Grade 12 Science Essentials GRADE 11 RECAP SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©

Electromagnetism
INDUCTION OF A MAGNETIC FIELD INDUCTION OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT INCREASING THE INDUCED EMF
•Increase the rate of change of magnetic flux, ie. decrease
When current passes through a conductor, a magnetic field is induced When a magnet is brought close to a metal wire, and relative motion
the time it takes to change the flux, ie. increase speed of
around the wire. occurs between the conductor and magnet, it causes movement of
movement.
charge in the wire. As a result, an EMF is induced in the wire, which
The direction of the magnetic field can be determined by the right hand •Increase the number of loops in the coil.
causes an induced current. Only a change in magnetic flux will in-
thumb rule. For a straight, single wire, point the thumb of your right hand •Increase the strength of the magnet.
duce a current.
in the direction of the conventional current and your curled fingers will point •Increase the surface area of the loops in the coil.
in the direction of the magnetic field around the wire. Faraday’s law states that the emf induced is directly propor- •Increase the change of flux by changing the angle, θ,
tional to the rate of change of magnetic flux (flux linkage). from a minimum of 0° to a maximum of 90°.
Magnetic flux linkage is the product of the number of turns on ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF
I I Out of page Into page the coil and the flux through the coil. OVERHEAD CABLES
•Birds fly into power lines as they cannot see them from a
NOTE THAT NO CALCULATIONS ARE distance.
REQUIRED, ONLY RELATIONSHIP •This places birds at risk of becoming extinct because of
B BETWEEN VARIABLES the increase in unnatural mortality.
•Trees fall onto power lines and can cause fires to erupt.
•Trees have to be cut down to make space for the power
lines.
For a wire loop, the magnetic field is the sum of the individual magnetic ε = emf (V) •There is no evidence that the electromagnetic effect of
fields around the single wires at each end. Use the right hand rule for a sin- −NΔϕ N= number of turns/windings in coil the power lines has any negative impact on people and the
gle wire at each end of the loop.
ε= Δɸ= change in magnetic flux (Wb)
Δt surroundings as the strength of the field is low.


Δt= change in time (s) •The electromagnetic effect of the power line can disrupt
radio signals and for emergency services, this can be a
major problem.
The magnetic flux (ɸ) is the result of the product of the perpendicular
component of the magnetic field (B) and cross-sectional area (A) the DIRECTION OF INDUCED CURRENT
field lines pass through. As a bar magnet moves into a solenoid the needle of the
I galvanometer is deflected away from the 0 mark. As the
ɸ= magnetic flux (Wb) bar magnet is removed, the needle deflects in the oppo-
B= magnetic flux density (T) site direction. The magnetic energy is converted to electri-


ϕ = BA cos θ cal energy. The direction of the induced current can be
A= area (m2)
determined using Lenz’s law.
θ= angle between magnetic field line and normal
N

S
B
Normal Normal
S
I N
B 


N

N
S
For a solenoid, curl your fingers around the solenoid in the direction of the


S
conventional current and your thumb will point in the direction of the North A=l ×b
pole. This is know as the right hand solenoid rule. A=πr2 Lenz’s Law states that the induced current flows in
I a direction so as to set up a magnetic field to op-
B pose the change in magnetic flux.

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 Grade 12 Science Essentials SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
Electrodynamics
GENERATORS ALTERNATING CURRENT
Generators convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. A generator works on the principle of mechanically rotating The potential difference and current for an alternating current fluctuates between a posi-
a conductor in a magnetic field. This creates a changing flux which induces an emf in the conductor. tive and negative maxima. The average potential difference and current is zero and so
the average power is used to define the potential difference and current for an alternat-
Direct Alternating ing current.

A direct current generator uses a split ring commutator to The alternating current generator is connected to the exter- Power versus time graph for a AC circuit.
connect the conductor to the external circuit instead of a nal circuit by 2 slip rings which is connected to the conduc-
slip ring. tor. The slip rings make contact with brushes which are
connected to the external circuit. Pmax = VmaxImax
























Pave = ½ VmaxImax










 


Δt (s)
Δ

1
  Pave = P
2 max
The current in the external circuit does not change direc- The direction of the current changes with every half turn of 1
tion and is known as direct current (DC). the coil. The current that is produced is known as alternat- = (Vmax ⋅ I max )
2
ing current (AC).
1 1
θ = 0° θ = 90° θ = 180° θ = 270° θ = 360° θ = 0° θ = 90° θ = 180° θ = 270° θ = 360°
= Vmax ⋅ I max
B C B B C B
2 2
C B B C C B B C
= Vrms ⋅ I rms
C B C C B C
+ – – +
The potential difference for an alternating current is therefore defined by the root mean
square of the maximum potential difference (Vrms) and the current for an alternating
current is defined as the root mean square of the maximum current (Irms). These values
can be calculated from the maximum potential difference and maximum current as fol-
lows:

EMF(V)
Rotations Rotations V
Vrms = max
0 1/4 1/
1/2 3/4 1 0 1/4 /22
1/2 3/4
3/ 1 2

Induced EMF

Inducedemf
I

Induced
I rms = max
  2

FLEMING’S RIGHT HAND-DYNAMO RULE

The right hand rule is used to predict the direction of
the induced emf in the coil. Using your right hand, 























hold your first finger, second finger and thumb at
right angles to each other. Point your first finger in 

the direction of the magnetic field (N to S), your 






thumb in the direction of the motion (or force) of the 




 

conductor. The middle finger will point in the direc- 

tion of the induced current (from + to -).

 

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 Grade 12 Science Essentials SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
Electrodynamics
MOTORS
Electric motors convert electrical energy to mechanical energy. It consists of a current carrying armature, connected to a
source by a commutator and brushes and placed in a magnetic field.

Direct Alternating
A direct current motor uses a split ring commutator to con- The alternating current motor is connected to the external
nect the conductor to the external circuit instead of a slip circuit by a slip ring. The slip ring makes contact with
ring. brushes which are connected to the external circuit at-
tached to an alternating current source.

The split ring commutator allows the current in the coil to The direction of the current in the coil is constantly chang-
alternate with every half turn, which allows the coil to con- ing, which allows the coil to continue to rotate in the same
tinue to rotate in the same direction. direction.

When a charge moves in a magnetic field it experiences a force. The force experienced on both sides of the armature
creates torque which makes it turn. The direction of the force can be explained using the left hand rule.

FLEMING’S LEFT HAND MOTOR RULE

The Left hand Rule is used to predict the direction of the movement of the coil in the motor. Using your left hand, hold your
first finger, second finger and thumb right angles to each other. Point your first finger in the direction of the magnetic field,
your second finger in the direction of the conventional current and your thumb will then point in the direction of the force.

























 

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 Grade 12 Science Essentials SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
Photoelectric Effect
PARTICLE NATURE OF LIGHT THRESHOLD FREQUENCY (f0), WORK FUNCTION (W0) AND FREQUENCY AND WAVELENGTH
The photoelectric effect occurs when light is shone on a metal’s
ELECTRON ENERGY An increase in frequency will increase the kinetic energy of
surface and this causes the metal to emit electrons. The frequency required to produce enough energy to emit an electron is called the electrons. On a graph of Ek(max) vs frequency, the
the threshold frequency (f0). The threshold frequency (f0) is the minimum x-intercept
ntercept
ercep indicates the threshold frequency.
Metals are bonded in such a way that they
frequency of incident radiation at which electrons will be emitted from
share their valence electrons in a sea of
a particular metal. The minimum amount of energy needed to emit an No emission Emission
delocalized electrons. In order to get an
electron to be removed from the surface of electron from the surface of a metal is known as the work function f < f0 f > f0
a metal, you would have to provide it with (W0). The work function is material specific.
enough energy in order to escape the If the energy of the photons exceed the work function (i.e. the frequency of light
bond. exceeds the threshold frequency), the excess energy is transferred to the liber-

EK(max) (J)
ated electron in the form of kinetic energy.
The energy that light provides enables the electron to escape and f0 f (Hz)
this phenomenon is called photoelectric effect. The kinetic energy of the electron can be determined by:
NOTE: Similarly, on the graph of Ek(max) vs wavelength, the
PHOTON ENERGY E = W0 + E K(max) Sometimes work function is given x-intercept indicates the maximum wavelength of light
in eV. Convert from eV to J: that can emit an electron (wavelength is inversely propor-
Photons are “little packets” of energy called quanta, which act as tional
al to
o frequency).
freq
particles. The energy of the photon(light) can be calculated in one 

 

 





J = eV × 1,6×10−19
of two ways: Emission No emission
hc c/

/ > f0 c/
< f0
E = hf E=
λ
E = energy of the photon measured in joules (J) 


 


 
EK(max) (J)

h = Planck’s constant, 6,63 × 10−34 (J·s) 

f = frequency measured in hertz (Hz) 




Maximum
i
𝜆 = wavelength measured in meters (m) wavelength
(m)
c = speed of light, 3 × 108 (m·s−1)

INTENSITY AND FREQUENCY INTENSITY, FREQUENCY AND CURRENT

Increasing the intensity (brightness) of the light (radiation) means that there are more photons with the same frequency. This The higher the intensity of the radiation, the more electrons are emitted per sec-
will result in more electrons with the same amount of energy being emitted. Thus the number of electrons emitted per second ond. Therefore an increased intensity will increase the current produced.
increases with the intensity of the incident radiation
The higher the frequency, the more kinetic energy is provided to the same number
 


   

   
of electrons. The rate of electron flow REMAINS THE SAME.

 






























































































































f0
High-intensity light

 



Note that the energy of the electrons remain the same. If the frequency of the incident radiation is below the cut-off frequency, Low-intensity light
ligh
then increasing the intensity of the radiation has no effect i.e. it does not cause electrons to be ejected. To increase the energy,
the frequency of the radiant light needs to be increased.
Number of electrons
ejected per second (current)

INCREASE INTENSITY AT CONSTANT FREQUENCY = INCREASE AMOUNT OF EMITTED ELECTRONS

INCREASE FREQUENCY AT CONSTANT INTENSITY = INCREASE KINETIC ENERGY OF EMITTED ELECTRONS Frequency of light on cathode (Hz)
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 Grade 12 Science Essentials SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
Emission and Absorption Spectra
CONTINUOUS SPECTRUM ENERGY LEVELS ATOMIC ABSORPTION SPECTRA
When white light shines through a prism, the light is dispersed into a The lines on the atomic spectrum (line emission spectrum) are as a result
spectrum of light. It is called the continuous spectrum. White light is of electron transitions between energy levels. As electrons gain energy As white light is passed through a cold gaseous element,
made up of all the colours of the spectrum, and when dispersed we are (heat) they transition to a higher state of energy, hence a higher energy the electrons inside the atoms of the element absorb the
able to see the components of white light. This is the same range as the level. As the element cools, the electrons drop back down to the lower en- energy of the light (photons). The energy is absorbed in
visible spectrum. ergy state. As they do this they emit the absorbed energy in the form of specific bands which corresponds to the energy required
light (photons). Therefore, each electron gives off a frequency of light by electrons to transition between energy levels.
which corresponds
responds with the line emission spectrum.
R O Y G B I V 


The absorbed energy furthermore corresponds to a spe-
cific frequency of light. As the electrons absorb energy,
red orange yellow green blue indigo violet



the specific frequency of light disappears, resulting in an
absorption spectrum. The black lines below represent the
The white light is emitted from a bulb, therefore the continuous spectrum is an energy absorbed by the element.
emission spectrum. Red has the lowest frequency, and violet the highest.




ATOMIC EMISSION SPECTRA

When an element in the gaseous phase is heated, it emits light. If the 



light produced is passed through a prism, a spectrum is produced. How- Electrons in
n the n = 1 energy
eneergy lev
level
evvel are closest to the nucleus and have the The absorption spectra for a specific element will be the
ever, this spectrum is not continuous, but consists of only some lines of lowest potential energy. Electrons in the energy level furthest from the nu- inverse of its emission spectra.
colour. This is known as line emission spectrum. cleus (eg. n = 4) has the highest potential energy. If an electron is free
Each element has their own light signature as no two elements have the from the atom then it has zero potential energy. The potential energy is
same spectrum. given as a negative value due to a decrease in potential as the electrons
get close to the nucleus.
As the electrons transition from their energized state back to their normal
state they give off energy that is equal to the difference in potential energy
between the energy levels.

ΔE = E 2 − E1
ΔE = difference in potential energy between two energy levels
E2 = the highest energy state
E1 = the lowest energy state
CONTINUOUS EMISSION SPECTRA
The amount of energy that is released relates directly to a specific fre-
quency or wavelength (thus colour) of light.
hc
E = hf E=
λ
ATOMIC ABSORPTION SPECTRA
EXAMPLE:
A sample of hydrogen gas is placed in a discharge tube. The electron
from the hydrogen atom emits energy as it transitions from energy level
E6 (−0,61×10−19 J) to E2 (−5,46×10−19). Determine the wavelength of
light emitted.
E = hc ATOMIC EMISSION SPECTRA
λ
ΔE = E 6 − E 2
−19 (6,63 × 10−34 )(3 × 108 )
=
= − 0,61 × 10−19 − (−5,46 × 10−19 ) 4,85 × 10 λ
= 4,85 × 10−19 J λ = 4,1 × 10−7 = 410 nm

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