www.tntextbooks.

in

MUX
whose output will remain unchanged,
Data S0 0 once set, even if there is a change in input.
select S1 1 Such a device can be used to store a binary
number. A flip-flop is one such circuit.
D0 Data
0 Y
D1 ouput
Data 1 Multivibrators
inputs D3 2
D4 3
Though we studied about Multivibrators
in eleventh standard, it is essential
to recollect the working of Bi-stable
FIGURE 1.28 Logic symbol for a 1-of-4 data Multivibrators before entering into the
selector/multiplexer Flip-flop.

Multiplexing
Bi-stable or flip-flop
The technique of transmitting multiple multivibrator
signals over a single medium is defined
as Multiplexing. This technique is widely The bistable multivibrator has both the
used in the Open System Interconnection states (HIGH, LOW) at stable condition.
(OSI) model. The different types of It requires an external triggering pulse
multiplexing technologies are: to change the operation from either one
state to the other. Thus, one pulse is used
„ Wavelength Division Multiplexing to generate half-cycle of square wave and
(WDM) another pulse to generate the next half-
„ Frequency Division Multiplexing cycle of square wave. It is also known as
(FDM) a flip-flop multivibrator because of its
„ Dense Wavelength Division assured two possible states. So that, it can
Multiplexing (DWDM) store one bit of information and is widely
used in digital logic and computer memory.
„ Conventional Wavelength Division
Hence, a flip-flop is nothing but storage
Multiplexing (CWDM)
(memory) device, which can store one-bit
„ Reconfigurable Optical Add-Drop at a time.
Multiplexer (ROADM)
„ Orthogonal Frequency Division Definition
Multiplexing (OFDM) A flip-flop is a bi-stable circuit made up of
„ Add/Drop Multiplexing (ADM) logic gates. A bi-stable circuit can exist in
„ Inverse Multiplexing (IMUX) either of the two stable states indefinitely
and can be made to change its state by
means of some external signal. The most
1.10 Flip-Flops
important use of this property is that a
The output of the digital circuits studied in flip-flop can “store” binary information.
previous chapters are dependent entirely We have seen that a logic gate can make
on the input, i.e., if the input changes, the a logical decision based on the immediate
output also changes. However, there are conditions at the input terminals.
requirements for a digital device or circuit However, the gates normally do not have a

16 CHAPTER 01 Digital Circuit Applications

 www.tntextbooks.in

+VCC +VCC
+VCC –VCC
Output Output
+ +
Output Output
0 Vdc +5 Vdc
– –

State 0 State 1 State 0 State 1

(a) Toggle switch (a) Flip-flop
FIGURE 1.29 Flip-Flop Operations

memory characteristic to retain the input as storing a logic 0 and when its output is
data. On the other hand, flip-flops have set at + 5 V DC, as storing a logic 1. The
the valuable feature of remembering. The flip-flop is often called a latch, since it will
reason is that a flip-flop circuit is bi-stable. hold, or latch, in either stable state.
Because the flip-flop’s output
remains at 0 or 1 depending on the last Basic Idea
input signal, the flip-flop can be said to be One of the easiest ways to construct a
in “remember” condition. Another name flip-flop is to connect two inverters in
for the flip-flop is bi-stable multivibrator. series as shown in Figure 1.30(a). The line
connecting the output of inverter B (INV
Flip-Flop or Latch
B) back to the input of inverter A (INV A)
Any device or circuit that has two stable is referred to as the feedback line.
states is said to be bi-stable. For instance, Feedback line

a toggle switch has two stable states. It

is either up or down, depending on the V1
INV A
V2
INV B
V3

position of the switch as shown in Figure

(a) Bistable circuit
1.29(a). The switch is also said to have
memory since it will remain as set until V1=0 Vdc
INV A
V2=+5 Vdc
INV B
V3=0 Vdc

someone changes its position. A flip-flop (b)

is a bi-stable electronic circuit that has V1=+5 Vdc V2=0 Vdc V3=+5 Vdc

two stable states i.e., its output is either 0

+VCC INV A INV B

or +5 V DC as shown in Figure 1.29(b). (c)

The flip-flop also has memory, FIGURE 1.30 Flip-Flop using inverters
since its output will remain as set until
something is done to change it. As such, the For the moment, remove the feedback
flip-flop (or the switch) can be regarded line and consider V1 as the input and V3 as
as a memory device. In fact, any bistable the output as shown in Figure 1.30(b). There
device can be used to store one binary digit are only two possible signals in a digital
(bit). For instance, when the flip-flop has system, and in this case, we will define L =
its output set at 0 V DC, it can be regarded 0 = 0 V DC and H = 1 = + 5 V DC. If V1 is

CHAPTER 01 Digital Circuit Applications 17

 www.tntextbooks.in

set to 0 V DC, then V3 will also be 0 V DC. counters, the clock input is connected to
Now, if the feedback line shown in Figure all of the flip-flops so that they are clocked
1.30(a) is reconnected, the ground can be simultaneously. Within each of these two
removed from V1 and V3 will remain at 0 V categories, counters are classified primarily by
DC. This is true since, the input of INV A is the type of sequence, the number of states, or
grounded, the output of INV B will go low the number of flip-flops in the counter.
and can then be used to hold the input of
INV A low by using the feedback line. This
1.12 Registers (shift)
is one stable state V3 = 0 V DC. Conversely,
if V1 is +5 V DC, V3 will also be +5 V DC as Shift registers are a type of sequential logic
seen in Figure 1.30(c). The feedback line can circuit used primarily for the storage of
again be used to hold V1 at + 5 V DC since digital data and typically do not possess a
V3 is also at + 5 V DC. This is the second characteristic internal sequence of states.
stable state V3 = + 5 V DC.
Shift Register Operations
1.11 Counters Shift registers consist of arrangements of
As you learned in previous Section, flip- flip-flops and are important in applications
flops can be connected together to perform involving the storage and transfer of data
counting operations. Such a group of flip- in a digital system. A register has no
flops is a counter, which is a type of finite state specified sequence of states, except in
machine. The number of flip-flops used and certain very specialized applications.
the way in which they are connected determine A register in general, is used solely
the number of states (called the modulus) and for storing and shifting data (1s and 0s)
also the specific sequence of states that the entered into it from an external source
counter goes through during each complete and typically possesses no characteristic
cycle. Counters are classified into two broad internal sequence of states.
categories according to the way they are
A register is a digital circuit with
clocked: asynchronous and synchronous. In
two basic functions: data storage and data
asynchronous counters, (commonly called
movement.
ripple counters), the first flip-flop is clocked
by the external clock pulse and then each The storage capability of a register
successive flip-flop is clocked by the output makes it an important type of memory
of the preceding flip-flop. In synchronous device. Figure 1.31 illustrates the concept

1 is stored and appears 0 is stored and appears

on output. on output.

1 D Q 1 0 D Q 0
When a 1 is on D. When a 0 is on D.
CLK C CLK C
Q becomes a 1 at the Q becomes a 0 at the
triggering edge of CLK triggering edge of CLK
on remains a 1 if already on remains a 0 if already
in the SET state. in the RESET state.

FIGURE 1.31 The flip-flop as a storage element.

18 CHAPTER 01 Digital Circuit Applications

 www.tntextbooks.in

Data in

Data in Data out Data out Data in Data out

(a) Serial in/shift right/serial out (b) Serial in/shift left/serial out (c) Parallel in/serial out

Data in

Data in

Data out Data out

(d) Serial in/parallel out (e) Parallel in/parallel out (f) Rotate right (g) Rotate left

FIGURE 1.32 Basic data movement in shift registers. (Four bits are used for illustration. The bits move in the
direction of the arrows.)

of storing a 1 or a 0 in a D flip-flop. A 1 flop) in a shift register represents one bit of

is applied to the data input as shown, and storage capacity; therefore, the number of
a clock pulse is applied that stores the 1 stages in a register determines its storage
by setting the flip-flop. When the 1 on the capacity. The shift capability of a register
input is removed, the flip-flop remains permits the movement of data from stage
in the SET state, thereby storing the 1. A to stage within the register or into or out
similar procedure applies to the storage of of the register upon the application of
a 0 by resetting the flip-flop, as illustrated clock pulses. Figure 1.32 illustrates the
in Figure 1.31. types of data movement in shift registers.
The storage capacity of a register The block represents any arbitrary 4-bit
is the total number of bits (1s and 0s) of register, and the arrows indicate the
digital data it can retain. Each stage (flip- direction of data movement.

learning outcome
After studying this chapter, students can 3. Encoder and Decoder
understand the following 4. Multiplexer
1. Construction and working of Basic 5. Flip-flops
Gates & Combinational Gates and 6. Counters and Registers
their applications.
2. Classification of Logic circuits

CHAPTER 01 Digital Circuit Applications 19

 www.tntextbooks.in

QUESTIONS
I. Choose the best answer from the
given four option.
8. _________ Gate can be used as basic
1. Logic gates are termed as
comparator.
______________ circuits.
a) NAND b) NOR
a) Analog b) Digital
c) EX-NOR d) AND
c) Closed d) Open
9. The flip-flop belongs to a category of
2. An OR gate performs logical
logic circuits known as __________
__________________.
a) Mono-stable Multi vibrator
a) Addition b) Subtraction
b) Bi-stable Multi vibrators
c) Multiplication d) Division
c) A-stable Multi vibrators
3. A __________ Gate has only one
output and one input. d) one-shots

a) OR b) AND 10. Asynchronous counters are known

as _______________
c) NOT d) NOR
a) ripple counters
4. When both input of the NAND gate
goes High, What will be the output? b) multiple clock counters

a) 1 b) 0 c) decade counter

c) 10 d) 01 d) modulus counters

5. From the following Gate which one

is basic Gate? II. Answer in few sentence.
a) NAND Gate b) NOR Gate 1. Write the name of basic logic gates.
c) AND Gate d) EX-OR Gate 2. Draw the construction of AND gate
6. According to the commutative law of with truth table.
addition 3. Write the names of Combinational
a) AB = BA gates.
b) A+(B+C) = (A+B)+C 4. Draw the construction of NOR gate
c) A = A+A with truth table.
d) A+B = B+A 5. Draw the circuit of Half-Adder.
7. A Half Adder is characterised by 6. Write the truth table of Half-
a) two inputs and two outputs Subtractor.
b) three inputs and two outputs 7. Define encoder.
c) two inputs and three outputs 8. Write about decoder
d) two inputs and one output
9. Define Multiplexer.

10. Write briefly about asynchronous

counter.
20 CHAPTER 01 Digital Circuit Applications
 www.tntextbooks.in

III. Explain the following questions. IV. Briefly explain the following
1. Explain in detail the construction questions
of any two combinational gates with 1. Explain the working of any five logic
truth tables. gates with true table.
2. If any 2 bits are to be added, how it can 2. What are the three basic Boolean
be done through a logic gate circuit? laws. Define each with example.
Justify with necessary diagrams? 3. Construct full adder and half
3. Explain in detail about the subtractor circuits. Prove with truth
classification of logic circuit. table.
4. Is it possible to perform subtraction 4. Explain the basic idea of flip-flop.
in logic gates? Prove with circuit and
truth table.
5. Explain about Counters.

ANSWERS
1. (b) 2 (a) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (c) 6. (d) 7 (a) 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (a)

CHAPTER 01 Digital Circuit Applications 21

 www.tntextbooks.in

02

CHAPTER
Transmitters and Receivers

learning objective
The students can understand the following in this chapter
1. Transmission and Reception
2. Modulation and Demodulation
3. Modem
4. Antenna
5. Radio transmitter and radio receiver
6. TV transmitter and TV receiver

2.1 Introduction 2.2 Principles of

Any message or data wants to be sent Transmission and
from one place to another through any Reception
media is known as transmission. Earlier Transmission and reception are the
the transmission was successful to a short most important techniques for the
distance, later it was possible to a very communication system.
long distances, because of modulation.
The ultimate aim of transmission is to Audio signals can travel only to a
reach a receiver. short distance without any signal loss. The
Carrier Wave (CW) or Radio Frequency
A device which can receive the (RF) can travel 3 x 108 meter per second.
transmitted signal is known as receiver. The The process of superimposing audio
transmitted signals have to be demodulated signal over the carrier wave is known
in order to get the actual message or data. So as Modulation. The modulated wave is
in this chapter we learn about modulation, radiated and traveled through space,
demodulation and antenna. finally it reached the receiving antenna.
22
 www.tntextbooks.in

After receiving the signal by the receiving antenna, it enters the receiver. In order
to get back the original audio signal, the RF should be removed by using simple detector
circuit which is called as detection or demodulation.

2.3 Modulation
Modulation is the process of changing the characteristic (amplitude, frequency or phase)
of the carrier signal, in accordance with the amplitude of the message signal. A device
that performs modulation is called modulator.

2.3.1 Need for modulation

The following flow chart shows need for modulation,

2.3.2 Types of Modulation

The following flow chart shows types of modulation.

2.3.3 Analog Modulation

In analog modulation, analog signal (Sinusoidal signal) is used as a carrier signal that
modulated the message signal or data signal.

2.3.4 Amplitude Modulation (AM)

Amplitude modulation is a type of modulation where the amplitude of the carrier signal
is varied (changed) in accordance with the amplitude of the message signal while the

CHAPTER 02 Transmitters and Receivers 23

 www.tntextbooks.in

frequency and phase of carrier signal carrier signal is varied in accordance with
remain constant. the amplitude of the message signal while
the frequency and phase of carrier signal
Amplitude
Message signal remain constant.
Time

2.3.5 Comparison of Analog
Carrier signal
Modulation
Amplitude

Time The comparison between Amplitude

Modulation, Frequency Modulation and
Amplitude Amplitude modulated signal
Phase Modulation are listed in Table 2.1

Time
2.3.6 Digital Modulation
In digital modulation, the modulating signal
FIGURE 2.1 Amplitude modulation is converted from analog to digital. This
The first waveform of figure 2.1 type of modulation is employed for efficient
shows the modulating signal (or) message communication. There are many types of
signal which contains information. The digital modulation techniques and also their
second waveform of figure 2.1 shows combinations depending upon the need.
the high frequency carrier signal which
contains no information. The third Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
waveform of figure 2.1 shows the resultant Modulation
amplitude modulated signal. ASK is the digital modulation technique in
From the above three figures, it which the amplitude of the carrier signal is
can be observed that the amplitude of the changed by varying the binary data inputs

Table 2.1 C
 omparison between Amplitude Modulation, Frequency
Modulation and Phase Modulation
S. Amplitude Modulation Frequency Modulation Phase Modulation
No.
1. Amplitude of the Carrier Frequency of the carrier Phase of the carrier signal
signal is varied signal is varied is varied
2. Frequency and phase of Amplitude and phase Amplitude and frequency
the carrier signal remain remain constant remain constant
constant
3. Noise in reception Noiseless reception Noiseless reception
4. Low efficiency Less radiated power Low power consumption
5. This type is used in AM This type is used in FM This type is used in Wi-Fi,
radio broadcasting and in radio Broadcasting TV remote and satellite
computer modem. communication.

24 CHAPTER 02 Transmitters and Receivers

 www.tntextbooks.in

at a particular time. The binary signal Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

when ASK modulated, gives a zero value Modulation
for Low input while it gives the carrier PSK is the digital modulation technique
output for High input. in which the phase of the carrier signal
The following figure 2.2 represents is changed by varying the binary data
ASK modulated waveform along with its inputs at a particular time. PSK technique
input. is widely used for wireless LANs, bio-
metric, contactless operations, along with
RFID and Bluetooth communications.
The following figure 2.4 represents
PSK modulated waveform along with its
input.

FIGURE 2.2 ASK modulated waveform along with

its input

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

Modulation

FSK is the digital modulation technique FIGURE 2.4 PSK modulated waveform along with
in which the frequency of the carrier its input
signal is changed by varying the binary
data inputs at a particular time. The 2.4 D
 emodulation or
binary 1s and 0s are called Mark and Detection
Space frequencies.
Demodulation or detection is a process
The following figure 2.3 represents FSK
of recovering the original modulating
modulated waveform along with its input.
signal from the modulated carrier wave.
(i.e.,) the demodulation is the reverse
process of modulation. The device used
for demodulation is called demodulator
or detector.

2.4.1 Need for Demodulation

„ Demodulation becomes essential to
separate the audio frequency from the
radio frequency carrier waves.
„ The wireless signals transmitted from
FIGURE 2.3 FSK modulated waveform along with a transmitter consist of carrier wave
its input
and audio frequency signal wave.
CHAPTER 02 Transmitters and Receivers 25
 www.tntextbooks.in

„ If the modulated wave is directly fed to the loud speaker, no sound will be heard from
the loud speaker.
„ This is because the frequency of the carrier wave is very high.
„ The loud speaker diaphragm cannot respond to such high frequency due to large
inertia of their vibrating disc etc.
„ RF wave does not produces any effect on human ear as the frequencies are much
beyond the audible range (20Hz – 20 KHz).

2.5 Modem
Modem stands for Modulator / Demodulator. A modem converts digital signals generated
by the computer into analog signals which can be transmitted over a telephone or cable
lines and transformed the incoming analog signals into their digital equivalents. It is a
hardware device that allows a computer or other devices such as a router or a switch to
access. Figure 2.5 shows the different types of Modem.

FIGURE 2.5 Types of Modem

2.5.1 Working of Modem

A Modem is typically used to send digital data over a phone line. The sending modem
modulates the data (Digital) into a signal (Analog) that is compatible with the phone line
and the receiving modem demodulates the signal back (Analog) into digital data. Wireless
modem converts digital data into radio signals and back. Figure 2.6 shows the working
principle of Modem.
Analog signal
Digital signal
Digital signal
A B

Modem Modem
Telephone line

Modulation/Demodulation
FIGURE 2.6 Modem

26 CHAPTER 02 Transmitters and Receivers

 www.tntextbooks.in

2.5.2 Applications of Modem 3. Safety – ability to check temperature

Modems were originally used for etc., to verify interior safety is secure.
connecting users to the internet or
for sending faxes. Now a days, the 2.6 Antenna
applications include data transfers, remote „ An antenna is a transducer, which
management, broadband backup, point of converts electrical power into electro
sale, machine to machine etc are some of magnetic waves and vice versa.
these examples are as follows.
„ An antenna can be used either as a
1. Point of Sale (POS) transmitting antenna or a receiving
POS is the mostly used applications antenna.
by the consumer. Anytime you pay „ A transmitting antenna is one which
via credit card or debit card there converts electrical signals into electro
is a modem (dial-up or broadband) magnetic waves and radiates them.
behind it transferring that data and
„ A receiving antenna is one which
returning an approval or denial
converts electromagnetic waves from
quickly and in the case of dial-up
the beam into electrical signals.
solutions with less costs associated.
„ In two way communication, the
Examples
same antenna can be used for both
i) Credit card payment terminal in transmission and reception. Antenna
restaurants, movie theatres or retail can also be termed as an aerial.
stores.
There are many types of antennas
ii) Ticketing machine in railway stations, depending upon their wide variety of
bus stations and airports. applications. Figure 2.7 shows the types of
iii) ATM cash machines. antenna.
2. Remote management, maintenance
and logistics 2.7 Radio Transmitter
Modem can be installed in remote A Transmitter is an electronic device used in
locations at off-site locations, telecommunication to produce radio waves
tight enclosures or inside sensitive in order to transmit or send data with the
locations. Certain applications can aid of an antenna. Various types of radio
be controlled remotely via modem transmitters are in use, we shall discuss here
without having to make a visit to the only about AM and FM transmitter.
actual locations. This can save time
and money.
2.7.1 AM Radio Transmitter
Examples
It is an equipment which transmits
1. Stoplight timing control – ability to
the amplitude modulated waves. AM
alter signal timing from headquarters
Radio transmitter uses double sideband
to regulate traffic flows.
transmission. Its bandwidth is 10 kHz. AM
2. Roadside digital signal – ability to transmission broadcast range lies from 540
change messages from headquarters. kHz to 1600 kHz. Figure 2.8 shows the block
diagram of an AM Radio Transmitter
CHAPTER 02 Transmitters and Receivers 27
 www.tntextbooks.in

FIGURE 2.7 Types of Antenna

FIGURE 2.8 shows the block diagram of AM Radio transmitter.

28 CHAPTER 02 Transmitters and Receivers

 www.tntextbooks.in

Microphone 2.7.2 FM Radio Transmitter

It converts AF signal into electrical signal It is an equipment which transmits
and feeds to audio amplifier. the frequency modulated waves. FM
Radio transmitter uses double sideband
Audio amplifier transmission. Its bandwidth is 200 kHz.
It amplifies the voltage and power level FM transmission broadcast range lies from
of audio signal and send to amplitude 88 MHz to 108 MHz. Figure 2.9 shows the
modulator. block diagram of FM Radio transmitter.

RF Oscillator Microphone

It produces high frequency noiseless It converts AF signal into electrical signal

carrier waves (RF) using crystal Oscillator and feeds to audio pre amplifier.
and send to amplitude modulator.
Audio pre-amplifier
Amplitude modulator It amplifies the incoming AF signal and
Here AF signal and RF signal are amplitude feeds to frequency modulator. Pre emphasis:
modulated and send to the RF power Here AF signals amplitude is artifically
amplifier. boosted to improve signal ratio and sent to
the frequency modulator stage
RF Power amplifier
Crystal Oscillator
Here, the power amplifier used to increase
It produces noiseless high frequency waves
the power level of modulated RF signal
and sends to the frequency modulator
and sends to the transmitting antenna.
stage. It uses crystal Oscillator.
Transmitting antenna
Frequency modulator
It converts the modulated waves into In this stage, AF signal and RF signal
electromagnetic waves and transmits into are frequency modulated and sent to RF
space. power amplifier.

Time (t)

Volts (v) Transmitting antenna

AF pre- Pre- Frequency RF power

Microphone
amplifier emphasis modulator amplifier

Carrier
Crystal
oscillator

FIGURE 2.9 Block diagram of FM Radio transmitter

CHAPTER 02 Transmitters and Receivers 29

 www.tntextbooks.in

RF power amplifier 2.8.2 Abilities of Receivers

Here, RF waves are amplified and sent to The quality and specialty of a radio
the transmitting antenna. receiver is determined on the basis of the
following abilities.
Transmitting antenna
Sensitivity
It converts the modulated waves into
electromagnetic waves and transmits into It is the ability to produce sufficient
space. audio output even for weak input radio
frequency signal. It depends on the R.F.
2.8 Radio Receiver and I.F amplification capabilities.

A receiver is an electronics device that receives Selectivity

radio waves and converts the information
carried by them to a usable form. It is the ability to select only the desired
signal or radio station from the signals,
which are received by the aerial. It
2.8.1 Basic Principle of Radio
depends on accurate alignment of the
receivers tuned circuits. Hence, converter and R.F
The principle of the radio receivers is more amplifier are designed in such a way to
or less similar in all type of radio receivers improve the selectivity.
and is summarized below.
Fidelity
Reception It is the ability to amplify the complete
An aerial is necessary for the reception of range of audio frequency without loss. It
radio waves. It receives the radio waves depends upon the design of AF amplifiers.
into the receiver.
Stability
Selection It is the ability to produce stable output
It is the ability to select a desired radio without variation. AVC circuit is used to
station from various radio station. This produce stability in the sound.
work is performed by a LC resonant
network. Signal to Noise ratio

It is the ratio between the signal and noise.

Detection A noise limiter stage is used to improve
In this process, radio frequency signals are this quality.
converted into audio frequency signals. It
is performed by a crystal diode. Types of Radio Receivers
Generally, the radio receivers are classified
Reproduction
into the following two types.
The conversion of audio signal into sound 1. TRF radio receiver
is called reproduction. It is performed by
2. Superhetrodyne radio receiver
a speaker.
30 CHAPTER 02 Transmitters and Receivers
 www.tntextbooks.in

2.8.3 TRF Radio Receiver

Figure 2.10 Shows the block diagram of a tuned radio frequency receiver. The function of
each block is discussed below.
Antennna

RF AF
Detector
amplifier amplifier

Speaker

FIGURE 2.10 TRF Radio Receiver

Antenna: It receives the incoming as Heterodyning. Fig 2.11 shows the block
modulated carrier signal and send it into diagram of super heterodyning principle.
RF amplifier. If two different signals are mixed through a
RF Amplifier : RF Amplifier transistor, four types of signals are obtained
Selects the wanted signal and rejects the in the output of the transistor. They are
unwanted signal. It also amplifies the 1. First signal (Fo)
desired signal and send it into detector. 2. Second signal (Fs)
Detector: In Detector, radio 3. Addition of the two signals is
frequency signals are converted into represented as (Fo + Fs)
audio frequency signals and feed into AF 4. Difference between the two signals is
amplifier. represented as (Fo - Fs)
AF Amplifier: It amplifies the
Antennna
voltage and power level of audio signal Fs
I.F = Fo–Fs

and send it into loud speaker. RF

Mixer
amplifier
Loud Speaker: It Converts audio
signal into sound signal. Fo

2.8.4 Superhetrodyne Radio Local

oscillator
Converter
Receiver
This receiver works under the principle of
FIGURE 2.11 Super heterodyning principle
heterodyning. Modern radio receivers are
mostly of super heterodyne types. It has Apart from these, an unwanted signal called
converter stage which changes the incoming harmonics is produced due to the mixing of the
single into intermediate frequency (IF) two signals. Out of them, the difference between
signals. the two is taken as intermediate frequency
(IF) and the remaining signals are filtered.
Principle of Super heterodyne This is the principle of superheterodyning.
Receiver The receivers which follow this principle are
named as superhet receivers. This principle is
The process of beating (mixing) two different
used in AM, FM, Communication, Radar and
signals to produce a new signal is called
Television receivers.

CHAPTER 02 Transmitters and Receivers 31

 www.tntextbooks.in

Merits 2.8.5 AM Radio Receiver

1. Good sensitivity and selectivity. A receiver which receives amplitude
2. Good fidelity. modulated radio signals is called
3. Good stability. amplitude modulated (AM) radio receiver.
Fig 2.12 Shows the block diagram of AM
Demerits radio receiver
1. It needs alignment and tracking.
2. Complicated circuits are used.

Antennna AF
amplifiers
(fO–fc) LS

fc IF
RF stage Mixer Detector
amplifier

fO

Local
oscillator
(LO)

FIGURE 2.12 shows the block diagram of AM radio receiver.

Antenna Antenna receives electromagnetic waves and converts it into electrical signal
and fed into the RF amplifier.
RF Amplifier It selects the desired RF signals (Fs) then amplifies it and fed into the mixer.
It also improves selectivity.
Local It produces an un-modulated RF signals (F0 = FS + 455 kHz) and fed into the
Oscillator mixer.
Mixer Mixer mixes the two input signal (Fs & Fo) and gives IF signal as output (455
KHz)
IF Amplifier It Amplifies the IF Signal ( 455 KHz) and fed into the Demodulator. It also
improves the sensitivity
Demodulator It Separates the audio signal form Amplitude modulated IF signal, and fed it
/Detector into the audio amplifier.
Audio This stage amplifies the voltage level and power level of audio signal and fed
Amplifier into the speaker. It also improves the fidelity.
Speaker It converts audio signal into sound signal.

32 CHAPTER 02 Transmitters and Receivers

 www.tntextbooks.in

2.8.6 FM Radio Receiver

A receiver which receives frequency modulated radio signals is called frequency
modulation (FM) radio receiver. It is also called as superhet receiver. Fig 2.13 shows the
block diagram of FM receiver.

FIGURE 2.13 Block diagram of FM Radio Receiver

Antenna Antenna receives electromagnetic waves and converts it into electrical

signal and fed into the RF amplifier.
RF Amplifier It selects the desired RF signals (fs) then amplifies it and fed into the
mixer. It also improves the selectivity.
Local oscillator It produces un-modulated RF signals (fo = fs + IF) and fed into the
mixer.
Mixer Mixer mixes the two input signals (RF) (fs and fo) and gives IF signal
as output (10.7 MHz).
IF Amplifier IF amplifier amplifies the IF signal (10.7 MHz) and fed into the
limiter. It also improves the sensitivity.
Limiter It controls the noise pulse which are mixed with signals. It works as
a clipper.
Discriminator It is a demodulator. It separates audio signal from FM modulated IF
signal and fed it into the audio amplifier.
Audio amplifier This stages amplifies the voltage level and power level of audio signal
and fed into the speaker.
Speaker It converts audio signal into sound signal.

2.8.7 Comparison between AM and FM Receiver

The comparison between AM and FM receiver are listed in Table 2.2.

CHAPTER 02 Transmitters and Receivers 33

 www.tntextbooks.in

Table 2.2 Comparison between AM and FM Receiver

S.No. AM Receiver FM Receiver
1. Receives and Processes the AM Signals Receives and Processes the FM Signals

2. Operating frequency range is from Operating frequency range is from 88

540 kHz to 1600 kHz MHz to 108 MHz
3. Intermediate Frequency (IF) value is Intermediate Frequency (IF) value is 10.7
455 kHz MHz
4. Bandwidth is 10 kHz Bandwidth is 200 kHz

5. Employs detector Employs discriminator

6. Does not employ limiter Employs limiter

7. Interference and distortion are more Interference and distortion are less.

2.9 S
 ervicing of FM Radio Types of faults
receivers The defects in a receiver can commonly be
classified into two types.
Trouble shooting techniques
1. Live fault
It includes both the fault finding and
its rectification. It is a sensitive job. It 2. Dead fault
requires circuit diagram, proper tools, test
Live fault
equipment and identical components.
If some sound is heard from a faulty radio
Precautions to be taken before in ‘ON’ condition, but receiver not working
servicing receivers properly, it is termed as ‘Live fault’.
1. First, note the name, model, number Dead fault
of bands and stages in the receiver.
Then, list the number of transistors If no sound is heard even after a radio
and integrated circuits used in the receiver is in ‘ON’ condition, it is said to
circuit. be ‘Dead Fault’.

2. To prevent shock, the receiver should

not be opened until the mains-cord 2.9.1 Rectification
is unplugged. Dead fault
3. After opening the receiver, the missed 1. Check power cord.
and burnt components (parts) should 2. Check on-off switch & AC fuse.
be observed.
3. Check for defective Power transformer.
4. After giving the supply to the receiver,
4. Check for Defective Bridge diodes.
observe for any spark, smoke or
burning smell. 5. Check the main filter capacitor.
6. Check the second B+ filter capacitor.

34 CHAPTER 02 Transmitters and Receivers

 www.tntextbooks.in

7. Check for dry soldering and copper 2. Defective diodes.

track cut. 3. Defective main filter capacitor.
8. Check B+ to Audio IC like TBA 810/ 4. Defective 2nd B+ filter capacitor.
CA 810 for testing the condition of
the IC.
2.10 TV Transmission And
9. Check B+ to CXA 1619 IC for
Reception
ensuring its reliability.
Television means “To see from a distance”.
Live faults Video and audio signals are transmitted
from TV transmitter and is viewed in
Distorted audio various places using TV receivers.
1. Check speaker. Television comprises of the
2. Check the volume control. following three activities:
3. Check for defective filter capacitor. 1. Capturing Pictures—Camera
4. Check for faulty series capacitor 2. Recording and Transmission
connected with speaker 3. Reception or Reproduction
5. Check for faulty Audio IC TBA 810
or defective CXA 1619 IC.
2.11 TV Transmitter
Low volume TV transmitter radiates radio waves, which
carry a video signal along with a audio
1. Check speaker.
signal. This is received by the television
2. Check the volume control. receiver. It transmits frequency channels in
3. Check for low B+. the VHF and UHF bands.
4. Check for faulty series capacitor Since radio waves of these
connected with speaker. frequencies travel by line of straight, they
5. Check for dry soldering or copper are limited by the horizon to reception
track cut. distances of 40 – 60 miles depending on
the height of transmitter station.
6. Check for faulty Audio IC TBA 810.
7. Check for defective CXA 1619. TV transmitters use one of two
different technologies, analog, in which
Noise only: No signal (Radio the picture and sound are transmitted
stations not received) by analog signals and digital in which
the picture and sound are transmitted
1. Ganged capacitor may be faulty
by digital signals. But nowadays digital
2. Faulty trimmer. Television (DTV) systems are used in
3. Faulty CXA 1619 IC many countries. These transmit picture
in a new format called HDTV ( High
Hum with distorted audio Definition Television), which has higher
This fault occurs due to pulsating DC resolution and a wider screen aspect ratio
supplied to the receiver. than analog. Fig 2.14 shows a simple
colour TV transmitter block diagram
1. Defective power transformer.

CHAPTER 02 Transmitters and Receivers 35