ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

With great pleasure and deep sense of gratitude, I express my gratefulness revered
teacher and guide Mr.Pradyumna Kumar Sahu,lecturer of Zoology Department,
Saraswati Degree Vidya Mandir Neelakantha Nagar, for his constant guidance,
encouragement, suggestion and meticulous care for preparation and completion of
this project work.
I owe my deep indebtedness and honour to Professor Dr. B. Rajendra Murty, Mr
Tanmay Achary, HOD and Mrs. Subhashree Satapathy for their constant support
throughout the month.
I avail this pleasant opportunity to express my gratitude to

I would like to thank my parents and friends who helped me with their valuable
suggestions and guidance which has been helpful in various phases of the
completion of the project.
 ABSTRACT

Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) is a highly contagious viral infection that affects
cloven-hoofed animals, including cattle, pigs, sheep, and goats. The disease is
caused by the Foot and Mouth Disease Virus (FMDV), which belongs to the
Picornaviridae family. The virus spreads through direct contact, aerosols,
contaminated food, and the movement of infected animals. International trade and
inadequate biosecurity measures contribute to the rapid dissemination of the virus,
leading to significant economic losses due to trade restrictions, livestock culling,
and reduced productivity. Clinical signs of FMD in cattle include fever, excessive
salivation, lameness, and the formation of vesicular lesions on the oral mucosa,
interdigital skin, and teats. These lesions cause pain and discomfort, leading to
decreased feed intake, weight loss, and decreased milk production. Diagnosis of
FMD in cattle involves clinical examination and laboratory tests such as virus
isolation, antigen detection, and molecular techniques like reverse transcription-
polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Preventing FMD in cattle requires a
combination of vaccination aims to induce protective immunity against specific
serotypes prevalent in a region. During outbreaks, control measures include
quarantine, movement restrictions, disinfection, and surveillance to contain the
spread of the virus. International cooperation and adherence to World Organisation
for Animal Health (OIE) guidelines are essential for global FMD control efforts.
Foot and Mouth Disease in cattle is a significant concern for the livestock industry
Understanding the disease’s etiology, epidemiology, clinical presentation,
diagnostics, and control strategies is essential for effective management and
prevention of FMD outbreaks. Continued

INTRODUCTION
Cows are domesticated mammals known for their gentle behaviour, large size, and
crucial role in agriculture. Belonging to the genus Bos, (Bos taurus) they are
primarily raised for their milk, meat, and leather.

Cows have a long history of being associated with human civilization and are
considered sacred in many cultures and faiths as symbols of abundance, fertility,
and nourishment.

They are also used as draft animals in certain parts of the world, and their dung
serves as fertilizers.

Cows are primarily raised for milk production. One important area of agriculture is
dairy farming, which produces milk and other dairy products for human
consumption.

In agriculture, cow manure is utilized as an organic fertilizer. It enriches the soil

with essential nutrients, improving soil fertility and enhancing crop yields.

Cows are important for various reasons:-

They give milk, meat, and dairy products, which are essential in the diets of a large
number of people around the world.

Cows are used for cultivating fields and fertilizing crops, contributing to
agricultural productivity.

Farmers rely on the sale of milk, meat, and other byproducts like leather from their
cows for source of income.
Cows play a role in nutrient cycling by grazing on grass and returning nutrients to
the soil through their waste.

In many societies, cows are sacred and have cultural significance. They are
frequently associated with fertility, wealth, and the goodness of God.

Because of their extreme adaptability, cows are one of the most common and
economically significant livestock animals worldwide. They can flourish in a wide
range of temperatures, climates and environment.

Introduction to FMD :-

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious viral infection that affects

cloven-hoofed animals, including cows.

Fever, blisters, and ulcers on the tongue, mouth, and hooves are the characteristics
of disease ; these symptoms cause lameness and reduce milk production.

FMD can spread rapidly through direct contact between animals, contaminated
equipment, or even via airborne transmission or even airborne transmission can all
quickly spread FMD.

Due to trade restrictions, lost productivity, and expensive control measures, it has a
significant economic impact. The prevention and management of FMD outbreaks
in cattle populations depend on vaccination and strict biosecurity procedures.
EPIDEMIOLOGY:
FMD is endemic in many regions of the world, with sporadic outbreaks occurring
periodically. The disease spreads rapidly through direct contact with infected
animals, contaminated fomites, and aerosol transmission. Factors such as animal
movement, trade, and inadequate biosecurity measures contribute to the
dissemination of the virus within and between countries.

Fig:- FMD Notice, 1872

GLOBAL DATA OF FMD:
Globally, foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) remains a significant concern for
livestock industries and economies. According to the Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, FMD affects countries across the
world, with endemic regions in Africa, Asia, South America, and parts of Europe,
Japan, Korea. The exact data regarding the prevalence and impact of FMD vary
depending on the region.

Fig:-
ENDEMIC REGIONS :-
Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is endemic in many parts of the world, particularly
in regions with large populations of susceptible livestock such as cattle, pigs,
sheep, and goats. Some of the endemic regions for FMD includes, Countries in
Africa, Asia, and parts of South America often experience endemic FMD, where
the virus circulates continuously within the livestock population.

United States (1870-1929) has had nine FMD outbreaks since it was first
recognized on the northeastern coast in 1870. About 3,500 livestock herds were
infected across the US, totaling over 170,000 cattle.

Mexico u.s border (1947) on December 26, 1946, the United States and Mexico
jointly declared that FMD had been found in Mexico. To prevent animals from
crossing the border and spreading the disease, the two countries eventually
managed to cooperate in a bilateral effort and eradicated the disease without
building a wall.

In China April 2005, an Asia-1 strain of FMD appeared in the eastern provinces .
During April and May, it spread to northern provinces and the autonomous region
in northwest China.

On 13 May, China reported the FMD outbreak to the World Health Organization
and the OIE. This was the first time China has publicly admitted to having FMD.

Japan veterinary authorities confirmed an outbreak of type- O FMD virus,

currently more common in Asian countries where FMD is endemic.

South Korea was hit by the rarer type- A FMD in January, and then the type-O
infection in April.
The most serious case of foot-and-mouth outbreak in South Korea’s history started
in November 2010 in pig farms in Andong city of Gyeongsangbuk-do, and has
since spread in the country rapidly. More than 100 cases of the disease have been
confirmed in the country so far.

New Zealand Prime Minister and Biosecurity Minister have expressed concern
about the impact of foot and mouth disease on New Zealand’s substantial cattle,
sheep and pig populations as well as wildlife.

Indonesia having eradicated in 1986, FMD was again detected in Indonesia in May
2022. The Australian government has offered its assistance but remains
unconcerned, considering the risk to the country’s biosecurity to be low. The
Department of Agriculture (DAWE) is the responsible body and has been
monitoring the situation.

The epidemic of FMD in the United Kingdom in the spring and summer of 2001
was caused by the “Type O pan Asia” strain of the disease. This episode resulted in
more than 2,000 cases of the disease in farms throughout the British countryside.
More than six million sheep and cattle were killed in an eventually successful
attempt to halt the disease.

FMD is also endemic in parts of South America, particularly in countries such as

Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay. These countries have large livestock populations,
and FMD outbreaks occur periodically despite control efforts.

While FMD has been eradicated in some European countries through vaccination
and strict control measures, it remains endemic in parts of Eastern Europe and the
Balkans. Countries such as Turkey, Bulgaria, and Romania experience sporadic
outbreaks.
Several countries in the Middle East, including Iran, Iraq, and Saudi Arabia, have
endemic FMD. The disease poses challenges to livestock production and trade in
the region.
Countries in Central Asia, such as Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, and Kyrgyzstan,
also experience endemic FMD due to their large livestock populations and
geographic proximity to other endemic regions.

These regions vary in terms of FMD serotypes circulating, control measures in

place, and the frequency of outbreaks. Efforts to control and eventually eradicate
FMD in endemic regions require coordinated surveillance, vaccination programs,
and international cooperation to prevent the spread of the virus between countries.
INDIA :-
Livestock is a major sector of agricultural production system in India and it plays
significant part in the farming Community’s socio- economic growth.

FMD is endemic in India and has been reported throughout the year in almost all
parts of the country.

The first case of FMD in India was recorded in 1864, afterwards it was reported in
many parts of the country.

In India, foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a serious cattle disease that results in

significant financial losses.

Beginning in a few areas in 2003–04, the official FMD control program was
progressively extended.

Common serotypes, and FMD outbreaks that occurred in the nation between 2011
and 2020.

There have been frequent reports of FMD epidemics in domestic livestock and
wildlife with cloven hooves, involving three serotypes: O, A, and Asia1.

India has a large population of FMD-susceptible livestock, which includes 192.49

million cattle.

The official FMD Control Program (FMDCP) in India began in 2003–04 in 54

districts and has since been gradually expanded to include the entire nation by
2019.

The geographical pattern of the viral strains circulating in India was used to
determine their circulation. Most FMD outbreaks in the nation are caused by
serotype O, which is followed by serotypes Asia1 and A.
With approximately 92% of all outbreaks, FMDV serotype O dominated the
outbreak scenario. Serotype Asia1 and serotype A were in second and third,
respectively, with 5% and 3% of all outbreaks.
The spatial distribution of FMD was characterized by a larger number of outbreaks
in the southern region and northern region of the country.

Fig : Regional distribution of FMDV serotypes from 2011-2020.

Serotype O and A are found in all the region , however serotype
Asia 1 was not reported in the North.
Reduction in Foot and Mouth Disease outbreaks reported in India :-
Foot-and-mouth disease control programme (FMDCP) is led by Department of
Animal Husbandry Dairying and Fisheries, Government of India.

Due to continuous efforts to prevent and control the FMDV infection in susceptible
livestock population especially large ruminants, there is significant reduction in
number of FMD outbreaks reported during the years 2012–2018 to that of the
FMD outbreaks reported during the years 2002–2012.
Reduction in the number of outbreaks reported is largely due to epidemiological
inquiries, enhanced diagnostic capacities, skilled labor, proficiency in vaccine
production to vaccinate the cattle population, and government initiatives.

The ₹ 126.52 billion National Animal Disease Control Programme (NADCP),

wholly supported by the federal government, was introduced in 2019 with the goal
of immunizing 600 million animals against Brucellosis and FMD.

There will be implementation of the FMDCP more effectively and efficiently

resulting into further reduction in the incidence of the disease and ultimately
eradication.

However, there must be positive criticism in few regards. As the data stated that
there is no incidence of FMD in Madhya Pradesh during the year 2017–2018 but
the adjoining states to Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh
reporting the disease.

Although cattle are being purchased from Gujarat, the state is remarkably not
reporting any cases of FMD for the past few years.

It’s ironic that it found that only 18% of people were reactive to non-structural
proteins (NSP), and that the frequency of FMD increases with the existence of
anti-NSP antibodies.

It can be determined that the FMD incidence is underreported. The author

observed a farm visit where the cattle owner had raised livestock for the thirty
previous thirty years for without even knowing about vaccination protocols.
As there will be reduction in the number of outbreaks reported in a state various
known and unknown pressures would play a role in hiding any further positive
cases of FMD.

Since all eligible cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats, and pigs will receive an FMD
vaccine, all vaccination, blood collection, and follow-up procedures must be
carefully documented digitally.

In India, internet data is now the least expensive. Thus, location-tracing software
can be created and employed to keep an eye on the activities of professionals such
as vaccinators.

If an outbreak of FMD is noticed at a place, it needed to be reported immediately

as per the FMDCP (Foot and Mouth Disease Control Programme)

In India, announcing financial rewards for disclosing disease incidence will not
only increase transparency in disease reporting but also greatly aid in disease
prevention and control.

But at the field level due to unawareness of significance of reporting an outbreak

and sometimes, at some places, it may go unreported. Hence it is desirable to
spread awareness among common man and livestock owners regarding the
programme.

Its control remains largely unknown to cattle owners throughout the nation. Since
there are still a small percentage of farmers that refuse to vaccinate their livestock.

Such farmers needed to be identified and must be penalised else all the good of the
control programme would be in danger.
FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE VIRUS
The organism that causes foot-and-mouth disease is the foot-and-mouth disease
virus, or FMDV. It’s a picornavirus, the prototypical Aphthovirus genus member.
The disease is extremely contagious and a severe problem for animal production.
It causes vesicles, or blisters, in the mouth and feet of cattle, pigs, sheep, goats,
and other animals with cloven hooves.

Fig: Elecromicrograph of foot and mouth disease virus

Kingdom : Orthornavirae
Phylum : Pisuviricota
Class : Pisoniviricetes
Order : Picornavirales
Family: Picornaviridae
Genus : Apthovirus

Structure and Genome

The viral particle , measuring 25-30 nm, possesses an icosahedral capsid composed
of protein without envelope, containing a positive-sense (mRNA sense) single-
stranded ribonucleic acid (RNA) genome.

Replication

When the virus comes in contact with the membrane of a host cell, it binds to a
receptor site and triggers a folding-in of the membrane.

Once the virus is inside the host cell, the capsid dissolves, and the RNA gets
replicated, and translated into viral proteins by the cell’s ribosomes using a cap-
independent mechanism and is triggered by internal ribosome entry site element.
Viral protein synthesis involves 2A ‘cleavage’ during translation. These include of
proteins that interact with various host cell components and proteases, which
prevent the creation of normal cell proteins.

Large amounts of viral RNA and capsid proteins are ultimately produced by the
infected cell, and these components are combined to generate new viruses. The
host cell lyses, or bursts, after assembly, releasing the new viruses.

Recombination
Recombination can occur within host cells during co-infections by different foot
and mouth disease virus (FMDV) strains. Recombination is common and a key
feature of FMDV evolution.

Serotypes
Foot-and-mouth disease virus occurs in seven major serotypes: O, A, C, SAT-1,
SAT-2, SAT-3, and Asia-1. These serotypes show some regionality, and the O
serotype is most common.

Each serotype exhibits distinct antigenic characteristics, complicating vaccine

development and disease control efforts.

The virus primarily targets epithelial tissues, causing vesicular lesions in the
mouth, feet, and occasionally on the teats and mammary glands.

FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE IN COW :-

The virus is responsible for an aphthovirus, foot-and-mouth disease virus. Infection

occurs when the virus particle is taken into a cell of the host.
Foot and Mouth Disease(FMD)stands as one of the most economically devastating
and highly contagious viral diseases affecting cattle worldwide.
This comprehensive introduction aims to explain the various facets of FMD,
including its etiology, epidemiology, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, prevention.
Foot and mouth disease (FMD) has very severe implications for animal farming,
since it is highly infectious and can be spread by infected animals comparatively
easily through contact with contaminated farming equipment, vehicles, clothing,
and feed, and by domestic and wild predators.

Its containment demands considerable efforts in vaccination, strict monitoring,

trade restrictions, quarantines of both infected and healthy (uninfected) animals.

Fig : Foot and Mouth Disease Of Cow

Susceptible animals include cattle, water buffalo, sheep, goats, pigs, antelope, deer.
Cattle, Asian and African buffalo, sheep, and goats can become carriers following
an acute infection, meaning they are still infected with a small amount of virus but
appear healthy.

Animals can be carriers for up to 1–2 years and are considered very unlikely to
infect other animals, although laboratory evidence suggests that transmission from
carriers is possible.

Animals with FMD typically have a fever and blisters on the tongue and lips in and
around the mouth, on the mammary glands and around the hooves. These blisters
called vesicles, pop and turn into red areas called erosions.

Pain and discomfort from the vesicles and erosions lead to other signs of illness
such as excessive salivation, lameness and reluctant to move or stand. Most
affected animals will not die from FMD, but the disease leaves them weakened and
unable to produce milk the way they did before becoming sick.

Humans are only extremely rarely infected by foot-and-mouth disease virus

(FMDV). (Humans, particularly young children, can be affected by hand, foot, and
mouth disease (HFMDV), which is often confused for foot and mouth disease virus
FMDV. Similarly, HFMDV is a viral infection belonging to the Picornaviridae
family, but it is distinct from FMDV. HFMDV also affects cattle, sheep, and
swine.
FMD Control Programme In India (FMDCP)

The Indian government initiated a progressive control strategy for foot-and-mouth

disease (FMD) in accordance with protocols due to the high morbidity in sensitive
cattle populations and the detrimental social and economic effects of the disease.

In order to check whether the FMD vaccine, used in the FMDCP (at six monthly
intervals), evoke protective immune response in the vaccinated large ruminants,
randomly collected serum samples are being tested .

Paired serum samples are collected (the first serum before vaccination and the
second after 21–30 days post vaccination from the same animal).

These serum samples are collected from randomly selected 10 villages in each
district from 10 cattle after every vaccination.

That means there are two rounds of vaccination in the year and 200 samples will be
collected from each category of animals, cattle and buffaloes.

So, In order to determine whether the large ruminants generated a sufficient

neutralizing antibody response and level of protection to avert future FMD
epidemics, about 400 serum samples from each area will be analyzed.

A 3-year study was done to check the effect of vaccination of FMD in Karnataka
state . In the past decade, most outbreaks occurred in 2013 and 2018 while the least
number of cases were reported in 2022.
Month-scale analysis for the prevalence of FMD revealed that the highest
incidence of the disease was between October and March

FMD control program is working in India to eradicate the disease by 2030 as they
have eradicated the polio virus and rinderpest with the same method .

ECONOMIC IMPACT :
The economic impact of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) can be massive, affecting
both individual farmers and entire economies. Some key aspects of the economic
impact of FMD include:
1. Direct Losses :
FMD can cause direct losses through reduced productivity, mortality in
young animals, and costs associated with veterinary treatment. Infected
animals may experience decreased milk production, weight loss, and
reduced fertility, leading to financial losses for livestock producers.

2. Trade Restrictions :
FMD outbreaks often result in trade restrictions imposed by importing
countries to prevent the spread of the disease. These restrictions can lead to
the loss of export markets for livestock and animal products, reducing
farmers’ incomes and disrupting supply chains.

3. Market Disruptions :
FMD outbreaks can disrupt local and regional livestock markets, causing
price fluctuations and reducing consumer confidence in the safety of animal
products. Farmers may struggle to sell their animals or may be forced to sell
at lower prices, further exacerbating economic losses.
 4. Long-Term Impacts :
In addition to immediate economic losses, FMD can have long-term impacts
on livestock production systems, including decreased investment in the
sector, reduced breeding stock, and loss of genetic diversity in livestock
populations.

5. Tourism and Rural Communities :

In regions where agriculture and livestock farming are significant
contributors to the economy, FMD outbreaks can also impact tourism and
rural communities that depend on these industries for employment and
income.
Overall, the economic impact of FMD can be significant at local, national,
and international levels.

CONTROL MEASURES :-

Control measures for foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) typically involve a

combination of preventive measures, surveillance, vaccination, movement
restrictions, and outbreak response strategies. Here are some key control measures
used to manage FMD outbreaks:

1. Vaccination
Vaccination is a crucial tool for controlling FMD in endemic regions and for
preventing the spread of the disease during outbreaks.
  Vaccination helps to build immunity in susceptible livestock
populations, reducing the severity of outbreaks and limiting the spread
of the virus.
 Different types of vaccines are available, including killed virus
vaccines and marker vaccines, which allow for differentiation
between vaccinated and infected animals.

2. Surveillance
Surveillance systems are essential for early detection of FMD outbreaks and
for monitoring the circulation of the virus in susceptible populations.
 Surveillance systems are essential for early detection of FMD
outbreaks and for monitoring the circulation of the virus in susceptible
populations.

3. Movement Restrictions
Movement restrictions are imposed to prevent the spread of FMD between
farms and regions.
 Restrictions may include quarantine measures, movement controls on
animals, and biosecurity measures at borders and livestock markets.
 Limiting the movement of infected or exposed animals helps to
contain outbreaks and prevent further transmission of the virus.

4. Biosecurity Measures
 Implementing biosecurity measures on farms and livestock evidence is
essential for preventing the introduction and spread of FMD.
 Biosecurity measures include practices such as controlling access to
farms, disinfection of vehicles and equipment, isolation of sick
animals, and proper disposal of animal waste.

5. Public Awareness and Education

Public awareness campaigns and educational programs play a crucial role in
promoting understanding of FMD, encouraging compliance with control
measures, and fostering collaboration between stakeholders.

 Farmers, veterinarians, government officials, and the public need to be

informed about the risks associated with FMD and the importance of
implementing preventive measures.

Overall, effective control of FMD requires a coordinated and multi-sectoral

approach involving governments, veterinary authorities, livestock producers,
and international organizations
By implementing comprehensive control measures, countries can minimize
the impact of FMD on livestock industries and prevent the spread of the
disease between regions.

GLOBAL TRADE :-
Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) has significant implications for global trade in
livestock and animal products. Here are some key aspects of how FMD affects
global trade:

1. Trade Restrictions
FMD outbreaks often lead to trade restrictions imposed by importing
countries to prevent the spread of the disease.
 These restrictions can include bans or restrictions on the importation
of live animals, meat, dairy products, and other animal-derived
products from affected regions.
 Importing countries may also require proof of FMD-free status or
specific control measures, such as vaccination or testing, before
allowing imports.

2. Impact on Exporting Countries

Countries affected by FMD outbreaks may experience disruptions in their
export markets for livestock and animal products.
 Exporters may face reduced demand, loss of market access, or
decreased export volumes due to trade restrictions imposed by
importing countries.
 These disruptions can have significant economic consequences for
exporting countries and their livestock industries.
3. Economic Losses
Trade restrictions resulting from FMD outbreaks can lead to economic
losses for both exporting and importing countries.
  Exporting countries may lose revenue and market share in
international markets, while importing countries may face higher
prices and supply shortages due to reduced imports.
 The overall economic impact depends on the duration and severity of
the trade restrictions and the importance of livestock and animal
product exports to the economies involved.

4. Regionalization and Compartmentalization

International organizations such as the World Organization for Animal
Health (OIE) promote the concepts of regionalization and
compartmentalization to facilitate trade while managing the risk of disease
spread.

Risk Mitigation Measures

Countries may implement risk mitigation measures to reduce the livelihood of

introducing FMD through trade.

 These measures can include quarantine requirements, certification of

FMD-free status, and adherence to international standards for
biosecurity and disease control.
 Importing countries may also conduct risk assessments to evaluate the
potential threat of FMD from trading partners and adjust their import
policies accordingly.
Overall, FMD has a significant impact on global trade in livestock and animal
products, with trade restrictions imposed during outbreaks affecting exporters,
importers, and the overall economy.

International cooperation, adherence to OIE guidelines, and implementation of

risk-based trade policies are essential for managing the risks associated with FMD
while facilitating safe and efficient trade in agricultural commodities.

RESEARCH AND COLLABORATION :-

Research and collaboration are essential components of efforts to control and
eventually eradicate foot-and-mouth disease (FMD). Here’s how research and
collaboration contribute to the fight against FMD:

1. Vaccine and Development

Research efforts focus on developing more effective and efficient FMD
vaccines, including novel vaccine formulations and delivery methods.
 Collaboration between government agencies, academic institutions,
and pharmaceutical companies plays a crucial role in advancing
vaccine research and development.

2. Diagnostic Tools
Improved diagnostic tools and techniques are essential for early detection
and rapid response to FMD outbreaks.
 Research in this area focuses on developing sensitive and specific
diagnostic tests, including serological assays, molecular assays, and
field-based diagnostic tools.
  Collaboration between research laboratories and veterinary diagnostic
laboratories helps to validate and implement new diagnostic methods.

3. Epidemiology and Surveillance

Research on the epidemiology of FMD helps to improve understanding of
disease transmission dynamics, risk factors, and control measures.
 Collaborative surveillance programs monitor the circulation of FMD
virus strains and identify emerging threats, facilitating early detection
and targeted control efforts.

4. Control Strategies
Research informs the development and evaluation of FMD control
strategies, including vaccination policies, movement restrictions, and
biosecurity measures.
 Collaborative research projects evaluate the effectiveness of different
control measures in diverse settings and contribute to the development
of evidence-based guidelines for FMD control.

5. International Collaboration
FMD is a global challenge that require international collaboration and
cooperation.
i) Organization such as the World Organization for Animals
Health(OIE), the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the
united nations, and regional veterinary organizations facilitate
collaboration between countries.
 6. Capacity Building
Collaborative research and training programs build capacity in FMD-
endemic countries, strengthening their ability to diagnose, monitor, and
control the disease.
i) These programs provide opportunities for scientists, veterinarians,
and policymakers to exchange knowledge and expertise, fostering
long-term partnerships and sustainable solutions to the FMD
problem.

How did:
Most experts agree that the pigs at Burnside Farm in Heddon-on-the-Wall were
given swill containing tainted or infected meat, which is where the FMD virus
originated. Because the swill was not adequately heat-sterilized, the virus was able
to infect the pigs.

It is likely that the contaminated meat was brought into the UK illegally because
the virus was thought to have not been in the country before the outbreak and
because meat from nations known to harbor FMD was prohibited from entering the
country.

Early in the pandemic, a complete restriction on feeding catering garbage

containing meat or meat products was implemented, so it is likely that these
imports are for the catering business.

The implemented meat product where the FMD virus is originated. Due to this
virus Foot and mouth Disease spread all over the world.

Seeing the symptoms of the animal we can conclude that this disease is called as
Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD).

SYMPTOMS :-

The incubation period for FMD virus has a range between 1 to12 days.

1. Fever :
An initial rise in body temperature is common.
The disease is characterized by high fever that declines rapidly
after two to three days .
Due to this disease, the cow’s temperature rises to 106°- 107° .

2. Lameness :
Cows may exhibit lameness due to painful lesions on their feet
and mouth.

3. Excessive Salivation :
 Blisters inside the mouth that lead to excessive secretion of stringy

or foamy saliva and to drooling, and blisters on the feet that may

rupture and cause lameness.

4. Loss of Weight :
FMD can cause cows to lose weight and become less physically fit by
causing fever, lameness, and general weakness.

5. Lesions :
Vesicles (blisters) on the tongue, gums, lips, nostrils, and between
the hooves.

6. Reduced Appetite :
Affected cows often have a decreased appetite.
Adult animals may suffer weight loss from which they do not recover
For several months, as well as swelling in the testicles of mature males.

7. Reduced Fertility :
FMD may have an impact on cows' reproductive systems, which could result
in lower fertility rates and Possibility of animal abortion during pregnancy

8. Decreased Milk Production :

cows' milk production can decline significantly.
 9. Increased Mortality :
While FMD rarely causes death in adult cows, but can be more severe in
young animals and result in increased fatality rates, especially in calves.

Though most animals eventually recover from FMD, the disease can lead to
myocarditis (inflammation of the heart muscle) and death, especially in newborn
animals.

Some infected ruminants remain asymptomatic carriers, but they nonetheless carry
the virus and may be able to transmit it to others.

Sub clinical Infection :

Subclinical (asymptomatic) infections can be classified as neoteric or persistent
based on when they occur and whether the animal is infectious.

i)Neoteric subclinical infection

Neoteric subclinical infections are acute infections, meaning they occur soon
after an animal is exposed to the FMD virus (about 1 to 2 days) and last about 8
to 14 days.

In a neoteric subclinical infection, the virus remains in the pharynx and does not
Spread into the blood as it would in a clinical infection.

Animals with neoteric subclinical infections do not show symptoms of illness,

but they can spread the FMD virus to other animals because they secrete large
amounts of the virus in their saliva and nasal secretions.
ii) Persistent subclinical infection

Persistent subclinical infection (also referred to as a carrier state) occurs when

an animal recovers from an acute infection but continues to have a small

amount of replicating virus present in the pharynx.

Animals can become carriers following acute infections with or without

Symptoms.

Both vaccinated and unvaccinated animals can become carriers.

However, in an experiment where virus was collected from the pharynx of

carrier cattle and inserted in the pharynx of susceptible cattle became

infected and developed characteristics blisters in the mouth and on the

mouth.

TRANSMISSION :-

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in cows is primarily transmitted through direct

contact with infected animals, contaminated materials, or through the air.

The virus can be shed in the saliva, nasal discharge, urine, feces, and milk of
infected animals.
FMD can be transmitted through fomites such as equipment, vehicles, and clothing
contaminated with the virus. In some cases, the virus can also spread via ingestion
of contaminated feed or water.

Fig : Transmission routes of

Conditions like as the pH of animal products and the outside temperature and
humidity have a significant impact on this ability. An animal’s immune system
mounts a quick defense as soon as FMDV enters its body.

Certain hosts develop become carriers of FMDV in lymphoid tissue and

nasopharyngeal epithelial sites at low levels.

FMDV can be transferred from endemic regions to disease-free zones; this

explains why FMD is one of the most infectious diseases.
Trade restrictions are put in place because direct interaction with imported animals
from FMD-endemic regions and traded animal products can spread the disease
within an FMD-free zone.

Fig : Transmission cycle of FMDV

PATHOGENESIS :-
FMDV attaches to certain cell surface receptors and enters the host cell to produce
the sickness. Through receptor-mediated endocytosis, the virus enters the host cell.

Changes in the amino acid sequence of the receptor can result in mutations in the
binding site. This ultimately results in modifications to the infection-causing ability
of the virus.

The integrin route is typically used by FMDV serotype O to enter the host cell.
Once the processes of FMDV’s invasion are understood, the virus’s spread can be
included.

The entire replication cycle of FMDV occurs in the cytoplasm.

The genetic material of a virus contains all the required information to take over
the host cellular machinery and stop the synthesis of macromolecules required by
the host cell.

The cytoplasm is where FMDV replicates during its whole life cycle. A virus’s
genetic material is contained with all the information needed to take over the host
cellular machinery and stop the synthesis of macromolecules that the host cell
needs.
PREVENTION :-

Keep everything clean – materials like mud or bedding on clothes, boots

equipment or vehicles can carry the virus from farm to farm or between different
groups of livestock on the farm.

Don’t show up to sales or exhibits dressed for work. Wear hygienic protection
clothes and shoes that you only use on your own farm.

It is essential that you clean yourself, your vehicle and everything you carry
thoroughly when you move between different groups of livestock on the farm.

Avoid visiting other farms unless absolutely necessary and check the animals
frequently (daily at least) for symptoms of illness.

Keep different species of livestock separate where possible avoid moving animals
from one part of the farm to another if possible, particularly between out farms.

Wash hands after contact with livestock.

Ensure that the appropriate cleaning supplies and disinfectant are available at the
entrance to your farm so that important guests can sanitize themselves both upon
entering and upon departing.

In Farm :

Employees that have contact with livestock at other locations (including their own
home) should use strict biosecurity measures while on your farm.

Educate yourself and train your employees about FMD and the signs of illness.
Record any visitors onto the farm with a log sheet.

Monitor animals closely and frequently for any developing illness or signs of
disease.

Contact the herd veterinarian immediately if unusual illness or signs are noticed.

Isolate sick animals from the herd to minimize disease spread.

Any animals that have recently been purchased or have returned to the farm should
be quarantined for 30 days.

Animals exposed to the FMD virus can take as long as 14 days before signs of
illness are seen.

Use separate facilities, equipment and staff to handle isolated livestock.

TREATMENT :-

In affected countries, use of antibiotics for FMD is common, but this approach
increases the risk of creating

Long-term antimicrobial resistance with potential food safety risks when these
animals are marketed.

Sick animals can also be treated with painful disinfectants or anti-inflammatory

drugs, but the benefits are limited.

For the many farmers who don’t even have access to these, lesions caused by FMD
are treated with painful traditional remedies, including scraping the lesions with
tree bark or applying lemon Juice.
These options likely increase the pain and suffering animals have to endure during

outbreaks.

There is no specific treatment for FMD. The use of supportive treatment arises
when targeted treatments are not available.

Antibiotics along with flunixin meglumine and mild disinfectants are used as
conventional methods of treatment.

Flunixin Meglumine injection is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID)

used to treat pain, inflammation, and fever.

The anti-inflammatory effect starts to take effect in less than two hours, peaks
response between 12 and 16 hours , and lasts for 36 hours.
To stop the disease from spreading to cattle , interferons are used. To prevent
disease in animals, a combination of interferon and the FMD vaccination is
administered.

Antibiotics are administered and wounds are dressed in endemic places where it is
not possible to meat trader but the diseased animal in order to prevent further
bacterial infection.

In zones where FMD is endemic, a repeated vaccination strategy is adapted to

eliminate the disease.

Many farmers feel empowered when they can treat animals well and increase their
wellbeing.

They also keep learning and developing their own livestock husbandry techniques
because they know that having healthier and more valued livestock can help
decrease food insecurity and increase the resilience of rural communities.

In Village

To reduce the risk of disease, livestock is kept apart from wildlife and animal
movement is regulated. However, because of social and economic issues, it is not
practical to modify the test and slaughter policy for the control of FMD in endemic
areas.
FUTURE PROSPECTIVE :-

Infectious diseases are critical health problems in both animals and humans, which
cause economic losses and severe illnesses.

Due to its disastrous results on the livestock industry, FMD is a hot topic these
days. Controlling the disease is essential to protect both the nation’s economic and
cattle safety.

The virus will continue to change in the future due to the rapid genetic variation
among serotypes, resulting in several outbreaks in the endemic regions.

Measures should be taken depending on the status of the disease whether it is

endemic or not.

To control the disease, well-trained veterinary staff in disease control, good

infrastructure, improved governance, highly sensitive and specific diagnostic
testing, and well-stocked laboratories should be established.

A good monitoring and surveillance system must be there to prevent the outbreak
at a bigger level.

Since FMDV does not provide cross-protection, endemic areas must implement
mass vaccination campaigns targeting specific strains of the virus in order to stop
the disease and any future outbreaks.
Furthermore, food security issues will rise with decreasing production of animal
products. Individually, the availability of milk and meat to individuals will
decrease and ultimately lead to malnourishment.

It is recommended that people handling animals, dairy farmers, veterinarians, lab

technicians, and zoo employees who come into touch with wild ungulates take
preventative precautions to avoid contracting the disease.

MATERIALS & METHOD

The study was carried out in veterinary hospital ,Village Kamata, Block
Borigumma , District Koraput, Odisha .

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a severe and highly contagious viral disease.

The subjects were selected based on their socioeconomic condition, age, and place
of residence.

It is believed that most wind-borne spread occurs over land for less than ten
kilometers in length. However, it is also thought to have happened at a distance of
about 250 km over the sea and 60 km over land.

The transmission of viruses by wind can play a significant role in FMD outbreaks.

I saw 4 to 5 cows suffering from this disease. Target population includes dairy
cows. Because of their importance in society

Because dairy cattle interact with people and other animals on a regular basis, they
are essential to the transmission and spread of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD).

Since dairy cattle are frequently raised in high-density farming environments, there
is a greater chance that diseases will spread within and between herds.

Frequent human contact can affect the spread of Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD)
in cattle.
If appropriate biosecurity precautions are not taken, contaminated clothing,
footwear, equipment, or vehicles may unintentionally spread the virus to humans.

Thus, in order to reduce the risk of FMD transmission in cattle herds, strict
biosecurity protocols : such as limited human movement between different animal
groups and disinfection procedures : must be put in place.

Transports of dairy cattle and their byproducts, like milk, between farms,
marketplaces, and processing facilities happen regularly.

The event that contaminated materials or diseased animals are involved, this
movement may unintentionally spread FMD to new areas.

Due to their vast numbers and frequent moves, FMD outbreaks in dairy cattle

have the potential to spread rapidly throughout an area or society if they are not
immediately consist.

Outbreaks of FMD in dairy cattle can have serious negative effects on the
economy, such as decreased productivity, trade restrictions on dairy products, and
higher expenses for disease control.

DATA COLLECTION :-
Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) is characterised by fever and blister-like sores on
the tongue and lips, in the mouth, on the teats and between the hooves.

Affected animals have a high temperature, which is followed by the development

of blisters chiefly in the mouth and on the feet.
Infected cows are unable to walk properly because development of blisters cause
pain on their feet.

FMD can be transmitted in air particles between animals housed closely together.

It is believed that most wind-borne spread occurs over land over distances of less
than 10 km. Even though, spread across roughly 250 km over sea and 60 km over
land .

Inhaling virus particles through direct contact with the breath of acutely infected
animals is the primary mode of disease transmission.

Additionally, FMDV can spread indirectly through contaminated environments,

where it can survive for extended periods of time in favorable conditions.

Furthermore, it can be easily transmitted by contaminated food, water, equipment,

clothing, and footwear, as well as by vehicles used to carry animals.

Most affected animals will not die from FMD, but the disease leaves them
weakened and unable to produce meat and milk the way they did before becoming
sick.

I personally went to the house of a sick cow. And ask some questions as how they
knew that something had happened to the cow.

Some people said that after seeing the symptoms they knew that this was a Foot
and Mouth Disease and those who know and don’t know about this disease, they
immediately take the cow to the veterinary hospital.

Veterinarians or trained personnel examine cows for signs of Foot and Mouth
Disease (FMD) by observing symptoms such as fever, lameness, excessive
salivation, blisters or ulcers on the mouth, feet, or teats, and decreased milk
production.
In addition, they might perform physical examinations, collect samples for analysis
in a lab, and look for any recent outbreaks in the near by area. They may also
check the cows’ immunization records.

Aware Of Common Symptoms :

The level of awareness about foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) symptoms among
local people can vary depending on factors such as geographical location,
education, and access to information.

Due to media attention, education campaigns, and personal experience with the
disease, there may be greater awareness of FMD in areas where outbreaks have
happened or where livestock farming is common.

But less awareness in rural areas where FMD is less prevalent or where there are
fewer resources available for awareness and education.

People do not know anything about this disease, they will know only when
someone tells them.

FMD affects the local economy and agriculture

In rural regions, where agriculture commonly functions as the primary means of
living, of the outcomes of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) can be extremely
serious.

Livestock Losses :

Rural farmers mainly rely on their livestock for income. The destruction of
diseased and susceptible animals during FMD outbreaks frequently results in large
financial losses for farmers and their families.

Decreased Agricultural Output :

FMD can disturb agricultural production. Because farmers may not be able to work
their land efficiently due to the need to deal with disease control measures or the
loss of livestock.

Trade Restrictions :

Trade restrictions brought about by FMD outbreaks may make it difficult for
farmers to access foreign markets, which will decrease their income and the
amount of economic activity in rural areas.

Social and Psychological Impact :

In rural communities, outbreaks of FMD can have a significant social and

psychological impact.

Members of the community may experience higher levels of stress, of anxiety,

social disruption as a result of losing their livelihoods, livestock, and income.
The local economy and agriculture in rural areas can be severely affected by FMD
outbreaks, thereby putting at risk the livelihoods and general well-being of farmers
and communities that rely on agriculture for their prosperity and nourishment.

Preventing Measure Against FMD :

Preventing Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) in rural areas involves several
measures:

Vaccination Programs :- Implementing immunization programs for livestock can

help in the decrease of FMD.

Biosecurity Measures :- By utilizing biosecurity measures such as controlling

access to farms, cleaning vehicles, and regulating animal movements, the risk of
FMD transmission can be reduced.

Surveillance and Monitoring :- For the purpose of early diagnosis and quarantine,
regular surveillance and monitoring of livestock for signs of FMD are essential.

Education and Awareness :- By educating farmers and rural communities about the
importance of early diagnosis, providing information, and practicing FMD
prevention, outbreaks can be controlled.

Quarantine Procedures :- Quarantine policies for recently acquired animals on

farms can prevent the spread of FMD.
Proper Disposal of Infected Materials :- The spread of FMD can be stopped by
making sure that contaminated materials, carcasses, and infected animals are
disposed of properly.

Government Efforts Regarding FMD :-

Public health officials fast respond to outbreaks of FMD, put control measures in
place, and gather resources for quarantine, immunization, and disease surveillance.

The accessibility with which government organizations share guidelines for

farmers, report on the progress of disease control activities, and provide
information regarding FMD outbreaks.

Investments made by the government to increase capacity for vaccination

campaigns, laboratory diagnosis, disease surveillance, and training farmers and
veterinary experts in FMD control techniques.

The degree of cooperation and co – ordination among various government

departments, veterinary services, agricultural organizations, and other responsible
authorities participating in the prevention and management of foodborne illness.

The effectiveness of government regulations and enforcement mechanisms in

implementing biosecurity measures, movement restrictions, and vaccination
requirements to prevent the spread of FMD.

Ultimately, the assessment of government efforts in controlling FMD outbreaks

would require input from experts in veterinary medicine, epidemiology, and
agricultural policy, as well as feedback from local farmers and communities
affected by the disease.
Concerned About Risk Of FMD :-

Due to its significant effects on livestock, agriculture, and local economies, foot-
and-mouth disease (FMD) is a common concern among people living in rural
areas.

People in rural areas commonly express their concerns about FMD in the following
ways:

Farmers and cattlemen are concerned about the potential economic loss of income
due to FMD outbreaks.

The disease can lead to the killing of infected animals and restrictions on the
movement of livestock, which can disrupt trade and reduce market prices for
agricultural products.

Livestock and agriculture are major sources of income for a large number of
people in rural areas.

Outbreaks of FMD have the potential to negatively impact these agricultural

methods by disturbing rural communities’ way of life, decreasing farm income,
and increasing production costs.

Rural residents are worried about the rapid spread of FMD among livestock herds.

It is possible for the disease to spread quickly through direct contact between
animals, contaminated equipment, or infected individuals, endangering nearby
farms and towns.

The efficiency of control measures to stop FMD outbreaks may raise concerns.
Quarantine zones, movement restrictions, and mass vaccination campaigns are a
few examples of these measures, which may present logistical and financial
difficulties for rural communities.

Farmers worry about developing and maintaining strong biosecurity measures to

stop FMD from entering and spreading on their territory.

This may involve activities like cleaning equipment, limiting access to farms, and
keeping an eye on the safety and welfare of the animals.

Overall, concerns about FMD in rural areas often revolve around its potential
economic, social, and health impacts on livestock, agriculture, and local
communities.

Awareness About FMD Among Cattle Farmers & The General

Public :-
For the purpose of disease prevention and control, it is crucially important that
rural communities and especially those involved in cattle farming can be managed
to make more aware of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD).

Here are several ways rural people can become aware of FMD:
In order to inform rural communities about FMD, governments frequently organize
awareness campaigns. These campaigns may involve the distribution of
educational materials, training sessions, and partnerships with regional agriculture.

Rural communities can’t receive information about FMD from agricultural workers
sufficiently. They can make home visits to farms, cattle farms, and villages to offer
advice on vaccination schedules, early diagnosis methods, and biosecurity
protocols.

In order to reduce the risk of disease transmission, extension services can also
provide training on good livestock management techniques.

During routine veterinarian visits, veterinarians in rural areas can inform livestock
owners about FMD.

They can help with disease surveillance, suggest vaccination schedules, and
provide instructions on how to identify and report possible FMD cases.

Newspapers and radio shows are frequently used media to spread vital information
to rural populations.

Mobile technology can be utilized to distribute FMD education in areas with

internet connectivity and smartphone access.

This can include interactive voice response systems, text message campaigns, and
smartphone apps that offer disease prevention information.

Farmers and animal owners in rural areas frequently form strong social networks.
Promoting behavioral change and raising awareness of FMD can be accomplished
through facilitating peer-to-peer communication and knowledge exchange.
DISCUSSION :-
Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in cattle tends to be more common in the spring
and summer, when the weather is warmer and the virus can spread more easily and
quickly. The warm, humid conditions in which the virus grows make it more stable
and communicable.

Moreover, during these seasons cattle may graze more widely, involve in closer
social interactions, and move more frequently for agricultural purposes such as
transportation and trading, all of which can contribute to the spread of the disease.

Winter Season - Winter season affects Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in cattle in

several ways, leading to a decrease in its incidence:

The cold temperatures of winter negatively impact the survival and transmission of
the FMD virus. Expected percentage during winter season is 50% out of 100%.

Because of the lower temperatures, fewer daylight hours, and limited access to
grassland during the winter, cattle generally exhibit reduced levels of activity.

Because there is less interaction between the animals as a result of this decreased
activity, there are fewer opportunities for FMD transmission.

Winter livestock movements are frequently restricted by agricultural authorities in

areas where FMD is endemic or outbreaks have occurred.

Some vectors, such as certain species of flies, which can transmit FMD virus, are
less active during winter months. The decreased activity of these vectors reduces
the risk of virus transmission among cattle populations.

Overall, while winter season leads to a decrease in FMD incidence in cattle due to
factors such as unfavorable environmental conditions, reduced cattle activity,
movement restrictions, decreased vector activity, and intensified vaccination
programs.

Summer Season – Summer season can significantly impact the dynamics of Foot-
and-mouth disease (FMD) in cattle due to several factors:
Dry weather and higher humidity during the summer months make it perfect for
the FMD virus to survive and spread. Expected percentage during Summer Season
is 30% our of 100% .

During the summer, cattle are more likely to be active, spending more time grazing
in pastures and gathering in larger groups at feeding or watering spots.

Animals are more likely to spread FMD through direct contact, respiratory
droplets, or contact with contaminated surfaces as a result of their increased
activity and close proximity to one another.

In many regions, summer is a time for agricultural activities such as livestock

trading, exhibitions, and fairs.

These events often involve the movement of cattle between different farms and
regions, increasing the risk of introducing and spreading FMD.

In conclusion, summertime increases the risk of FMD transmission in cattle

because of favorable weather, more active and mobile cattle, increased vector
activity, and difficulties putting into procedure effective biosecurity measures.

Rainy Season -