HALF WAVE RECTIFIER:

• This rectifier circuit consists of resistive load, rectifying element, i.e. p-n junctin diode,
and the source of a.c. voltage, all connected in series.
• The circuit diagram is shown in fig.
• To obtain the desired d.c. voltage across the load, the a.c. voltage is applied to rectifier
circuit using suitable step up or step down transformer, mostly a step down one, with
necessary turns ratio.
• The input voltage to the half-wave rectifier circuit shown in the fig. is a sinusoidal a.c.
voltage, having a frequency which is the supply frequency, 50Hz given by, es=Esmsinωt.
With ω=2πf and f=supply frequency.
OPERATION OF THE CIRCUIT:
During the positive half cylcle of input a.c voltage, terminal (A) becomes positive with
respect to terminal (B). The diode is forward biased and the current flows in the circuit in the
clockwise direction, as shown in the fig. This current is also flowing through the load resistance
RL hence denoted as iL (load current.)
During negative half cycle when terminal (A) is negative with respect to terminal (B),
diode becomes reverse biased. Hence no current flows in the circuit as shown in fig. Thus the
circuit current, which is also the load current, is in the form of half sincusoidal pulses. The load
voltage, being the product of load current and load resistance, will also be in the form of half
sinusoidal pulses. The different waveforms are illustrated in fig.
FULL WAVE RECTIFIER :
The full wave rectifier conducts during both positive and negative half cycles of input a.c.
supply. In order to rectify both the half cycles of a.c. input, two diodes are used in the circuit.
The diodes feed a common load RL with the help of a center tap transformer. The a.c. volgate is
applied though a suitable power transformer with proper turns ratio. The full wave rectifier
circuit is shown in the fig.
OPERATION OF THE CIRCUIT:
Consider the positive half cycle of ac input voltage in which terminal (A) is positive and
terminal (B) negative due to center tap transformer. The diode D1 will be forward biased and
hence will conduct; while diode D2 will be reverse biased and will act as an open circuit and will
not conduct. The diode D1 supplies the load current, i.e. iL = id1.
In the next half cycle of ac voltage, polarity reverses and terminal (A) becomes negative
and (B) positive. The diode D2 conducts, being forward biased, while D1 does not, being reverse
biased. The diode D2 supplies the load current, i.e. iL = id2.
The load current flows in both the half cycles of ac voltage and in the same direction
through the load resistance. Hence we get rectified output across the load. The load current is
sum of individual diode current flowing in corresponding half cycles. It is also noted that the two
diodes do not conduct simultaneously but in alternate half cylces. The individual diode currents
and the load current are shown in the fig. the output load current is still pulsating d.c. and not
pure d.c.
BRIDGE FULL WAVE RECTIFIER:
The basic bridge rectifier circuit is shown in fig. the bridge rectifier circuit is essentially a full-
wave rectifier circuit, using four diodes, forming the four arms of an electrical bridge. To one
diagonal of the bridge, the a.c. voltage is applied through a transformer if necessary and the
rectified d.c. voltage is taken from the other diagonal of the bridge. The main advantage of this
circuit is that it does not require a center tap on the secondary winding of the transformer.
OPERATIO OF THE CIRCUIT:
Consider the positive half of ac input voltage. The point A of secondary becomes
positive. The diodes D1 and D2 will be forward biased, while D3 and D4 reverse biased. The two
diodes D1 and D2 conducts in series with the load and the current flows as shown in fig. In the
next half cycle, when the polarity of ac voltage reverses hence point B becomes positive diodes
D3 and D4 are forward biased, while D1 and D2 reverse biased. The two diodes D3 and D4
conducts in series with the load and the current flows as shown in fig. It is seen that in both
cycles of ac, the load current is flowing in the same direction hence, we get a full-wave rectified
output.
PARAMETERS OF HALF WAVE RECTIFIER:
Esm
The peak value of the load current is given by, I m = ; Where Rs= Resistance of
R f + RL + Rs

secondary winding of transformer, Rf= Forward resistance of diode

The average or d.c. value of the load current (IDC):

IL = Im sinωt 0 ≤ ωt ≤ π and

IL=0 π ≤ ωt ≤ 2π

Where Im = peak value of load current

Iavg = IDC is given by

1 2 1 2
I DC =  iL d (t ) =  im sin (t ) d(ωt)
2 0 2 0

As no current flows during negative half cycle of a.c. input voltage, i.e. between ωt=π to ωt=2π,
we change the limits of integration.

1  Im I I
I DC =
2 0
I m sin(t )d (t ) =
2
[− cos(t )]0 = − m [cos( ) − cos(0)] = m
2 
Im
I DC = =Average value


The average d.c. load voltage (EDC) : It is the product of average d.c. load current and the load
resistance RL.

Im Esm
EDC = IDCRL = RL = RL
 ( R f + RL + Rs)

The winding resistance Rs and forward diode resistance Rf are practically very small compared to
RL hence neglecting them, (RS & Rf < < RL, So Rf + Rs = RL )

Esm
EDC =

The RMS value of the load current (IRMS):

The RMS means squaring, finding mean and then square root. Mathematically it is obtained as,

 (I sin 2 t ) d (t )
1 2 1 
I RMS =  (I sin t ) d (t ) =
2 2

2 2
0 m 0 m


1  1 − cos 2t 1  t sin 2t 
= Im
2 0 2
d (t ) = I m  −
2  2 4 0
 (t ).

1    Im
= Im  =
2  2  2
I
I RMS = m
2

While the RMS value of the load voltage is,

Im
EL(RMS)=IRMSRL= RL
2

By using the expression of Im and neglecting Rs and Rf we get,

E sm Esm
EL(RMS)= Im =
2 (Since R f + RL + Rs
)

The d.c. power output is, PDC = EDCIDC = IDC (IDC RL)

 Im2 
2
I 
D.C. power output = IDC IDC RL =  m  RL =  2  RL
   

E 2 sm RL
PDC =
 2 ( R f + RL + Rs)2

The a.c. power input taken from the secondary of transformer is the power supplied to three
resistances namely load resistance RL, the diode resistance Rf and winding resistance RS.

The a.c. power is, PAC = I2RMS[ ( R f + RL + Rs ) 2

Im
But IRMS = for half wave,
2

Im2
PAC = ( R f + RL + Rs)
4
Rectifier efficiency: The rectifier effieciency is defines as the ratio of output d.c. power to input
a.c. power.

Im2  4 
RL  2  RL

= 2  =  
PDC 2
η=
PAC I m ( R f + RL + Rs )
( R f + RL + Rs )
4

0.406
Dividing by RL to numerator and denominator, η =
 R + Rs 
1+  f 
 RL 

If ( R f + Rs )<< RL as mentioned earlier, we get the maximum theoretical efficiency of half wave
rectifier as

% Ŋmax = 0.406x100 = 40.6%

Ripple Factor: It is seen that the output of half wave rectifier is not pure d.c. but a pulsating d.c.
the output contains pulsating components called ripples. Ideally there should not be any ripples
in the rectifier output. The measure of ripples present in the output is with the help of a factor
called ripple factor denoted by γ. It tells how smooth is the output. Smaller the ripple factor
closer is the output to a pure d.c. mathematically ripple factor is defined as the ratio of R.M.S
value of the a.c. component in the output to the average or d.c. component present in the output.

Ripple factor γ= (R.M.S value of a.c. component of output) / (Average or d.c. component of
output)

The output current is composed of a.c.component as well as d.c.component.

Let Iac = R.M.S value of a.c. component present in output

IDC = D.C. component present in output

IRMS = R.M.S value of total output current = I 2 ac + I 2 DC

Iac = I 2 RMS − I 2 DC

2
Iac I 2 RMS − I 2 DC  I 
Ripple factor = = =  RMS  − 1
I DC I DC  I DC 

This is the general expression for ripple factor and can be used for any rectifier circuit. For a half
wave circuit,
 Im I
IRMS = While IDC = m
2 

2
  Im  
 2   2
    −1 =
Im
γ= − 1 = 1.21
   Im   4
    

This indicates that the ripple contents in theoutput are 1.21 times the d.c. component i.e. 121.1%
of d.c. components. The ripple factor for half wave is very high which indicates that the half
wave circuit is a poor converter of a.c. to d.c.

PARAMETERS OF FULL WAVE RECTIFIER:

Maximum load current: Let Rf = Forward resistance of diodes and RL = Load resistance
Rs = Maximum value of a.c. input voltage across each half of
secondary winding. Hence we can write the expression for the maximum value of the load
current as
Esm
Im = Where Im = Maximum value of load current iL
R f + RL + Rs
Consider one cycle of the load current iL from 0 to π to obtain the
average value which is d.c. value of load current.
IL = Imsinωt 0≤ωt≤π
1  1  Im
 
Iavg = IDC = I L d (t ) = I m sin(t )d (t ) = [− cos(t )]0
0 0 
Im Im
= [− cos( ) − (− cos(0))] = [+1 − (−1)]
 
2Im
I DC =


AVEARAGE D.C. LOAD VOLTAGE (EDC):

2I R
The d.c. load voltage is, EDC=IDCRL= m L

Substituting value of Im
2Esm RL 2 Esm
EDC= =
( R f + RL + Rs) R + Rs
 (1 + f )
RL
R f + Rs
But as Rf and Rs << RL hence <<1
RL
2 Esm
EDC =

RMS LOAD CURRENT (IRMS):

Mathematically it can be obtained as,

1 2 2 1 
I RMS =   =  ( I m sin t ) d (t )
2
I d ( t ) 2
2 2
0 L 0

The circuit has two half wave rectifiers similar in operation operating in two half cycles hence
integration term is splitted as above.

1  1  1 − cos 2t
( sin t )
 
I RMS = I m d (t ) = I m d (t )
2
0 0 2

1  t sin 2t  1    Im
 −  = Im =
  2 
= Im
2 4 0 2

Hence the RMS value of the load voltage is

I
EL(RMS)=IRMSRL= m RL
2
D.C. POWER OUTPUT (PDC):

D.C.power output = EDCIDC – I2DCRL

2
 2I  4 E 2 sm RL 4
PDC =  2m  RL = 2 = 2 I m 2 RL
   ( R f + RL + Rs ) 
2

Instead of remembering this formula, students can use the expression EDCIDC or I2DCRL to
calculate PDC while solving the problems.

A.C. POWER INPUT (PAC):

2
I 
PAC=I RMS( R f + RL + Rs ) )=  m  ( R f + RL + Rs)
2
 2
2
I
= m ( R f + RL + Rs )
2
Substituting value of Im we get,
E 2 sm ( R f + RL + Rs) E 2 sm
PAC = =
2( R f + RL + Rs)2 2( R f + RL + Rs)

RECTIFIER EFFICIENCY(η):

4Im2
RL
= 2 
PDC output 2 8RL
η= = 2
PAC input Im  ( R f + RL + Rs )
( R f + RL + Rs )
2

But if Rf + RS << RL, neglecting it from denominator

 8 RL 8
η= = 2
 RL 
2

8
%η= 2 x100=81.2%


RIPPLE FACTOR (γ):

The ripple factor is given by a general expression,

2
Iac I 2 RMS − I 2 DC  I 
Ripple factor = = =  RMS  − 1
I DC I DC  I DC 

Im 2I
For full wave IRMS= and IDC= m so substituting above,
2 

Im
Ripple factor γ = 2 − 1 = 0.48
2Im


This indicates that the ripple contents in the output are 48% of the d.c. component which is much
less than the half wave circuit.

merits and demerits of bridge rectifier over a centre tapped FWR.

MERITS
• The current in both the primary and secondary of the power transformer flows for the entire
cycle and hence for a given power output, power transformer of a small size and less cost
may be used
• No center tap is required in the transformer secondary
• The currents in the secondary of the transformer are in opposite directions in two half cycles.
Hence net d.c. component flowing is zero which reduces the losses and danger of saturation.
• As two diodes conduct in series in each half cycle, inverse voltage appearing across diodes
get shared. Hencethe circuit can be used for high voltage applications.
• The transformer gets utilized effectively.
DEMERITS
• It needs four diodes.
• The bridge circuit is not efficient for low voltages because the current flow in the two diodes
connected in series result in a large power dissipation.
V-I Characterisitcs of Zener Diode:
The Zener diode is like a general-purpose signal diode consisting of a silicon PN junction. When
biased in the forward direction it behaves just like a normal signal diode passing the rated
current, but as soon as a reverse voltage applied across the zener diode exceeds the rated voltage
of the device, the diodes breakdown voltage VBis reached at which point a process called
Avalanche Breakdown occurs in the semiconductor depletion layer and a current starts to flow
through the diode to limit this increase in voltage. The current now flowing through the zener
diode increases dramatically to the maximum circuit value (which is usually limited by a series
resistor) and once achived this reverse saturation current remains fairly constant over a wide
range of applied voltages. This breakdown voltage point, VBis called the "zener voltage" for
zener diodes and can range from less than one volt to hundreds of volts. The point at which the
zener voltage triggers the current to flow through the diode can be very accurately controlled (to
less than 1% tolerance) in the doping stage of the diodes semiconductor construction giving the
diode a specific zener breakdown voltage, (Vz) for example, 4.3V or 7.5V. This zener
breakdown voltage on the I-V curve is almost a vertical straight line.

to the negative supply. From the I-V characteristics curve above, we can see that the zener diode
has a region in its reverse bias characteristics of almost a constant negative voltage regardless of
the value of the current flowing through the diode and remains nearly constant even with large
changes in current as long as the zener diodes current remains between the breakdown current
IZ(min)and the maximum current ratingIZ(max). This ability to control itself can be used to
great effect to regulate or stabilise a voltage source against supply or load variations. The fact
that the voltage across the diode in the breakdown region is almost constant turns out to be an
important application of the zener diode as a voltage regulator. The function of a regulator is to
provide a constant output voltage to a load connected in parallel with it in spite of the ripples in
the supply voltage or the variation in the load current and the zener diode will continue to
regulate the voltage until the diodes current falls below the minimum IZ(min)value in the reverse
breakdown region.
zener breakdown.-:
The phenomenon of the Zener breakdown occurs in the very thin depletion region. The thin
depletion region has more numbers of free electrons. The reverse bias applies across the PN
junction develops the electric field intensity across the depletion region. The strength of the
electric field intensity becomes very high.The electric field intensity increases the kinetic energy
of the free charge carriers. Thereby the carrier starts jumping from one region to another. These
energetic charge carriers collide with the atoms of the p-type and n-type material and produce the
electron-hole pairs.The reverse current starts flowing in the junction because of which depletion
region becomes entirely vanishes. This process is known as the Zener breakdown.
Avalanche Breakdown :

The reverse bias increases the electrical field across the depletion region. When the high electric
field exists across the depletion, the velocity of minority charge carrier crossing the depletion
region increases. These carriers collide with the atoms of the crystal. Because of the violent
collision, the charge carrier takes out the electrons from the atom.The collision increases the
electron-hole pair. As the electron-hole induces in the high electric field, they are quickly
separated and collide with the other atoms of the crystals. The process is continuous, and the
electric field becomes so much higher than the reverse current starts flowing in the PN junction.
The process is known as the Avalanche breakdown. After the breakdown, the junction cannot
regain its original position because the diode is completely burnt off.
Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator:
The function of a regulator is to provide a constant output voltage to a load connected in
parallel with it in spite of the ripples in the supply voltage or the variation in the load current and
the zenor diode will continue to regulate the voltage until the diodes current falls below the
minimum IZ(min) value in the reverse breakdown region. It permits current to flow in the
forward direction as normal, but will also allow it to flow in the reverse direction when the
voltage is above a certain value - the breakdown voltage known as the Zenor voltage. The Zenor
diode specially made to have a reverse voltage breakdown at a specific voltage. Its
characteristics are otherwise very similar to common diodes. In breakdown the voltage across the
Zenor diode is close to constant over a wide range of currents thus making it useful as a shunt
voltage regulator.
The purpose of a voltage regulator is to maintain a constant voltage across a load regardless
of variations in the applied input voltage and variations in the load current. A typical Zenor diode
shunt regulator is shown in Figure. The resistor is selected so that when the input voltage is at
VIN(min) and the load current is at IL(max) that the current through the Zenor diode is at least
Iz(min). Then for all other combinations of input voltage and load current the Zenor diode
conducts the excess current thus maintaining a constant voltage across the load. The Zenor
conducts the least current when the load current is the highest and it conducts the most current
when the load current is the lowest. If there is no load resistance, shunt regulators can be used to
dissipate total power through the series resistance and the Zenor diode. Shunt regulators have an
inherent current limiting advantage under load fault conditions because the series resistor limits
excess current.
A Zenor diode of break down voltage Vz is reverse connected to an input voltage source Vi
across a load resistance RL and a series resistor RS. The voltage across the zenor will remain
steady at its break down voltage VZ for all the values of zenor current IZ as long as the current
remains in the break down region. Hence a regulated DC output voltage V0 = VZ is obtained
across RL, whenever the input voltage remains within a minimum and maximum voltage.
Basically there are two type of regulations such as:

Line Regulation: In this type of regulation, series resistance and load resistance are fixed,
only input voltage is changing. Output voltage remains the same as long as the input voltage is
maintained above a minimum value.
Load Regulation: In this type of regulation, input voltage is fixed and the load resistance is
varying. Output volt remains same, as long as the load resistance is maintained above a
minimum value.
SCR and its characteristics.
The operation of SCR is divided into two categories,

i) When gate is open ii) when gate is closed

WHEN GATE IS OPEN:

Consider that the anode is positive with respect to cathode and gate is open. The junction J 1
and J3 are forward biased and junction J2 is reverse biased. There is depletion region around J2
and only leakage current flows which is negligibly small. Practically the SCR is said to be OFF.
This is called forward blocking stage of SCR and voltage applied to anode and cathode with
anode positive is called forward voltage. With gate open if cathode is made positive with respect
to anode, the junctions J1, J3 become reverse biased and J2 forward biased. Still the current
flowing is leakage current, which can be neglected as it is very small.

The voltage applied to make cathode positive is called reverse voltage and SCR is said to
be in reverse blocking state. In forward blocking state, if the forward voltage is increased and
made sufficiently large, the reverse biased junction J2 breaks down and SCR conducts heavily,
this voltage is called forward breakover voltage VBO of SCR. In such condition, SCR is said to
be ON or triggered.
 WHEN GATE IS CLOSED:

Consider that the voltage is applied between gate and cathode when the SCR is in
forward blocking state. The gate is made positive with respect to the cathode. The electrons
from n-type cathode which are majority in number, cross the junction J3 to reach to positive
battery. While holes from P type move towards the negative of battery, this constitutes the gate
current. This current increases the anode current as some of the electrons cross junction J2. As
anode current increases, more electrons cross the junction J2 and the anode current further
increases. Due to regenerative action, within short time, the junction J2 breaks and SCR
conducts heavily. the resistance R is required to limit the current. Once the SCR conducts, the
gate loss its control.

FORWARD CHARACTERISTICS: It shows a forward blocking region, when IG=0. It also

shows that when forward voltage increases upto VBO, the SCR turn ON and high current results.
The drop across SCR reduces suddenly which is now the ohmic drop in the four layers. The
current must be limited only by the external resistance in series with the device. It also shows
that, if gate bias is used then as gate current increases, less voltage is required to turn ON the
SCR. If the forward current falls below the level of the holding current IH, then depletion region
begins to develop around J2 and device goes into the forward blocking region. When SCR is
turned ON from OFF state, the resulting forward current is called latching current IL. the
latching current is slightly higher than the holding current.

REVERSE CHARACTERISTICS:

If the anode to cathode voltage is reversed, then the device enters into the reverse
blocking region. The current is negligibly small and practically neglected. If the reverse voltage
is increased, similar to the diode, at a particular value avalanche breakdown occurs and a large
current flows through the device. This is called reverse breakdown and the voltage at which this
happens is called reverse breakdown voltage VBR. The forward breakover voltage is greater than
reverse breakover voltage.

Applications of SCR:.
i) Controlled rectifiers. ii) A.C. voltage stabilizers. iii) D.C. to D.C. converters called
choppers. iv) D.C. to A.C. converters called inverters. v) Dimmerstats to control light intensity.
vi) As a switch vii) For speed control schemes of d.c. and a.c. motors called drives. viii) Heater
control circuits. ix) In protection circuits.