is passed through a resistor of 25Ω for 2
hours calculate the electrical energy converted to heat
a) Filament lamps energy in 20 minutes.

4. An electric current iron consumes 2.9MJ of energy in 1

hour 10 minutes when converted to the mains power
supply of 240v. Calculate the amount throu

5.
 When current flows through the filament, it 6. gh the filament in the electric iron
glows white hot and therefore produces light.
7. In the circuit shown in the figure below each bulb is rated
 The filament is made of tungsten metal due to 6v, 3w,
its very high melting point (3400oC).

 The bulb is filled with inert gas like argon and

nitrogen to prevent oxidation of the filament.

b) Fluorescent lamps
a) Calculate the current through each bulb, when
the bulbs are working normally.

b) How many coulombs of charge pass in 6

seconds through each bulb?

c) What would the ammeter read when all the

 They are efficient than filament lamps because bulbs are working normally.
they last much longer and have low running
cost. d) Calculate the electrical power delivered by the
battery.
 It consists of the mercury vapor which produces
8. Starting from electrical power, P, generated in a conductor
ultraviolet radiation when the lamp is switched 2
V
on. The radiation makes the powder on the show that P = , where the symbols their usual meanings.
R
inside of the tube produce visible light
(fluoresce).

Electrical Devices for Heating

A) Fuse

 A fuse is a short length of wire of

material with low melting point (tinned

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copper), which melts and breaks the

circuit when current through it exceeds
a certain value. This protects electrical
appliances and prevents fire outbreaks.

Other electrical heating devices include:

a) Radiant electric heater

b) Electrical iron box

c) Electric kettle

d) Hot wire ammeter

a)

Revision Exercise

1. A touch bulb is called 2.5v, 0.4A. What is the power

rating of the bulb?

2. An electric bulb is labeled 50w, 240v, calculate

b) The resistance of the filament used in the

lamp

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c) The current through the filament when the

bulb works normally

Chapter Nine ELECTROSTATICS II

Specific objectives Content

By the end of this topic the leaner, should be able 1. Electric field patterns.
to:
2. Charge distribution on conductors.
a) Sketch electric field patterns around charged
bodies. 3. Spherical and pear shaped conductors.

b) Describe charge distribution on conductors of 4. Action at points; lighting arrestors.

various shapes.
5. Capacitance, unit of capacitance (farad,
c) Define capacitance and state its SI unit. microfarad), factors affecting capacitance.

d) Describe charging and discharging of a 6. Applications of capacitors.

capacitor (calculation involving curves not
7. Problems on capacitors (using Q = CV,CT = CI + C2,
required).
1 1 1
= + )
e) State the factors affecting the capacitance of a CT C1 C2
parallel plate capacitor

f) State the applications of capacitors.

g) Solve numerical problems involving capacitors.

Electric Field

 An electric field refers to the region where a

charged body experiences a force of attraction
or repulsion.

2. Isolated negative point charge

Direction of an Electric Field The field lines are radially inwards towards the negative
charge
 The direction of an electric field at a particular
point is defined as the direction in which a unit
positive charge is free to move when placed at
that point.

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3. Two equal positive point charge

Electric Line of Force (Electric Field Line)

This is the path along which a unit positive charge

would tend to move in the electric field.

Properties of Electric Field Lines

4. Two equal unlike point charge
1. Electric field lines start at 900 from the positive
charge and end on the negative charge at 900.

2. They do not cross each other.

3. They tend to contract or expand so that they

never interest each other

Electric Field Patterns

1. Isolated positive point charge

The field lines are radially outwards from the

positive charge

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5. Two unequal positive point charge

 No charge is found on the outside of a hollow

conductor. For a hollow conductor, the charge
resides on the outside.
6. Positive point charge and a straight metal plate Point Action
having negative charge
 Point action refers to the fast loss or gain of charge
at sharp points due to high charge concentration at
the points.

Demonstration of Point Action

 A highly charged sharp point is placed close to a

Bunsen burner flame.

7. Positive point charge and uncharged ring placed  It is observed that the flame is blown away.
in the electric field

8. Two parallel metal plates having opposite Explanation

charge and placed close together.
 Burning flame contains positive and negative ions.
The electric field between them is uniform i.e. field When the sharp [point is brought close to the flame,
lines equally placed. negative ions are attracted to the sharp point, while
positive ions are repelled away from the sharp point.
As the positive ions are repelled, they create an
“electric wind” which blows.

 If the conductor is brought very close to the flame,

the flame splits.

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Charge Distribution on Conductors

 Distribution of charge on the surface of a

conductor depends on the shape of the
conductor.

 For spherical conductor, charge is uniformly

distributed on the surface.

 For pear shaped conductor, charge is

concentrated at the sharp point.

 For Cuboid and diamond conductors high

charge density is at the vertices.

Example

1. A candle flame is placed near a sharp pointed pin connected

to the cap of a negatively charged electroscope as shown
below.

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State and explain what is observed on the leaf of the

electroscope.

Solution

It is observed that the leaf collapses. This is because the

sharp point ionizes the air around it. The negative ions
(electrons) move to the sharp end to ionize the positive
charged air ions which are attracted to the cap (or positive
air ions neutralize the negative charge on the sharp point).

1. Is electrical field strength a scalar or vector quantity?

Explain
2. It is dangerous to carry a pointed umbrella when it is
raining. Explain.
2. Explain how negatively charged pointed edge gets
discharged by itself.
Solution
3. It is not advisable to take shelter under a tree when it is
The sharp point of the umbrella attracts charge readily to
raining. Explain.
neutralize the charge in the cloud which may electrocute
the person holding the umbrella.
4. What is the purpose of the spikes on the lightning arrestor?

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Application of Point Action Capacitors

Point action is applied in the working of the lighting  A capacitor is a device used for storing charge.
arrestor.
 Capacitor symbol is

Types of Capacitors

1. Paper capacitors

2. Electrolytic capacitors

3. Variable air capacitor

4. Parallel plate capacitor

Parallel Plate Capacitor

 A parallel plate capacitor consists of two metal

Working Mechanism of the Lightening Arrestor plates separated by an insulating material called
dielectric.
 When a negatively charged cloud passes over
the arrestor it induces positive charge on the
spikes and negative charge on the plate.

 The negative charge on the plate is immediately

discharged to the surrounding ground.

 Negative ions are attracted to the spikes and are

discharged by giving up their electrons.
Charging a Capacitor
 At the same time, positive ions are repelled
upwards from the spikes and they neutralize the  The circuit diagram below shows a set-up for
negative charge on the clouds. charging a capacitor.

Exercise

1. The fig. shows a hollow negatively charged sphere

with metal disk attached to an insulator placed inside.
 Observation: When the switch is closed it is observed
State what would happen to the leaf of an uncharged
electroscope if the metal disk were brought near the that milli-ammeter reading decreases while voltmeter
cap of electroscope. Give a reason for your answer. reading increases.

 Explanation: Negative charge flow from the negative

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terminal of the battery to plate B of the capacitor. At

the same rate negative charge flow from the plate A
of capacitor to positive terminal of battery.
Therefore, equal positive and negative charges
appear on the plates and oppose the flow of
electrons which causes.

 The charging current drops to zero when the

capacitor is fully charged.

 Potential difference a cross the capacitor also

develops during charging.

Capacitance

 Capacitance is defined as the charge stored in a

capacitor per unit voltage.

change, Q
capacitance,c =
voltage, V

Q
C=
V

 The SI unit of capacitance is the farad (F)

Definition of the farad

 A farad is the capacitance of a body if a charge

of 1 coulomb raises its potential by 1 volt

Submultiples of the farad

1 microfarad (1µF) =10-6 F

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Discharging a Charged Capacitor 1 Nano farad (1µf) = 10-9 F

 The circuit for discharging is as below. 1 Pico farad (1pF) =10-12F

Factors Affecting the Capacitance of a Parallel- Plate

Capacitor

1. Area of Overlap of the Plates, A

 Capacitance is directly proportional to the area of

overlap of the plates (C ∝ A)
 Observation: It is observed that milliammeter
reading decreases from maximum value to  If the positive plate is connected to the cap of a
minimum. The pointer deflects in opposite positively charged electroscope, the divergence
direction to that during charging. of the leaf increases as the area of overlap
increases
 Explanation: During discharging charge flow in
the opposite direction i.e. from plate to A until 2. Distance of Separation of the Plates, d
the charge on the plates is zero.
 Capacitance is inversely proportional to distance
 Potential difference a cross the capacitor 1
of separation of the plates (C ∝ )
practically diminishes to zero. d

 If the positive plate is connected to the cap of a

positively charged electroscope, the divergence
of the leaf decreases as the distance of the
separation increases.

3. Nature of the Dielectric Capacitor Networks

 Dielectric refers to the insulating material a) Capacitors in Series

between the plates of a parallel plate
capacitor.  Consider the capacitors arrangement below.

 Permittivity ε of the insulating material is a

constant dependent on the medium between
the plates.

 If the plates are in a vacuum, the constant is

denoted byεo (epsilon naught) and its value
is 8.85×10-12 Fm-1 Charge onC1 = change on C2 = change onC2 = Q

Expression for capacitance but V = V1 + V2 + V3 (I.e. components in series)

A Q
C ∝ andV =
d C
ɛA
C= , where ɛ = permittivity
d

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QT Q1 Q2 Q3
= + +
CT C1 C2 C3

1 1 1 1
= + +
CT C1 C2 C3

where CT is the combined capacitance

 For only two capacitors,C1 and C2are in series,

1 1 1 C1+C2
= + =
CT C1 C2 C1C2
Examples
C1 C2
Therefore CT =
1. Two plates of a parallel plate capacitor are 1mm apart C1+C2
and each has an area of 6cm2..Given that the potential
difference between the plates is 90V, calculate the B) Capacitors in Parallel
charge stored in the capacitor.
 Consider the arrangement below.
(Takeɛ0 = 8.85×10-12Fm-1)

Solution

ɛA
C=
d

-12 -1 -4 2
8.85×10 Fm ×6 ×10 m -12
C= -3 = 5.31×10 F
1×10

Q = CV
 The p.d a cross each of the capacitors is the same
-12
Q = 5.31×10 ×90 = 4.779 ×10 C
-10
as the p.d a cross the source since they are
connected in parallel.
2. Find the separation distance between two plate if the
capacitance between then is 6×10-12F and the QT = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
enclosed area is 3.0cm2 (take ɛ0 = 8.85 10-12Fm-1)
but Q = CV
Solution
CTV = C1V1 + C2V2 + C3V3
ɛA
C=
d
CT = C1 + C2 + C3
-12 -1 -4 2
-12 8.85×10 Fm ×3 ×10 m
6×10 F =
d

-12 -1 -4 2
8.85×10 Fm ×3 ×10 m -4 2  Note:Treat charge as current since current is
d= -12 = 4.425×10 m
6×10 F
the rate of flow of charge.

Exercise
Examples
1. A charge of 4 x 10 4 c was stored in a parallel plate

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capacitor when a potential difference of 5 V was 1. Three capacitors of capacitance 3µF, 4µF and 6µF are
applied across the capacitor. Work out the connected to a potential difference of 24V as shown
capacitance of the capacitor. below.

2. The figure below represents two parallel plates

of a capacitor separated by a distance d. Each
plate has an area of A square units. Suggest
two adjustments that can be made so as to
reduce the effective capacitance.

Find: Q3µF = C3µFV3µF ;

a) The combined capacitance Q3µF = 3µF×9.0048 V = 27.0144 µC

Solution Q4µF = C4µFV4µF ;

1 1 1 1
= + + Q4µF = 4µF×9.0048 V = 36.0192 µC
CT C1 C2 C3

1 1 1 1 Q2µF = C2µFV2µF ;
= + +
CT 3 4 6
Q2µF = 2µF×9.0048 V = 18.0096 µC
1 4+3+2
= = 0.75
CT 12 Q5 µF = C5 µF V5 µF ;

1
CT = = 1.333µF Q5 µF = 5 µF ×14.9952 V = 74.976 µC
0.75

b) The total charge

Solution Exercise

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Q = CV 1. In the circuit below C1 = 4µF, = C2 = 3µF and C3 = 1µF. Given

that V = 12V, calculate:
Q = 1.333µF ×24 V = 32 µC

c) The charge on each capacitor

Solution

Since the capacitors are in series, charge

on each of them is the same and is equal to
total charge i.e. 32 µC
I. The charge on each capacitor
d) The voltage across the 4µF capacitor
II. The voltage across each capacitor
Solution
2. In the circuit shown below calculate the charge on the
Q capacitor
V=
C

32 µC
V= =8V
4 µF

2. Four capacitors of capacitance 3µF, 4µF, 2µF, and

5µF are arranged as shown below.

Find:
3. The figure below Shows part of a circuit containing three
capacitors. Write an expression for CT. (The effective
capacitance between A and B.)

a) The combined capacitance

4. State the law of electrostatic charge.
Solution
5. The capacitors in the circuit in Figure below are identical
Capacitors3µF, 4µF and 2µF are in and initially uncharged.
parallel and their total capacitance is in
series with the 5 µF capacitor.

1 1 1
= +
CT C1+C2+C3 C4

1 1 1 14
= + =
CT 2+4+3 5 45

45
CT = = 3.214 µF
14
6. Switch S1 is opened and switch S2 closed. Determine the
b) The total charge final reading of the voltmeter, V.

Solution 7. In the circuit diagram shown in figure below each cell has

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QT = CTVT an emf of 1.5 and internal resistance of 0.5. The

capacitance of each capacitor is 1.4F.
QT = 3.214 µF ×24 V = 74.976 µC or 74.976 ×10-6 C

c) The charge on each capacitor

Solution

Voltage across 3µF, 4µF and 2µF is the

same since they are in parallel;

QT
VT - V5 µF = VT -
C5µF

74.976 µC
24 - = 9.0048 V
5µF

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2. A 10µF capacitor is charged to a p.d of 200V and

isolated. It is then connected in parallel to a 20µF
capacitor. Find:

I. The resultant potential difference.

Solution

8. When the switch s is closed determine the:

a. Ammeter reading

b. Charge on each capacitor

9. Three capacitors of 1.5F, 2.0 F and 3.0 F are

connected in series to p.d. of 12V. Find;-
QT = Q10µF + Q20µF
I. The combined capacitance.
10×10 F×200 V = ( 10×10 )V + (20×10 )V
-6 -6 -6

II. The total charge stored in the

-6
arrangement. 10×10 F×200 V
V= = 10 V
( 10×10-6)F+(20×10-6)F
III. The charge in each capacitor.

10. In the circuit of the figure 3 C1=2 F, C2 =C3 = 0.5 F

II. The energy stored before connection.
and E is a 6V battery. Calculate the total charge and
p.d across C1
Solution
Energy Stored in a Capacitor 1 2
Energy stored = CV
2
 Charging a capacitor involves doing work
against repulsion of the negative plate to more Energy stored =
1 -6 2
×10×10 F×(200 V) = 0.2 J
electrons flowing in and attraction of the 2
positive plate on electrons flowing out.

 This work is stored in form of potential energy. III. The energy in the two capacitors after
The energy may be converted to heat, light or connection.
other forms.
Solution
work done (Energy stored in capacitor)
= average charge 1 2 1
CV ; Energy stored = (C1+C2)V
2
Energy stored =
×potential difference 2 2

1(
1 10×10 +20×10 )10 = 1.5×10 J
-6 -6 2 -3
Energy stored = QV Energy stored =
2
2

1 2
Energy stored = CV (since Q = CV)
2 IV. The energy difference between II and III
2 above and comment on your answer.
Q Q
Energy stored = (since V = )
2C C Solution

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 A graph of charge, Q against voltage, V is a (0.2-0.0015) J = 0.1985 J

straight line through the origin.
The energy is converted to heat and light

Examples

1. A 4µF capacitor is charged to a potential

difference of 80V. Find the energy stored in it

Solution

1 2
Energy stored = CV
2

1(
4×10 F)×80V
-6
Energy stored =
2

-4
Energy stored = 1.6×10 J

Exercise

1. A 10µF capacitor is charged by an 80V supply and then

connected across an uncharged 20µF capacitor. Calculate:

I. The final p.d across each capacitor.

II. The final charge on each.

The initial and final energy stored by the

capacitors.

2. A 2F capacitor is charged to a potential of 200V, the

supply is disconnected. The capacitor is then connected to
another uncharged capacitor. The p.d. across the parallel
arrangement is 80V. Find the capacitance of the second
capacitor.

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3. A 5F capacitor is charged to a p.d of 200v and isolated. It

is then connected to another uncharged capacitor of 10F.
Calculate:

I. The resultant p.d

II. The charge in each capacitor.

4. In an experiment to study the variation of charge

stored on capacitor and the potential difference
across it, the following results were obtained.

Charge Q 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.56

(C) 8 6 4 2 0

p.d (v) 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10. 14.0

0

5. Plot a graph of charge Q. against p.d

6. Use your graph to determine:-

a. Capacitance of the capacitor.

Energy stored in the capacitor when the p.d

across its plate is 10V.

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Applications of Capacitors

1. Used in smoothening circuits to smoothen the

d.c output in rectification process

2. Used in reduction of sparking in induction coil

contact. Variable capacitor is used in turning
circuit of a radio receiver in which it is connected
in parallel to indicator

3. Capacitors are used in delay circuits designed to

give intermittent flow of current in car indicators.

4. A capacitor is included in flash circuit of a

camera in which it discharges instantly to flash.

Chapter Ten QUANTITY OF HEAT

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Specific objectives Content

By the end of this topic, the leaner should be able 1. Heat capacity, specific heat capacity units
to: (experimental treatment required)

a) Define heat capacity and specific heat 2. Latent heat of fusion, latent heat of vaporization,
capacity units (experimental treatment necessary)

b) Determine experimentally specific heat 3. Boiling and melting

capacity of solids and liquids
4. Pressure cooker, refrigerator
c) Define specific latent heat of fusion and
specific latent heat of vaporization 5. Problems on quantity of heat

d) Determine experimentally the specific latent (Q = MC∆θ, Q = Ml)

heat of fusion of ice and the specific latent
heat of vaporization of steam.

e) State the factors affecting melting point and

boiling point

f) Explain the functioning of a pressure cooker

and a refrigerator

g) Solve problems involving quality of heat.

Definition of Heat Solution

 Heat is form of energy that flows from one body Q = C∆θ

to another due to temperature difference
Q = 600JK-1×(600-200)
between them.
= 24000 J
Differences between Heat and Temperature

Heat Temperature
Exercise
Heat is a form of energy Temperature is the
that flows from one body degree of hotness or An electrical heater rated 240 V, 3 A raises the temperature of
to another due to coldness of a body liquid X from 25 oC to 55 oC in 10 minutes. Calculate the heat
temperature difference measured on same scale capacity of liquid X.

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Measured in joules Measured in kelvin Specific Heat Capacity, c

Heat Capacity, C  Specific heat capacity is the quantity of heat

required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a
 Heat capacity refers to the quantity of heat substance by one kelvin (K).
energy required to raise the temperature of a
given mass of a substance by one kelvin. Specific heat capacity, c
heat energy absorbed,Q
=
heat energy absorbed, Q mass, m×temperature change,∆θ
Heat capacity,C =
temperature change,∆θ
Q
c=
m∆θ
Q
C= or Q = C∆θ
∆θ Q = mc∆θ

 The SI unit of heat is the joule per kelvin (JK ) -1

 The SI unit of specific heat capacity is the joule per
kilogram per kelvin(Jkg-1k-1)
 Note: Different materials have different rates of
heat absorption and therefore different heat  Specific heat capacity can also be expressed as:
capacities.

Examples
heat capacity,C
Calculate the quantity of heat required to raise the Specific heat capacity, c =
mass
temperature of a metal block with a heat capacity of
600JK-1 from 200C to 600C. Heat capacity, C = specific heat capacity, c ×mass, m

 Note: If two substances of the same mass are i. State the precautions that need to be taken to
subjected to the same amount of heat, they minimize heat losses to the surroundings
acquire different temperature changes because
Solution
they have different specific heat capacities e.g.
the specific heat capacity of iron is 460Jkg-1k-1. i. The calorimeter should be highly polished.
This means that 1kg of iron would take in or
ii. The calorimeter should be heavily lagged.
give out 460Jof heat when its temperature
changes by 1k. iii. The calorimeter should be closed using an
insulating lid (lid made of a poor conductor).

Example

A block of copper of mass 10.0 kg and specific heat

capacity 460 Jkg-1k-1 cools from 800C to 400C. Find the
quantity of heat given out.

Solution

Q = mc∆θ

-1 -1 0
Q = 10 kg×460 Jkg K (80-40) C

Q = 184000 J = 184 kJ Determining specific heat capacity of liquids using

method of mixtures

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Exercise

1. A block of metal of mass 1.5kg which is suitably Example

insulated is heated from 300C to 500C in 8 minutes and 20
seconds by an electric heater coil rated 54watts. Find: A block of metal of mass 0.15kg at 1000c was
transferred to a copper calorimeter of mass 0.4kg
a) The quantity of heat supplied by the containing a liquid of mass 0.8kg at 200c. The block and
heater the calorimeter with its contents eventually reached a
b) The heat capacity of the block common temperature of 400c. Given the specific heat
capacity of aluminium 900Jkg-1k-1, and that of copper
c) The specific heat capacity 400Jkg-1k-1, calculate the specific heat capacity of the
liquid.
2 Find the final temperature of water if a heater source
rated 50W heats 100g water from 250C in 5 minutes Solution
(specific heat capacity of water is 4200Jkg-1k-1)
Heat lost by the metal block
= heat gained by liquid
+ heat gained by calorimeter
Methods of Determining Specific Heat Capacities
mBcB∆θB = mLcL∆θL + mccc∆θc
1. Method of Mixtures
0.15×900×(100-40)
 In this method, a relatively hot substance is = 0.8 ×cL×(40-20) + 0.4×400×(40-20)

mixed with a relatively cold substance. Heat

8100-3200 -1 -1
energy is transferred from hot body to cold cL = = 306.25 Jkg K
16
body until thermal equilibrium is established

2. Electrical method
Determining Specific Heat Capacity of a Solid Using
Method of Mixtures  In this method, electric heating coil supplies the
heat energy which is absorbed by other substances.

Determining Specific Heat Capacity of a Metal Block

Example Using Electrical Method
A lagged copper calorimeter of mass 0.50kg contains  The set-up that can be used in this case is as shown
0.4kg of water at 250C. A metallic solid of mass 1.2kg is
below.
transferred from an oven at 3500C to the calorimeter and a
steady temperature of 500C is reached by the water after
stirring.

ii. Calculate the specific heat capacity of the

material of the solid (Specific heat capacity of
copper is 400Jkg-1k-1and that of water 4200Jkg-
1 -1
k )

Solution

Heat lost by the solid

= heat gained by the water
+ heat gained by calorimeter

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mscs∆θs = mwcw∆θw + mccc∆θc

1.2×cs×(350-50)
= 0.4×4200 ×(50-25) + 0.5×400
×(50-25)

42000+5000 -1 -1
cs = = 130.56 Jkg K
360

Precautions Change of State

I. The metal block must be highly polished and  Change of a substance from solid to liquid, from
heavily lagged. liquid to gas or the reverse involves change of state.

II. The two holes should be filled with a high oil Latent Heat
to improve thermal contact with the heater
and thermometer.  Latent heat refers to amount of heat required to
change state of a substance without change in
Example temperature

A metal block of mass 0.5 kg is heated electrically. If the  It is the heat energy absorbed or given out during
voltmeter reads 20 V, the ammeter 4A and the change of state.
temperature of the block rises from 25 0C to 95 0C in 8
minutes, calculate the specific heat capacity of the metal Latent Heat of Fusion
block.
 Latent heat of fusion refers to the amount heat
Solution
required to change the state of a substance from
Heat supplied by the heater solid to liquid without temperature change.
= heat absorbed by the metal
block  Note: When a liquid changes to solid state, latent
heat of fusion is given out.
VIt = mbcb∆θ
Specific Latent Heat of Fusion, lf
20×4×(8×60) J = 0.5 kg×cb×(95-25)K
-1

 Specific latent heat fusion refers to the quantity of

38400 -1 -1
heat required to change a unit mass of the substance
cb = = 1097.14 Jkg K
35
from solid to liquid without change in temperature.

Q
lf = , ⇒Q = mlf
Determining Specific Heat Capacity of Liquid Using m
Electrical Method
 The SI unit of specific latent heat of fusion is the
Example joule per kilogram (Jkg-1).

In an experiment to determine the specific heat capacity Latent Heat of Vaporization

of water an electrical heater was used. If the voltmeter
reading was 24 V and that of ammeter 2.0 A, calculate the  Latent heat of vaporization refers to the heat
specific heat capacity of water if the temperature of a required to change the state of a substance from
mass of 1.5kg of water in a 0.4kg copper calorimeter rose liquid to gas without change in temperature.
by 60c after 13.5minutes.
Specific latent heat of vaporization,

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 Specific latent heat of vaporization is the quantity of

heat required to change a unit mass of a substance
from liquid to vapor without change in temperature.

Q
lV = , ⇒Q = mlV
The SI m
unit of
specific latent heat of vaporization is the joule
per kilogram (Jkg-1).
Solution

Heat supplied by the heater

= heat gained by water
+ heat gained by calorimeter

VIt = mWcW∆θW + mccc∆θc

24×2×(13.5×60) = 1.5 ×cW×6 + 0.4×400×6

38880-960 -1 -1
cW = = 4213.33 Jkg K
9

Exercise

A man wanted to have a warm bath at 350c. He had 4.0kg

of water in a basin at 900c .what mass of cold water at
230c must he have added to the hot water to obtain his
choice of bath. Neglect heat losses and take specific heat
capacity of water as 4200Jkg-1k-1

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Examples

1. Calculate the amount of heat required to convert 4kg of

ice at -100c to liquid at 50c (specific heat capacity of water
is 4200Jkg-1k-1 ,specific heat capacity of ice =2100Jkg-1k-1,
specific latent heat of fusion of ice =340,000Jkg-1k-1)

Solution

Q = micecice∆θice + micelf ice + mwatercwater∆θwater

Q = 4×2100×(10-0) + 4×340000 + 4×4200×(5-0)

Q = 84000 + 1360000 + 84000

Q = 1528000 J or 1.528 MJ

2. A kettle rated at 4.0kW containing 2.0kg of water is left

switched on. How long will it take the water to boil dry in
the kettle if the initial temperature of water is 200c
(specific heat capacity of water is 4200Jkg-1k-1 specific
latent heat of vaporization of water is 2.26x106Jkg-1.
a. From the graph, determine the boiling point of the liquid.
Solution
b. I) Determine the heat given out by the heater between the
Q = Pt = mwatercwater∆θwater + mlV water times t=0.5 minutes and t=5.0 minutes.
II) From the graph determine the temperature change
6
4000×t = 2×4200×(100-20) + 2×2.26×10 between the times t=0.5 minutes and t=5.0 minutes.

672000+4520000 III) Hence determine the specific heat capacity of the

t= = 1298s
4000
liquid

c. 1.8g of vapor was collected from the liquid between the

times t=6.8 minutes and t=7.3 minutes. Determine the
Exercise
specific latent heat of vaporization of the liquid.
1. Calculate the amount of thermal energy required to
change 5g of ice at -100c to steam at 1000c (specific
heat capacity of ice 2.10Jg-1k-1, specific latent heat of
Factors affecting melting and boiling points
fusion of ice 336Jg-1, specific latent heat of
vaporization of steam 2260Jg-1, specific heat capacity
They are two:
of water 4.2Jg-1k-1)
I. Pressure
2. A copper calorimeter of mass 60g contains 100g of
oil at 200c. a piece of ice of mass 28g at 100c is
II. Impurities
added to the oil. What mass of ice will be left when
the temperature of the calorimeter and its contents Effect of pressure on melting point
will be 100C ? Specific heat capacity of copper =0.4Jg-
1 -1
k , specific heat capacity of oil 2.4Jg-1k-1, specific  Increase in pressure lowers the melting point of a
latent heat of fusion of ice 336Jg-1) substance.
3. Dry steam is passed into a well lagged aluminium
 Consider the set-up below.
calorimeter of mass 400 g containing 1.2 kg of ice at

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0oC . The mixture is well stirred and steam supply cut

off when the temperature of the calorimeter and its
contents reaches53oC. Neglecting heat losses,
determine the specific latent heat of vaporization of
water if 400 g of steam is found to have condensed to
water. (specific latent heat of fusion of ice 336Jg-1,
specific heat capacity of water 4.2Jg-1k-1, specific
heat capacity of aluminium is 900 Jkg-1K-.1

4. a) State two factors that affect the boiling point

of a liquid. b) 100g of a liquid at a temperature of
10C is poured into a well lagged calorimeter. An
electric heater rated 50W is used to heat the
liquid. The graph in the figure below shows the
variation of the temperature of the liquid with  It is observed that the wire cuts its way through the
time. ice block, but leaves it as one piece.

Explanation Evaporation

 The wire exerts pressure on the ice beneath it  Evaporation is the process by which a liquid changes
and therefore makes it melt at a temperature to a gas. It occurs at all temperatures (i.e. has no
lower than its melting point. fixed temperature)

 The water formed by melted ice flows over the Factors affecting rate of evaporation
wire and immediately solidifies and gives out
latent heat of fusion to copper wire which it uses 1. Temperature
to melt ice below it.
Rate of evaporation increases with temperature since
 Note: Copper wire is used in the experiment increase in temperature increases kinetic energy of
because: molecules and therefore surface molecules easily
escape.
I. It is a good conductor of heat.
2. Surface area
II. It has higher thermal conductivity than other
metals.  Rate of evaporation increases with surface area
because many molecules are exposed when surface
Applications of effects of pressure on melting point area is large. Water in basin (a) evaporates faster
of ice than the one in (b) in the figure below.

I. It is applied on ice skating in which weight of

the skater acts on ice through thin blades of
skates. This melts the ice to form a film of
water on which the skater slides. 3. Draught

II. It can be used in joining two ice cubes under  Draught increases rate of evaporation since it
pressure. sweeps away evaporating molecules clearing a way
for more molecules to escape. This is why clothes
Effect of impurities on melting point dry faster on a windy day.

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 Impurities lower the melting points of 4. Humidity

substances.
 Increase in humidity lowers rate of evaporation. This
 This is applied in humid areas during winter in is why clothes take long to dry on a humid day.
which salt is spread on roads and paths to
prevent freezing. Effects of Evaporation

Effect of impurities on boiling point I. One feels cold when methylated spirit is applied
on his head after shaving. This is because the
 Impurities raise the boiling points of substances. evaporating spirit gets latent heat of vaporization
This is why salted food cooks faster than from his body.
unsalted one.
II. Thin layer of frost forms around the outside of a
 Consider the set-up below. test tube walls when air is blown through
methylated spirit. in the tube. This is because the
evaporating spirit obtains latent heat of
vaporization from walls of the tube creating a
cooling effect.

Difference between Evaporation and Boiling

 When the liquids are heated to boiling, the Evaporation Boiling

boiling point of salt solution is observed to be
higher than that of distilled water. This is It takes place at all It takes place at fixed
because impurities raise the boiling point of a temperatures. temperature.
liquid.
It takes place on the It takes place throughout
Effect of Pressure on Boiling Point liquid surface only. the liquid.

 Decrease in pressure lowers the boiling point of Decreasing Decreasing atmospheric

a liquid while increase in pressure raises the atmospheric pressure pressure lowers the
boiling point. increases the rate of boiling point.
evaporation.
 This is why food takes longer to cook at high
altitudes than at low altitudes because pressure
at high altitude is higher.
Applications of Cooling by Evaporation
 It is also the reason as to why water in a sufuria
closed with a lid boils faster than the closed 1. Sweating
one. The steam pressure in a closed sufuria is
 Evaporating sweat absorbs latent heat of
higher and this raises the boiling point of water
vaporization from body and therefore creating a
making it to boil faster.
cooling effect.

2. Cooling of Water in a Porous Pot

 Water seeping out of the pot through pores

evaporates from surface of pot, creating a cooling
effect.

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1. The Refrigerator 3 . 4. State two factors that would raise the boiling point of
water to above 1000C

5. a) State what is meant by the term specific latent heat

of vaporization

b) In an experiment to determine the specific latent heat of

vaporization of water, steam at 1000cwas passed into water
contained in a well-lagged copper calorimeter. The following
measurements were made:

 Mass of calorimeter = 50g

 Initial mass of water = 70g

 Final mass of calorimeter + water + condensed steam

= 123g

 Final temperature of mixture = 300C

(Specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J kg -1K and specific

heat capacity for copper = 390 J kg -1 K-1) Determine the:

I. Mass of condensed steam

II. Heat gained by the calorimeter and water

 It consists of a highly volatile liquid (Freon)
which takes latent heat of vaporization from III. Given that L is the specific latent heat of evaporation
contents (food) in refrigerator and evaporates. of steam

 The pump removes the vapor into lower coil i. Write an expression for the heat given out by
outside the cabinet where it is compressed and steam
changed to liquid form.
ii. Determine the value of L.
 The evaporator and condenser pipes are highly
6. A heating element rated 2.5 KW is used to raise the
coiled to increase surface area for absorption temperature of 3.0 kg of water through 500C. Calculate the
and loss of heat respectively. time required to affect this. (Specific heat capacity of water is
4200 J/kg/K)
 The pipes are made of good conductor of heat
(copper) to increase heat conductivity. 7. State two factors that affect the melting point of ice.

 The copper fins enhance heat loss to the 8. Steam of mass 3.0g at 1000c is passes into water of mass
surrounding at the condenser pipe. 400g at 100c. The final temperature of the mixture is T. The
container absorbs negligible heat. (Specific latent heat of

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Revision Exercise vaporization of steam= 2260 kJ/kg, specific heat capacity of

water= 4200Jk-1)
1. An electric heater rated 6000W is used to heat 1kg of
ice initially at -100c until all the mass turns to steam. I. Derive an expression for the heat lost by the steam as
Given that latent heat of fusion of ice =334kJkg-1, specific it condenses to water at temperature T.
heat capacity of ice= 2,260J kg -1 K -1, specific heat
capacity of water = 4, 200J kg-1 K-1 and latent heat of II. Derive an expression for the heat gained by the water.
vaporization of water = 2, 260KJ kg -1 K -1, calculate the
III. Determine the value of T.
minimum time required for this activity.
9. A can together with stirrer of total heat capacity 60j/k
2 a) Explain why a burn from the steam of boiling water is
contains 200g of water at 100 c. dry steam at 1000c is passed in
more severe than that of water itself?
while the water is stirred until the whole reaches a temperature
b) An energy saving stove when burning steadily has an of 300c Calculate the mass of steam condensed.
efficiency of 60%. The stove melts 0.03kg of ice at 00c in
10. An immersion heater which takes a current of 3A from 240V
180 seconds. Calculate; -
mains raised the temperature of 10kg of water 300c to
I. The power rating of the stove. 500c. How long did it take?

II. The heat energy wasted by the stove. 11. 100g of boiling water are poured into a metal vessel
weighing 800g at a temperature of 200c if the final
temperature is 500c. What is the specific heat capacity of
the metal? (Specific Heat capacity of water 4.2 x
3 An immersion heater rated 90W is placed in a liquid of 103J/kg/k)
mass 2kg. When the heater is switched on for 15 minutes,
the temperature of the liquid rises from 200C to 300C. 12. 0.02kg of ice and 0.01kg of water 00c are in a container.
Determine the specific heat capacity of the liquid. Steam at 1000c is passed in until all the ice is just melted.
How much water is now in the container?

13. In a domestic oil-fired boiler, 0.5kg of water flows through

the boiler every second. The water enters the boiler at a
temperature of 300c and leaves at a temperature of 700c, re
-entering the boilers after flowing around the radiators at
300c. 3.0x 107J of heat is given to the water by each
kilogram of oil burnt. The specific heat capacity of water is
4200Jkg -1K-.1

I. Use the information above to calculate the

energy absorbed by the water every second as it
passes through the boiler.

II. Use the same information above to calculate the

mass of oil which would need to be burnt in order
to provide this energy.

14. You are provided with two beakers. The first beaker
contains hot water at 700c. The second beaker
contains cold water at 200c. The mass of hot water is
thrice that of cold water. The contents of both
beakers are mixed. What is the temperature of the
mixture?

15. Calculate the heat evolved when 100g of copper are

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cooled from 900c to 100c. (Specific Heat Capacity of

Copper = 390J/Kg/k).

16. An-immersion heater rated 150w is placed in a liquid

of mass 5 kg. When the heater is switched on for 25
minutes, the temperature of the liquid rises from 20 -
2700c. Determine the specific heat capacity of the liquid.
(Assume no heat losses)

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