BASIC electronics

Unit 2 Article 2.1

Rectifier

A rectifier is a circuit which converts alternating current (AC) to direct current (pulsating DC).
The current flows in only one direction. The process is known as rectification, since it ‘straightens’ the direction
of current.
It provides a low resistance path to the flow of electrons in one direction and a high resistance path in the other.
Rectifiers are classified as
(i) Half-wave rectifier, and
(ii) Full-wave rectifier. Configuration of Full-wave rectifiers is (a) Centre-tapped, and (b) Bridge type.

Necessity of Rectifier

Low voltage DC is required to operate the electronic devices like transistors, ICs.
To vary the frequency of mains, the AC supply voltage is converted to DC by using the rectifier and this
DC output is smoothed by using appropriate filter of inductor and capacitor, this DC is fed to DC-AC
inverter to get the desired frequency by control of switching of the switches (MOSFETs in most of
cases). Typical application is Inverter AC.

Unit 2 Article 2.2

Circuit operation of Half-wave Rectifier

The sinusoidal voltage output of the transformer secondary vS is applied to a load RL in series with a diode D as shown
in Fig. 2.1(a). During the positive half-cycle of vS, the diode D is forward biased and thus it conducts, allowing a load
current iL to pass through the load RL.
During the negative half-cycle, the diode D, being reverse biased, does not conduct and, therefore, no current can
flow through RL. Thus, the current iL always flows in one direction only through the load RL in every positive half-
cycle.

+
iL
Output voltage,

D
Vout

vP vS RL

Power transformer Half-wave rectifier

Fig. 2.1(a) Circuit diagram of a half-wave rectifier

The output voltage Vout developed across the load RL is, therefore, a pulsating wave of one polarity only as shown in
Fig. 2.1(b) and called pulsating DC. The output voltage Vout pulsates once for every input cycle. The pulses cause the
dc output voltage to be rippled once for each input cycle, producing a 50 Hz ripple frequency.

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Input-Output waveforms of Half-wave Rectifier

Vm
vS

2 3 4
t
0

Secondary voltage to the half-wave rectifier

Average value of dc voltage
V dc = Vav = Vout
Vout

t
Conduction Conduction
interval of interval of
the diode, D the diode, D
Output voltage across the load
Average value of dc current
Im I dc = I av
iL
iL i
t
Load current
i = instantaneous value of the ripple component
Fig. 2.1(b) Input and output waveforms of a half-wave rectifier.

Average/DC value of the load current and load voltage in Half-wave Rectifier
Average/DC value of the load current is given by
Iav = Idc = Im/

Similarly, the average/DC value of the load voltage is given by

Vav = Vdc = Vm/

R.M.S. value of the load current in Half-wave Rectifier

R.M.S. value of the load current is given by
Ir.m.s. = Im/2

Ir.m.s. is the combination of dc and ripple (ac) components. In Fig. 2.1(b), the instantaneous value of the ripple (ac)
component Ir,r.m.s. (i.e. i) is the difference between the instantaneous value of Ir.m.s. (i.e. iL ) and the dc value of current
Idc. Therefore, the instantaneous value of ripple component is given by

i = iL – Idc

Circuit operation of Full-wave Rectifier with Centre-tap Transformer

A full-wave rectifier as shown in Fig. 2.2(a) contains a centre-tap transformer (centre-tapped secondary) and two
diodes D1 and D2. In this circuit, the transformer secondary has two sources of equal and opposite voltages, vA
(voltage at point ‘A’ with respect to the centre-tap point ‘C’) and vB (voltage at point ‘B’ with respect to the centre-tap
point ‘C’).

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 vA D1
A

iD1

AC C P
supply v in = Vm sin ? t
iL = iD1
vA iD2
+ +

Resistive load
B
D2 RL Vout = Vdc
Centre-tap
transformer Full-wave rectifier
iL = iD2

Direction of load current when the diode D1 conducts

Direction of load current when the diode D 2 conducts
Fig. 2.2(a) Circuit diagram of a full-wave rectifier using centre-tap transformer.

During the positive half-cycle of vA , diode D1 conducts as it is forward biased, but diode D2 remains cut-off due to
reverse voltage vB. Load current (iL = iD1) flows through the load resistor RL in the downward direction for 0 t
as shown in Fig. 2.2(b).
Beyond t = , the voltage vB is positive and vB negative. Therefore, for t 2 , the diode D2 will take over
the load current. Diode D1 does not conduct as it is reverse biased during this interval. Again, current (iL = iD2) flows
through the load RL in downward direction. So the pulsating voltages developed across RL during positive and negative
half-cycles are unidirectional. Fig. 2.2(b) shows the input output waveforms of the circuit. The output voltage, Vout,
thus contains two pulses for each input cycle, producing a 100 Hz ripple frequency for 50 Hz input frequency.

Average/DC value of the load current and load voltage in a Full-wave Rectifier with
centre-tap transformer
Average/DC value of the load current is given by
Iav = Idc = 2Im/

Similarly, the average/DC value of the load voltage is given by

Vav = Vdc = 2Vm/

It is seen that the average value of load voltage in a full-wave rectifier is twice that of a half-wave rectifier. Therefore,
a full-wave rectifier is twice as effective as a half-wave rectifier.

R.M.S. value of the load current and load voltage in a Full-wave Rectifier with centre-
tap transformer

The r.m.s value of the load current flowing through the load RL in a full-wave rectifier is given by

Ir.m.s = Im/ 2

Similarly, the r.m.s value of the load voltage is given by

vr.m.s = Vm/ 2

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Input-Output waveforms of Full-wave Rectifier with centre-tap transformer

Vm
vS

2 3 4
0 t

Vm
Input voltages to the full-wave rectifier using centre-tap transformer
Vout Average dc voltage V dc = Vav = Vout

0 t

Conduction Conduction Conduction Conduction

interval of interval of interval of interval of
D1 D2 D1 D2
Output voltage across the load
iL Im Average dc current I dc = I av

i L = iD1 i L = i D2 iL = i D1 i L = iD2
Load current
Fig. 2.2(b) Input and output waveforms of a full-wave rectifier
using centre-tap transformer

Circuit operation of Full-wave Bridge Rectifier

The bridge rectifier is a common circuit used for supplying large amount of dc power. Fig. 2.3(a) shows a bridge
rectifier using four, diodes D1 , D2 , D3 , and D4. During positive half-cycle of the secondary voltage vS, diodes D1 and
D4 conduct being forward biased. The load current iL = iD1-D4 flows through the load RL in the downward direction,
developing the output voltage across RL as shown in Fig. 2.3(a).

i L= iD1-D4
Output dc voltage, Vout

D1 D2 + +
AC input, v P

vS RL

D3 D4

Step down iL = iD2-D3

transformer Uncontrolled
bridge rectifier

Fig. 2.3(a) Circuit diagram of a full-wave ridge rectifier.

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During the negative half-cycle of vS, diodes D2 and D3 conduct as they are forward biased. Again, the load current iL =
iD2-D3 flows through the load in a downward direction, resulting in a full-wave rectified output which is a pulsating
DC. The input-output waveforms are shown in Fig. 2.3(b).

Vm
vS

2 3 4
0 t

Vm
Input voltages to the full-wave bridge rectifier
Vout Average dc voltage V dc = Vav = Vout

0 t

Conduction Conduction Conduction Conduction

interval of interval of interval of interval of
D 1 -D4 D 2-D3 D 1 -D 4 D 2-D3
Output voltage across the load
iL Im Average dc current I dc = I av

i L = i D1-D4 i L = i D2-D3 i L = i D1-D4 i L = i D2-D3

Load current
Fig. 2.3(b) Input and output waveforms of a full-wave bridge rectifier

The dc and r.m.s. values of the load current are the same as in a full-wave rectifier using centre-tap transformer.

Ripple in Rectifier circuit

Ripple is the magnitude of AC voltage appearing superimposed on the DC output specified in peak to peak volts as
shown in Fig. 2.3(c). Ripple (specifically ripple voltage) in electronics is the residual periodic variation of the DC
voltage within a power supply which has been derived from an alternating current (AC) source. Ripple voltage
originates as the output of a rectifier or from generation and commutation of DC power.

Fig. 2.3(c) Ripple in Half-wave and full-wave rectifier circuit

The ripple contributes to constantly varying voltages at the output of the rectifier which appears as a pulsating voltage
rising from zero to a maximum and back to minimum. The ripple voltage is unsuitable for most sensitive electronics
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equipment and current from the ripple voltage may cause heating and damage of capacitors over time. If a ripple
voltage is superimposed on to a steady state dc voltage, the resultant component will be like a pulsating dc. Therefore,
a pulsating dc voltage from a rectifier contains a steady state dc along with a ripple component.

Ripple Factor in Rectifier circuits

The function of a rectifier is to convert ac to dc. A measure of how successful a circuit is in doing this is the ripple
factor. Mathematically, the ripple factor can be defined as
r.m.s. value of the ac components in pulsating dc
Ripple factor =
dc value of the pulsating dc
Vripple,r.m.s.
=
Vdc
Let Vr.m.s.be the r.m.s. value of the secondary voltage vS of the transformer. From ac circuit theory:
2
Vr.m.s. Vdc2 Vripple,r.m.s.
2

or
2
Vripple,r.m.s. Vr.m.s. Vdc2

Now,
2
Vr.m.s. Vdc2
Ripple factor
Vdc
2
Vr.m.s.
1
Vdc

Similarly, it can be derived

2 2
I r.m.s. I dc2 I r.m.s.
Ripple factor 1
I dc I dc

For a half-wave rectifier, the r.m.s. value and the average (dc) value of vS are given respectively by

vr.m.s. = Vm /2
and
vdc = Vm /
Thus,
2 2 2
Vr.m.s. Vm 2 π
Ripple factor 1 1 1 1.21
Vdc Vm π 2

For full-wave rectifier, the r.m.s value and the average (dc) value of vS are given respectively by

vr.m.s. = Vm / 2
and
vdc = 2Vm /
Therefore,

2 2 2
Vr.m.s. Vm 2 π
Ripple factor 1 1 1 0.482
Vdc 2Vm π 2 2

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Ripple Frequency in Rectifier circuits
Ripple frequency is the frequency of the residual AC voltage after it has been rectified to DC in a power supply. It
rides on top of the DC voltage. For a half-wave rectifier, the ripple frequency is the same as the AC frequency, for a
full-wave one it is twice the original AC frequency.

Form Factor in Rectifier circuits

Form factor (FF) of a waveform in rectifier circuit is defined as the ratio of the r.m.s. value of waveform to the
average value of the waveform. Qualitatively, FF value gives an idea about the smoothness of the waveform i.e. as
form factor decreases and approaches 1 — it smoothness of waveform improving towards pure dc.

r.m.s. value of the waveform Vr.m.s.

Form factor (FF) =
dc value of the waveform Vdc

The form factor of a half-wave rectifier is equal to 1.57.

Vr.m.s. Vm 2 π
Form factor (FF) Half-wave rectifier = 1.57
Vdc Vm π 2

The form factor of a full-wave rectifier is equal to 1.11.

Vr.m.s. Vm 2 π
Form factor (FF) Full-wave rectifier = 1.11
Vdc 2Vm π 2 2

PIV (Peak Inverse Voltage) in Rectifier circuits

This is the maximum allowable voltage that the diode can safely withstand without breakdown. It is the maximum
instantaneous voltage that occurs during the negative peak half-cycle. Hence the name peak inverse voltage. The
P.I.V. for a diode in a half-wave rectifier and full-wave bridge rectifier is equal to the peak voltage Vm of the
transformer secondary voltage.
In a full-wave rectifier circuit with a centre-tap transformer, the P.I.V. for a diode is 2 Vm. For example, if the peak
line terminal voltages of a transformer with respect to the centre-tap point are 20 V each, the P.I.V. across the non-
conducting diode will be {20 – (– 20)} = 40 V during the reverse bias conditions.

Importance of peak inverse voltage in a rectifier

The value of P.I.V. is extremely important when a diode is used as a rectifier. This is an important factor considered
when selecting a diode for a power supply. If the reverse voltage across a PN junction diode exceeds its P.I.V., the
reverse current increases sharply and breaks down the junction because of excessive heat generated.

Rectifier efficiency in Rectifier circuits

It is defined as the ratio of the useful output power (dc power) to the ac input power. The useful power output of a
rectifier is given by
Pdc = Idc2RL

At the same time the power input to the rectifier is given by

Pac = Ir.m.s.2(Rf + RL)

where Rf = dynamic resistance of the diode,

RL = load resistance, and
Ir.m.s = the effective or r.m.s value of the alternating current flowing through the load.

Pdc I dc2 RL I dc2

Rectifier efficiency is given by r 2 2
Pac I r.m.s. Rf RL I r.m.s. 1 Rf / RL

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For a half-wave rectifier, the average value and r.m.s. value of current flowing through the load will be given
respectively by
Iav = Idc = Im/
and
Ir.m.s = Im/2

The rectifier efficiency of a half-wave rectifier is

2
Pdc I dc2 Im π
r 2 2
100%
Pac I r.m.s. 1 Rf / RL Im 2 1 Rf / RL
or
Pdc 0.406
r 100%
Pac 1 Rf / RL

In practice, RL is much greater than Rf. Therefore, the rectifier efficiency of a half-wave rectifier is 40.6%. This means
that 40.6% of the ac input is converted into dc power in the load, under the conditions where there is no diode loss,
and the rest exists as ac power in the load.

For a full-wave rectifier, the average value and r.m.s value of current flowing through the load, will be given by
Iav = Idc = 2Im/
and
Ir.m.s = Im/ 2

Therefore, the rectifier efficiency of a full-wave rectifier is

2
Pdc I dc2 2I m π
r 2 2
100%
Pac I r.m.s. 1 Rf / RL Im 2 1 Rf / RL
or
Pdc 0.812
r 100%
Pac 1 Rf / RL

In practice, RL is much greater than Rf. Therefore the rectifier efficiency of a full-wave rectifier is 81.2% which is
twice that of a half-wave rectifier.

Unit 2 Article 2.3

Need of Filters
The output of single phase rectifier contains large ripple components, as quantified by its ripple factor. A filter is a
circuit which is used to remove unwanted ripple in the rectified output. In other words, a filter circuit will smoothen
the pulsating waveform and make it more like pure direct current (a straight line). A filter circuit is used between the
rectifier output and the load. A low-pass filter is designed to pass direct current (0 Hz) and to block the ac ripple (some
multiples of line frequency).

Types of Filter
The filtering of the unwanted ac component in the rectified output can be done in four different ways :
(i) Series inductor filter
(ii) Shunt capacitor filter
(iii) Choke input/LC filter
(iii) Pi ( ) filter.

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 Unit 2 Article 2.4

Circuit operation of Series Inductor Filter

The property of an inductor is to oppose any change in the current flowing through it. When the current tends to
increase, an induced e.m.f (back e.m.f) in the inductor L prevents the current from increasing (according to the Lenz's
law). The induced e.m.f in L also prevents the current from decreasing, if it tries to decrease. Hence by placing an
inductor in series with the rectifier and the load as shown in Fig. 2.4(a), the changes in the rectifier output current iL
and voltage Vout are minimised.

Series inductor filter

Iron cored inductor
+
L
230 V, 50Hz

Filtered output
output, V dc,R
Rectified dc
ac supply

Full-wave iL

V out
rectifier RL

Fig. 2.4(a) Circuit diagram of a full-wave rectifier with induction filter

An alternative way to explain filtering is that an inductor offers a negligible opposition to dc. The opposition to ac is
directly proportional to the frequency of supply because inductive reactance is (XL= 2 fL). Since the frequency of dc
supply is 0 Hz, an inductor passes the dc component entirely. At the same time, the same inductor offers a high
opposition to ac.
Rectified output voltage,

+ Vm Filtered output,V out

V dc,R

V out = V av = V dc

Fig. 2.4(b) Waveforms of a full wave rectifier with inductor filter

The filtered output voltage Vout lags behind the rectified output voltage Vdc,R by an angle 90 and never reaches the
peak voltage Vm as shown in Fig. 2.4(b). The inductor filter circuit requires a full-wave rectifier as current flows
through the rectifier all the time. The filtering action will be better if the load current iL is more. The positive peak
value of the filtered output Vout is always less than that of a rectifier output since a part of the rectifier output is
absorbed in inductance L. An inductor filter is usually used with rectifiers that need to to supply a large values of load
current.

Circuit operation of Shunt Capacitor Filter

The full-wave rectifier in Fig. 2.5(a) has a single capacitor filter C in parallel with the load RL. The capacitor C
charges to the peak value Vm of a rectified dc (pulsating dc) Vdc,R during the time that diode D1 conducts, delivering
current pulses iC to the capacitor filter C and load RL. When the rectifier output begins to drop from its maximum value
Vm , the capacitor voltage keeps both the diodes reverse biased and discharges (id = iL) through the load. The

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capacitor voltage falls off slowly and during the next rectified pulse, the diode D2 will be reverse biased at point ‘A’ as
shown in Fig. 2.5(b), recharging the capacitor. The cycle is repeated. If the capacitor C is large enough, it will hold the
load voltage Vout close to the peak value Vm over the period of the half-cycle until the next rectified pulse comes
along.

Full-wave rectifier
230 V, 50 Hz

D1
ac supply

Rectified dc output
D2 iL

Filtered output
iC

Vdc,R
+ +

Vout
C RL
id = iL

Filter circuit
Fig. 2.5(a) Circuit diagram of a full-wave rectifier with shunt capacitor filter

At the time of turning ON the diode, the rectifier supplies charging current iC to the capacitor and some current iL to
the load RL, and the capacitor charges in step with the applied voltage until the rectifier voltage reaches its peak value.
When the diode rectifier is non-conducting, the peak voltage Vm on the capacitor is in series with the peak voltage Vm
of the pulsating dc and this results in a peak voltage 2 Vm across each diode.

Filtered output
Rectified output
voltage, V dc,R

+V m

A
V dc = V out = V av

t
Charging period Discharging period
of capacitor, C of capacitor, C

Conduction of D1 Conduction of D 2
Fig. 2.5(b) Waveforms of a full-wave rectifier with shunt capacitor filter

The ripple component in the filtered output will be low if the discharging time constant is more. The output waveform
of the filtered output is shown in Fig. 2.5(b). However, as RL decreases, the discharge of capacitor will be faster,
resulting in more ripple, and a lower dc output voltage. A capacitor filter is, therefore, used with rectifiers to supply a
low load current. Ripple may be decreased by increasing C or RL or both.

Circuit operation of Choke Input/LC Filter

Fig. 2.6(a) shows the circuit diagram of a full-wave rectifier with choke input filter. When the load RL draws no
current, the dc output voltage Vout of the choke input filter is nearly equal to the peak value of the rectified dc voltage.
This is so because; in the absence of a load current iL, no voltage drop is developed across the choke coil (L). Now the
output capacitor C charges up to the peak value Vm of the rectified dc output voltage Vdc,R. Even if a small load current
is drawn, there is a fast drop in the dc output voltage. Though the drop is of some low value, it retains its constancy
over a wide range of load currents. The initial drop is sharp because the series inductor L prevents the capacitor C

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from charging to the peak voltage when the load current is drawn. After this initial drop, the voltage regulation
provided by the choke input filter is good.

Full-wave rectifier

Iron-cored inductor/
230 V, 50 Hz D1 choke coil
ac supply
L

Rectified dc output
D2 iL

Filtered output
Vdc,R

Vout
C RL

Choke input/LC Filter

Fig. 2.6(a) Circuit diagram of a full-wave rectifier
with choke input/LC filter

The dc output voltage across the capacitor C and the load RL is fairly constant as shown in Fig. 2.6(b). Its value is less
than the peak value of the rectified dc output voltage, depending upon the load current drawn.
Rectified output voltage,

+ Vm Current in choke coil, L

V dc,R

V out = V av = V dc

Fig. 2.6(b) Waveforms of a full wave rectifier with choke input/LC filter

The ripple in the dc load current through the choke can be reduced considerably by increasing the value of inductance.
This filter is used with rectifiers to supply a large load current.

Circuit operation of Pi ( )/CLC Filter

Fig. 2.7 shows a typical capacitor input filter i.e. -filter. A capacitor can short the ripple to ground, but block the dc.

Iron cored inductor

or choke coil
+
L
Filtered output,
230 V, 50Hz
ac supply

Full-wave
V out

rectifier C1 C2 RL
iL

- filter
Fig. 2.7 Circuit diagram of a full-wave rectifier with - filter

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Therefore the capacitor C1 bypasses an appreciable amount of ripple components of the rectified output voltage, while
the dc component is blocked. An inductor L prevents the passage of the ripple current because of its high inductive
reactance to ac, but offers almost zero reactance to the dc component. So the inductor L allows the dc component to
pass through it. The capacitor C2 bypasses the remaining ripple component which the inductor L might have failed to
block. Hence the desired dc component appears across the load RL. This filter circuit is commonly used in power
supply.

Limitations of Filter

Passive filters do not require external energy source because it drives the energy for its operation from the applied
input signal. Thus passive filters are not suitable for low-frequency range operation.
Filtering characteristics are strongly affected by the source impedance.
Excessive harmonic currents flow.
Initial and running costs are high.

Advantages of Filter

Passive filters can handle large voltage, currents and powers.

There is no limitation on the frequency range in filters.
Passive filters do not need additional DC Power Supply for their operation.
There is no power consumption in filters, but the desired signal is invariably attenuated

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