‫الکترونیک صنعتی‪ :‬یکسوسازهای دیودی‬

‫‪Diode rectifiers‬‬

‫‪1‬‬
 Diode rectifiers

A rectifier is a circuit that converts an ac signal into a unidirectional signal. A

rectifier is a type of ac–dc converter. If 𝑣𝑠 is an ac input voltage, the waveform of
the output voltage 𝑣𝑜 would have the same shape, but the negative part will appear
as a positive value. That is, 𝑣𝑜 = |𝑣𝑠 |.
Depending on the type of input supply, the rectifiers are classified into two types:

(1) single phase and

(2) three phase.

2
Diode rectifiers
Depending on the type of input supply, the rectifiers are classified into two types:

(1) single phase and

(2) three phase.

A single-phase rectifier can be either a half wave or a full wave.

A single-phase half-wave rectifier is the simplest type, but it is not normally used in
industrial applications.
For simplicity The diodes are considered to be ideal. By “ideal” we mean that the reverse recovery
time 𝑡𝑟𝑟 and the forward voltage drop 𝑉𝐷 are negligible. That is, 𝑡𝑟𝑟 = 0 and 𝑉𝐷 = 0.

3
1- Half-wave rectifier with resistive load
In practice, the half-wave rectifier is used most often in low-power
applications because the average current in the supply will not be zero, and
nonzero average current may cause problems in transformer performance.
While practical applications of this circuit are limited, it is very worthwhile
to analyze the half wave rectifier in detail. The source is ac, and the
objective is to create a load voltage that has a nonzero dc component.

For the positive half-cycle of the source in this circuit, the diode is on
(forward-biased).
For the negative half-cycle of the source, the diode is reverse-biased,
making the current zero. The voltage across the reverse-biased diode is
the source voltage, which has a negative value.
4
 The voltage waveforms across the source, load, and diode are shown in Fig. b.
Note that the units on the horizontal axis are in terms of angle (𝜔𝑡). This
representation is useful because the values are independent of frequency.

The dc component 𝑉𝑜 of the output voltage is the average value

of a half-wave rectified sinusoid:
The dc component of the current for the purely resistive load is:

2
Average power absorbed by the resistor in Fig. a can be computed from P=𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 /R.
×R=𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
When the voltage and current are half-wave rectified sine waves,

5
 Example: Half-wave rectifier with resistive load

For the half-wave rectifier, the source is a sinusoid of 120 V rms at a frequency
of 60 Hz. The load resistor is 5 Ω. Determine: (a) the average load current, (b)
the average power absorbed by the load and (c) the power factor of the circuit.
■ Solution
(a) The voltage across the resistor is a half-wave rectified sine wave with peak
value 𝑉𝑚 =120 2 =169.7 V. the average voltage is 𝑉𝑚 /π, and average current is:

(b) The rms voltage across the resistor for a half-wave rectified sinusoid is:

The power absorbed by the resistor is:

The rms current in the resistor is 𝑉𝑚 /(2R) =17.0 A, and the power could
2
also be calculated from 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 R =( (17)2 ×5) =1440 W.
(c) The power factor is: 6
2- Half-wave rectifier with Resistive-inductive load
As the source voltage goes through zero, becoming positive in the circuit of Fig. a,
the diode becomes forward-biased. The Kirchhoff voltage law equation that
describes the current in the circuit for the forward-biased ideal diode is:

The solution can be obtained by expressing the current as the sum of the forced
response and the natural response: i(t)=𝑖𝑓 (t)+𝑖𝑛 (t)

The forced response for this circuit is the current that exists after the natural response has decayed to
zero. In this case, the forced response is the steady-state sinusoidal current that would exist in the circuit
if the diode were not present. This steady-state current can be found from phasor analysis, resulting in:

7
The natural response is the transient that occurs when the load is energized. It is the solution
to the homogeneous differential equation for the circuit without the source or diode:

For this first-order circuit, the natural response has the form:

Where 𝜏 is the time constant L/R and A is a constant that is determined from the initial condition.
Adding the forced and natural responses gets the complete solution.

The constant A is evaluated by using the initial condition for current. The initial condition of current
in the inductor is zero because it was zero before the diode started conducting and it cannot change
instantaneously. Using the initial condition to evaluate A yields:

8
Equation is valid for positive currents only because of the diode in the circuit, so
current is zero when the function in Eq. is negative. When the source voltage
again becomes positive, the diode turns on, and the positive part of the waveform
in Fig. b is repeated. This occurs at every positive half-cycle of the source.
Note that the diode remains forward-biased longer than π rad and that the source
is negative for the last part of the conduction interval.

Also note that the inductor voltage is negative when the current is decreasing
(𝑣𝐿 =L di/dt).

9
The point when the current reaches zero in Eq. occurs when the diode turns off.
The first positive value of 𝜔t in Eq. that results in zero current is called the
extinction angle 𝛽. Substituting 𝜔t =𝛽 in Eq., the equation that must be solved is:

which reduces to:

There is no closed-form solution for 𝛽, and some numerical

method is required. To summarize, the current in the half-wave
rectifier circuit with RL load is expressed as:
2 R, since
The average power absorbed by the load is 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
the average power absorbed by the inductor is zero. The
rms value of the current is determined:

Average current is: 10

Example: Half-wave rectifier with RL load
For the half-wave rectifier, R=100 Ω , L=0.1H, 𝜔 = 377 rad/s, and 𝑉𝑚 =100V.
Determine (a) an expression for the current in this circuit, (b) the average current, (c)
the rms current, (d) the power absorbed by the RL load, and (e) the power factor.

Solution
(a) For the parameters given,

current becomes:

Beta is found from Eq.

Using a numerical root-finding program, 𝛽 is found to be 3.50 rad, or 2010

(b) Average current is:

11
(c) The rms current is:

(d) The power absorbed by the resistor is:

The average power absorbed by the inductor is zero. Also

P can be computed from the definition of average power:

(e) The power factor is computed from the definition pf =P/S, and P is power supplied by the
source, which must be the same as that absorbed by the load.

Note that the power factor is not cos 𝜃 12

 3- Half-wave rectifier with RL-source load
The load consists of a resistance, an inductance, and a dc voltage. Starting the
analysis at 𝜔t =0 and assuming the initial current is zero, recognize that the diode
will remain off as long as the voltage of the ac source is less than the dc voltage.
Letting 𝛼 be the value of 𝜔t that causes the source voltage to be equal to 𝑉𝑑𝑐 ,
or 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝛼 =Vdc or:

The diode starts to conduct at 𝜔t = 𝛼 With the diode conducting, Kirchhoff’s

voltage law for the circuit yields the equation:

total current is determined by summing the forced and natural responses:

13
The current if (t) is determined using superposition for the two sources.
The forced response from the ac source (Fig.b) is (𝑉𝑚 /Z) sin(𝜔t-𝜃 ).
The forced response due to the dc source (Fig. c) is 𝑉𝑑𝑐 /R.

The entire forced response is:

The natural response is:

Adding the forced and natural responses

gives the complete response.

The extinction angle 𝛽 is defined as the angle at which the current

reaches zero. Using the initial condition of i(𝛼)=0 and solving for A,
14
Figure d shows voltage and current waveforms for a half-wave rectifier with
2
RL-source load. The average power absorbed by the resistor is 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 R, where:

The average power absorbed by the dc source is:

where Io is the average current, that is,

Assuming the diode and the inductor to be ideal, there is no average power
absorbed by either. The power supplied by the ac source is equal to the sum
of the power absorbed by the resistor and the dc source,

or it can be computed from:

15
Example: Half-wave rectifier with RL-source load
For the circuit of Fig., R=2 Ω , L=20 mH, and 𝑉𝑑𝑐 =100 V. The ac source is 120 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
at 60 Hz. Determine (a) an expression for the current in the circuit, (b) the power
absorbed by the resistor, (c) the power absorbed by the dc source, and (d) the power
supplied by the ac source and the power factor of the circuit.
■ Solution
(a) From the parameters given,

The extinction angle is found from the solution of:

which results in 𝛽 =3.37 rad = (1930 ). 16

(b) Using the preceding expression for i(t) and using
a numerical integration program, the rms current is:

resulting in:

(c) The power absorbed by the dc source is 𝐼𝑜 𝑉𝑑𝑐 .

yielding

(d) The power supplied by the ac source is the sum of the powers absorbed by the load.

The power factor is:

17
4- Half-wave rectifier with inductor-source load
Another variation of the half-wave rectifier circuit has a load that consists of an
inductor and a dc source. The resistance may be negligible compared to other
circuit parameters.

Starting at t=0 and assuming zero initial current in the inductor, the diode
remains reverse-biased until the ac source voltage reaches the dc voltage.
The value of t at which the diode starts to conduct is , calculated using Eq.

With the diode conducting, Kirchhoff’s voltage law for the circuit is:

Rearranging gives:

Solving for i(𝜔t),

18
Performing the integration,

A distinct feature of this circuit is that the power supplied by the source is the same as that absorbed
by the dc source, less any losses associated with a non-ideal diode and inductor. If the objective is to
transfer power from the ac source to the dc source, losses are kept to a minimum by using this circuit.

19
Example: Half-wave rectifier with inductor-source load
For the circuit of Fig., the ac source is 120 V rms at 60 Hz, L=50 mH, and 𝑉𝑑𝑐 =72 V.
Determine (a) an expression for the current, (b) the power absorbed by the dc source,
and (c) the power factor.
Solution: For the parameters given,

(a) The equation for current is found from Eq.

where 𝛽 is found to be 4.04 rad from the numerical solution of: 9.83- 9.0 cos𝛽 -3.82𝛽 = 0

(b) The power absorbed by the dc source is 𝐼0 𝑉𝑑𝑐 , where:

20
 resulting in:

(c) The rms current is found from:

Therefore,

21
5- Half-Wave Rectifier with Freewheeling Diode
A freewheeling diode, 𝐷2 in Fig. a, can be connected across an RL load.
Diode 𝐷1 will be on when the source is positive, and

diode 𝐷2 will be on when the source is negative.

For a positive source voltage:

• 𝐷1 is on. / • 𝐷2 is off.
• The equivalent circuit is shown again in Fig. b.
• The voltage across the RL load is the same as the source.

For a negative source voltage:

• 𝐷1 is off. / • 𝐷2 is on.
• The equivalent circuit is Fig. c.
• The voltage across the RL load is zero.
22
Since the voltage across the RL load is the same as the source voltage when the
source is positive and is zero when the source is negative, the load voltage is a
half-wave rectified sine wave.
When the circuit is first energized, the load current is zero and cannot change
instantaneously. The current reaches periodic steady state after a few periods
(depending on the L/R time constant), which means that the current at the end of a
period is the same as the current at the beginning of the period, as shown in Fig.
The Fourier series for the half-wave rectified sine wave for the voltage across the
load is:

The current in the load can be expressed as a Fourier series by using superposition,
taking each frequency separately.

23
Example: Half-Wave Rectifier with Freewheeling Diode
Determine the average load voltage and current, and determine the power
absorbed by the resistor in the circuit of Fig. a, where R =2 Ω and L=25 mH,
𝑉𝑚 is 100 V, and the frequency is 60 Hz.
■ Solution

100
The average load voltage is the dc term in the Fourier series: 𝑉𝑜 =𝑉𝑚 /π = = 31.8 𝑉
π

Average load current is 𝐼𝑜 =𝑉𝑜 /R=31.8/2=15.9 A

2
Load power can be determined from 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 R, and rms current is determined from the Fourier
components of current. The amplitudes of the ac current components are determined from phasor
analysis: 𝐼𝑛 =𝑉𝑛 /𝑍𝑛 where 𝑍𝑛 =(R +jn𝜔L)= (2+jn377(0.025))

24
 𝐼𝑛 =𝑉𝑛 /𝑍𝑛 where 𝑍𝑛 =(R +jn𝜔L)= (2+jn377(0.025))

The ac voltage amplitudes are determined:

The resulting Fourier terms are as follows:

The rms current is:

• Notice that the contribution to rms current from the harmonics decreases as n increases, and
2 R=(16.43)2 ×2=534
higher-order terms are not significant. Power in the resistor is 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 25 W.
6 - Half-Wave Rectifier with Freewheeling Diode: L/R →∞
The average current in the RL load is a function of the applied voltage and
the resistance but not the inductance. The inductance affects only the ac terms
in the Fourier series. If the inductance is infinitely large, the impedance of the
load to ac terms in the Fourier series is infinite, and the load current is purely
dc. The load current is then:

A large inductor (L/R≫T ) with a freewheeling diode provides a means of

establishing a nearly constant load current. Zero-to-peak fluctuation in load
current can be estimated as being equal to the amplitude of the first ac term in
the Fourier series. The peak-to-peak ripple is then: Δ𝐼𝑜 ≈2𝐼1

26
Example: Half-Wave Rectifier with Freewheeling Diode: L/R →∞
For the half-wave rectifier with a freewheeling diode and RL load, the
source is 240 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 at 60 Hz and R=8 Ω. Assume L is infinitely large.

Determine (a) the power absorbed by the load and the power factor as seen by the source. Sketch
𝑣𝑜 , 𝑖𝐷1 , and 𝑖𝐷2 . (b) Determine the average current in each diode. (c) For a finite inductance,
determine L such that the peak-to-peak current is no more than 10 percent of the average current.
■ Solution
(a) The voltage across the RL load is a half-wave rectified sine wave, which has an average value of, 𝑉𝑚 /𝜋
The load current is:

Power in the resistor is:

Source rms current is computed from:

27

The power factor is:

(b) Each diode conducts for one-half of the time. Average current for each diode is
𝐼𝑜 /2=13.5/2 =6.75 A.
(c) The value of inductance required to limit the variation in load current to 10
percent can be approximated from the fundamental frequency of the Fourier series.
The voltage input to the load for n=1 has amplitude 𝑉𝑚 /2= 2 (240)/2=170 V the
peak-to-peak current must be limited to:

which corresponds to an amplitude of 1.35/2=0.675 A. The load impedance at

the fundamental frequency must then be:

The load impedance is:

Since the 8 Ω resistance is negligible compared to the total impedance,

the inductance can be approximated as:

• The inductance will have to be slightly larger than 0.67 H because

28
Fourier terms higher than n=1 were neglected in this estimate.
Diode rectifiers: performance parameters
Although the output voltage of a rectifier in Figure a should ideally be a
pure dc, the output of a practical rectifier contains harmonics or ripples
as shown in Figure b. A rectifier is a power processor that should give a
dc output voltage with a minimum amount of harmonic contents.

At the same time, it should maintain the input current as sinusoidal as possible and
in phase with the input voltage so that the power factor is near unity.
The power-processing quality of a rectifier requires the determination of harmonic
contents of: the input current, the output voltage, and the output current.

• We can use the Fourier series expansions to find the harmonic contents of voltages and currents.

29
 The performances of a rectifier are normally evaluated in terms of the following parameters:

1- The average value of the output (load) voltage, 𝑉𝑑𝑐

2- The average value of the output (load) current, 𝐼𝑑𝑐
3- The output dc power: 𝑃𝑑𝑐 =𝑉𝑑𝑐 ∗ 𝐼𝑑𝑐
4- The root-mean-square (rms) value of the output voltage, 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
5- The rms value of the output current, 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
6- The output ac power: : 𝑃𝑎𝑐 =𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∗ 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠

7- The efficiency (or rectification ratio) of a rectifier, is defined as:

It should be noted that ƞ is not the power efficiency. It is the conversion efficiency which is a measure
of the quality of the output waveform. For a pure dc output, the conversion efficiency would be unity.

30
The output voltage can be considered as composed of two components:

(1) the dc value and (2) the ac component or ripple.

2 2
The effective (rms) value of the ac component of output voltage is: 𝑉𝑎𝑐 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 − 𝑉𝑑𝑐

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
8- The form factor, which is a measure of the shape of output voltage, is: FF= 𝑉𝑑𝑐

𝑉𝑎𝑐
9- The ripple factor, which is a measure of the ripple content, is defined as: RF=
𝑉𝑑𝑐

the ripple factor can be expressed as:

31
 𝑃
10- The transformer utilization factor is defined as: TUF= 𝑉 𝑑𝑐
𝐼 𝑠 𝑠

where 𝑉𝑠 and 𝐼𝑠 are the rms voltage and rms current of the transformer secondary, respectively.

11- The input power factpr can be determined approximately by equating input power with the

𝑃𝑎𝑐
output ac power. That is, the power factor is related by: PF=
𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠

12- Crest factor (CF), which is a measure of the peak input current 𝐼𝑠 (peak) as compared with its
rms value 𝐼𝑠 , is often of interest to specify the peak current ratings of devices and components.

𝐼𝑠(𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘)
CF of the input current is defined by: CF=
𝐼𝑠

32
 single-phase full-Wave rectifiers
1- Full-wave rectifier with center-tapped transformer

A full-wave rectifier circuit with a center-tapped transformer is shown in Figure a.

During the positive half-cycle of the input voltage, diode 𝐷1 conducts and diode 𝐷2 is
in a blocking condition. The input voltage appears across the load.

During the negative half-cycle of the input voltage, diode 𝐷2 conducts while diode 𝐷1 is
in a blocking condition. The negative portion of the input voltage appears across the load
as a positive voltage.
Because there is no dc current flowing through the transformer, there is no dc saturation
problem of transformer core. The average output voltage is:

33

Full-wave rectifier with center-tapped transformer

 single-phase full-Wave rectifiers
2- Full-wave bridge rectifier
Instead of using a center-tapped transformer, we could use four diodes, as shown in
Figure a. During the positive half-cycle of the input voltage, the power is supplied
to the load through diodes 𝐷1 and 𝐷2 . During the negative cycle, diodes 𝐷3 and 𝐷4
conduct.

The waveform for the output voltage is shown in Figure b and is similar to that of
center-tapped transformer. The peak inverse voltage of a diode is only 𝑉𝑚 .

This circuit is known as a bridge rectifier, and it is commonly used in industrial

applications.

Full-wave bridge rectifier

34
Advantages and Disadvantages of Center-Tapped and Bridge Rectifiers

35
performance parameters of a full-Wave rectifier with a Center-tapped transformer

If the rectifier has a purely resistive load of R, determine:

(a) the efficiency,

(b) the FF,

(c) the RF,

(d) the TUF,

(e) the PIV of diode 𝐷1 ,

(f) the CF of the input current, and

(g) the input power factor PF

36
Solution:
the average output voltage is: 𝑉𝑑𝑐 =2𝑉𝑚 /π= 0.6366𝑉𝑚
and the average load current is: : 𝐼𝑑𝑐 =: 𝑉𝑑𝑐 /R=0.6366: 𝑉𝑚 /R
The rms values of the output voltage and current are:
(0.6366Vm)2 (0.707 Vm)2
Pdc = , and Pac =
R R

the efficiency:
the form factor:
the ripple factor:
The rms voltage of the transformer secondary:
The rms value of transformer secondary current:
The volt-ampere rating (VA) of the transformer:

TUF: 37
The peak reverse blocking voltage

The CF of the input current is: CF = 𝐼𝑠(𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘) /𝐼𝑠 =1/0.707 = 2

The input PF for a resistive load can be found from:

• 1/TUF = 1/0.81064 = 1.136 signifies that the input transformer, if present, must be 1.75
times larger than that when it is used to deliver power from a pure ac sinusoidal voltage.
• The rectifier has an RF of 48.2% and a rectification efficiency of 81%.

38
Fourier series of the output voltage for a full-Wave rectifier

The rectifier output voltage may be described by a Fourier series:

Substituting the values of an and bn, the expression for the output voltage is:

• Note: The output of a full-wave rectifier contains only even harmonics and the
39
second harmonic is the most dominant one and its frequency is 2f(= 100 Hz).
3- Single-phase full-Wave rectifier With RL load

With a resistive load, the load current is identical in shape to the output voltage. In
practice, most loads are inductive to a certain extent and the load current depends on
the values of load resistance R and load inductance L. A battery of voltage E is added
to develop generalized equations. If vs = Vm sin ωt = 2Vs sinωt is the input voltage,
the load current 𝑖𝑜 can be found from:

where load impedance Z = [𝑅2 + (𝐿𝜔)2 ]1/2, load impedance angle θ = tan−1 (Lω/R),
and 𝑉𝑠 is the rms value of the input voltage.
40
Case 1: continuous load current.

The constant A1 can be determined from the condition: at ωt = π, 𝑖0 =𝐼0

Under a steady-state condition, 𝑖𝑜 (ωt = 0) = 𝑖𝑜 (ωt = π). That is, 𝑖𝑜 (ωt = 0) = 𝐼0 .

Applying this condition, we get the value of 𝐼0 as:

41
The rms diode current can be found as:

and the rms output current can then be determined by combining

the rms current of each diode as :

The average diode current can also be found from Eq. (3.16) as

42
Case 2: discontinuous load current
This is shown in Figure. The load current flows only during the period α ≤ ωt ≤ β.

At ωt = β, the current falls to zero, and 𝑖𝑜 (ωt = β) = 0. That is,

As an example, Mathcad was used to find the value of β for θ = 30°, 60°, and x = 0 to 1. The results are
shown in Table 3.2. As x increases, β decreases. At x = 1.0, the diodes do not conduct and no current flows.

43
4- single-phase full-Wave rectifier With a highly inductive load

With a resistive load, the input current of the single-phase rectifier will be a
sine wave. With an inductor load, the input current will be distorted. If the load
is highly inductive, the load current will remain almost constant with a small
amount of ripple content and the input current will be like a square wave.

In figure, 𝑉𝑠 is the sinusoidal input voltage, 𝐼𝑠 is the instantaneous input current, and 𝐼𝑠1 is its fundamental component.

If ϕ is the angle between the fundamental components of the input current and voltage, ϕ is called the
displacement angle. The displacement factor is defined as: DF= cos 𝜑
The harmonic factor (HF) of the input current is defined as:

The input power factor (PF) is defined as:

where 𝐼𝑠1 is the fundamental component of the input current Is. Both 𝐼𝑠1 and 𝐼𝑠 are expressed
44
here in rms.
 Notes

1.HF is a measure of the distortion of a waveform and is also known as total harmonic distortion (THD).
2. If the input current is is purely sinusoidal, 𝐼𝑠1 = 𝐼𝑠 and the power factor PF equals the displacement factor
DF. The displacement angle ϕ becomes the impedance angle θ= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (ωL/R) for an RL load.
3. Displacement factor DF is often known as displacement power factor (DPF).

4. An ideal rectifier should have:

η = 100, Vac = 0, RF = 0, TUF = 1,

HF =THD = 0, and PF = DPF = 1.

45
 5- Input power factor of a full-Wave rectifier

A single-phase bridge rectifier that supplies a very high inductive load such as a dc
motor is shown in Figure. The turns ratio of the transformer is unity. The load is
such that the motor draws a ripple-free armature current of 𝐼𝑎 as shown in Figure.

Determine (a) the HF of input current and (b) the input PF of the rectifier.
Solution
Normally, a dc motor is highly inductive and acts like a filter in reducing the ripple
current of the load.
a. The waveforms for the input current and input voltage of the rectifier are shown
in Figure. The input current can be expressed in a Fourier series as:

46
The rms value of the fundamental component of input current is:

The rms value of the input current is:

The Harmonic Factor of the input current is:

b. The displacement angle ϕ = 0 and DF = cos ϕ = 1., the PF = (𝐼𝑠1 /𝐼𝑠 ) cos ϕ = 0.90 (lagging).

The input power factor of a rectifier with a resistive load is PF=1.0 and PF=0.9 for a highly inductive load.
47

The power factor will depend on the load inductor and the amount of distortion of the input current.
 Multiphase star rectifiers
We have seen the average output voltage that could be obtained from single-
phase full-wave rectifiers is 0.6366𝑉𝑚 and these rectifiers are used in
applications up to a power level of 15 kW. For larger power output, three-
phase and multiphase rectifiers are used. The Fourier series of the output
voltage indicates that the output contains harmonics and the frequency of
the fundamental component is two times the source frequency (2f).

In practice, a filter is normally used to reduce the level of harmonics in the load; the size of the filter
decreases with the increase in frequency of the harmonics. In addition to the larger power output of
multiphase rectifiers, the fundamental frequency of the harmonics is also increased and is q times the
source frequency (qf). This rectifier is also known as a star rectifier.
48
 Multiphase star rectifiers
The rectifier circuit of Figure a can be extended to multiple phases by having
multiphase windings on the transformer secondary as shown in Figure b.

This circuit may be considered as q single-phase rectifiers and can be

considered as a half wave type. The kth diode conducts during the
period when the voltage of kth phase is higher than that of other phases.

The conduction period of each diode is 2π/q.

It can be noticed from Figure b that the current flowing through the
secondary winding is unidirectional and contains a dc component.
Only one secondary winding carries current at a particular time. 49
 Multiphase star rectifiers
Assuming a cosine wave from π/q to 2π/q, the average output
voltage for a q-phase rectifier is given by:

And the rms value of output voltage is:

If the load is purely resistive, the peak current through a diode is 𝐼𝑚 =𝑉𝑚 /R and we can find the
rms value of a diode current (or transformer secondary current) as:

50
Example: Multiphase star rectifiers
A three-phase star rectifier has a purely resistive load with R ohms. Determine: (a) the efficiency, (b) the
FF, (c) the RF, (d) the TUF factor, (e) the PIV of each diode, and (f) the peak current through a diode, if the
rectifier delivers 𝐼𝑑𝑐 = 30 A at an output voltage of 𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 140 V.
Solution
For a three-phase rectifier q = 3
a. 𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 0.827 𝑉𝑚 and 𝐼𝑑𝑐 = 0.827 𝑉𝑚 /R. / 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 0.840Vm and 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 0.840 𝑉𝑚 /R.
𝑃𝑑𝑐 = (0.827 𝑉𝑚 )2 /R; 𝑃𝑎𝑐 =(0.840 𝑉𝑚 ) 2 /R;

and the efficiency is:

b. the FF = 0.840/0.827 = 1.0165 or 101.65%. c. the RF = (1.01652)2 −1 =0.1824=18.24%.

d. The rms voltage of the transformer secondary, 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑚 / 2= 0.707Vm.

The rms current of the transformer secondary,
51
The VA rating of the transformer for q = 3 is:

e. The peak inverse voltage of each diode is equal to the peak value of the secondary line-to-line voltage.
The line-to-line voltage is 3 times the phase voltage and thus PIV= 3𝑉𝑚

f. The average current through each diode is:

For q = 3, 𝐼𝐷(𝑎𝑣) = 0.2757𝐼𝑚 . The average current through each diode is 𝐼𝐷(𝑎𝑣) = 30/3 =10 A
and this gives the peak current as 𝐼𝑚 = 10/0.2757 = 36.27 A
52
Fourier series of a q-phase rectifier
a. Express the output voltage of a q-phase rectifier in Figure a in Fourier series.
b. If q = 6, 𝑉𝑚 = 170 V, and the supply frequency is f = 60 Hz, determine the rms value
of the dominant harmonic and its frequency.
Solution
a. The waveforms for q-pulses are shown in Figure b and the frequency of the
output is q times the fundamental component (qf). To find the constants of the
Fourier series, we integrate from -π/q to π/q and the constants are:

After simplification and then using the

following trigonometric relationships,

53
we get:

For a rectifier with q-pulses per cycle, the harmonics of the output voltage are: qth, 2qth, 3qth, and
4qth, and Eq. is valid for n = 0, 1q, 2q, 3q. The term sin(nπ/q) = sin π = 0 and Eq. becomes:

,The dc component is found by letting n = 0 and is:

The Fourier series of the output voltage 𝑉𝑜 is:

Substituting the value of 𝑎𝑛 , we obtain:

b. For q = 6, the output voltage is expressed as:

The sixth harmonic is the dominant one. The rms value of a sinusoidal voltage is 1/ 2 times its peak magnitude,
54

and the rms of the sixth harmonic is 𝑉6ℎ = (0.9549𝑉𝑚 * 2)/(35 * 2) = 6.56 V and its frequency is 𝑓6 = 6f = 360 Hz.
Key points for multiphase rectifier

A multiphase rectifier increases the amount of dc component and lowers the amount
of the harmonic components.

The output voltage of a q-phase rectifier contains harmonics whose frequencies are
multiples of q (q times the supply frequency), qf

55
Three-phase Bridge rectifiers

This is a full-wave rectifier. It gives six-pulse ripples on the

output voltage. The diodes are numbered in order of conduction
sequences and each one conducts for 120°. The conduction
sequence for diodes is D1 - D2, D3 - D2, D3 - D4, D5 - D4, D5 -
D6, and D1 - D6.

The pair of diodes which are connected between that pair

of supply lines having the highest amount of
instantaneous line-to-line voltage will conduct. The line-
to-line voltage is 3 times the phase voltage of a three-
phase Y-connected source.
56
 The average output voltage is found from:

Where 𝑉𝑚 is the peak phase voltage.

The rms output voltage is:

If the load is purely resistive, the peak current through a diode is

𝐼𝑚 = 3𝑉𝑚 /R and the rms value of the diode current is:

57
 and the rms value of the transformer secondary current:

where Im is the peak secondary line current.

For a three-phase rectifier q = 6, Eq. gives the instantaneous output voltage as

• Note: In order to increase the number of pulses in the output voltages to 12, two three-phase
rectifiers are connected in series. The input to one rectifier is a Y-connected secondary of a
transformer and the input to the other rectifier is a delta connected secondary of a transformer.

58
Example: The performance parameters of a three-phase Bridge rectifier
A three-phase bridge rectifier has a purely resistive load of R. Determine:

(a) the efficiency, (b) the FF, (c) the RF, (d) the TUF, (e) the peak inverse (or reverse) voltage (PIV) of
each diode, and (f) the peak current through a diode.

The rectifier delivers 𝐼𝑑𝑐 = 60 A at an output voltage of 𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 280.7 V and the source frequency is 60 Hz.

Solution
a. 𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 1.654𝑉𝑚 and 𝐼𝑑𝑐 = 1.654𝑉𝑚 /R. , 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 1.6554𝑉𝑚 and 𝐼𝑜 (rms) =1.6554𝑉𝑚 /R.

𝑃𝑑𝑐 = (1.654𝑉𝑚 )2 /R, 𝑃𝑎𝑐 =(1.6554𝑉𝑚 )2 /R, the efficiency η = (1.654𝑉𝑚 )2 /(1.6554𝑉𝑚 )2 = 99.83%
b. the FF = 1.6554/1.654 = 1.0008 = 100.08%.
c. the RF = (1.0008)2 −1 = 0.04 = 4%.
d. the rms voltage of the transformer secondary, 𝑉𝑠 = 0.707𝑉𝑚 .
The rms current of the transformer secondary, 𝐼𝑠 = 0.7804 𝐼𝑚 = 0.7804 * 3𝑉𝑚 /R
59

The VA rating of the transformer, VA = 3𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠 = 3 * 0.707𝑉𝑚 * 0.7804 * 3 𝑉𝑚 / R

The VA rating of the transformer, VA = 3𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠 = 3 * 0.707𝑉𝑚 * 0.7804 * 3 𝑉𝑚 / R
Pdc
TUF= ,
VA

The input power factor is:

e. the peak line-to-neutral voltage is 𝑉𝑚 = 280.7/1.654 = 169.7 V.

The peak inverse voltage of each diode is equal to the peak value of the secondary line-toline voltage,
PIV = 3 𝑉𝑚 = 3 * 169.7 = 293.9 V.

f. The average current through each diode is:

The average current through each diode is 𝐼𝑑 (av) = 60/3 = 20 A; therefore, the peak current is
𝐼𝑚 = 20/0.3183 = 62.83 A.

Note: A three-phase bridge rectifier has considerably improved performances compared with those of
60

single-phase rectifiers.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Single Phase and Three-Phase Bridge Rectifiers

61
Three-phase rectifier With a highly inductive load
For a highly inductive load, the load current of a three-phase rectifier will be continuous, with negligible
ripple content. The line current is symmetric at the angle (q = p/6) when the phase voltage becomes zero,
not when the line– line voltage vab becomes zero. Thus, for satisfying the condition of f(x + 2π) = f(x),
the input current can be described by:

which can be expressed in a Fourier series as:

where the coefficients are:

62
 which, after integration and
simplification, gives 𝑏𝑛 as:

Thus, the Fourier series of the input current is given by:

The rms value of the nth harmonic input current is given by:

63
 The rms value of the
fundamental current is:

The rms input current:

Note: If we compare the PF with the load is purely resistive, we can notice that the input PF depends
on the load angle. For a purely resistive load, PF = 0.956.
• With a highly inductive load, the input current of a rectifier becomes an ac square wave. The input
64
power factor of a three-phase rectifier is 0.955, which is higher than 0.9 for a single-phase rectifier.
Comparisons of diode rectifiers

65
Rectifier circuit design
The design of a rectifier involves determining the ratings of
semiconductor diodes. The ratings of diodes are normally specified in
terms of average current, rms current, peak current, and peak inverse
voltage. There are no standard procedures for the design, but it is required
to determine the shapes of the diode currents and voltages.

66
 Rectifier circuit design

We have noticed that the output of the rectifiers contain harmonics. Filters can be used to smooth out the dc
output voltage of the rectifier and these are known as dc filters. The dc filters are usually of L, C, and LC type.

Due to rectification action, the input current of the

rectifier also contains harmonics and an ac filter is
used to filter out some of the harmonics from the
supply system. The ac filter is normally of LC type.

Normally, the filter design requires determining the magnitudes and frequencies of the harmonics.
The steps involved in designing rectifiers and filters are explained by examples.
67
Finding the diode ratings from the diode currents
A three-phase bridge rectifier supplies a highly inductive load such
that the average load current is 𝐼𝑑𝑐 = 60 A and the ripple content is
negligible. Determine the ratings of the diodes if the line to-neutral
voltage of the Y-connected supply is 120 V at 60 Hz.
Solution
The currents through the diodes are shown in Figure. The average
current of a diode 𝐼𝑑 = 60/3 = 20 A. The rms current is:

• Note: The factor of 2 is used to convert rms to peak value. 68

 finding the Diode average and rms
Currents from the Waveforms

The current through a diode is shown in Figure. Determine (a) the rms current and (b) the average diode
current if 𝑡1 =100 μs, 𝑡2 =350 μs, 𝑡3 =500 μs, f = 250 Hz, 𝑓𝑠 = 5 kHz, 𝐼𝑚 = 450 A, and 𝐼𝑎 = 150 A.
Solution
a. The rms value is defined as:

where 𝜔𝑠 = 2π 𝑓𝑠 = 31,415.93 rad/s, 𝑡1 = π/𝜔𝑠 =100 μs, and T= 1/f.

69
b. The average current is found from:

Therefore, the average current becomes:

70
finding the load Inductance to limit the amount of ripple Current
The single-phase bridge rectifier is supplied from a 120 V, 60 Hz
source. The load resistance is R =500 Ω. Calculate the value of a series
inductor L that limits the rms ripple current 𝐼𝑎𝑐 to less than 5% of 𝐼𝑑𝑐 .

Solution
The load impedance : Z = R + j(nωL) = 𝑅2 + (𝑛𝜔𝐿)2 ∠𝜃𝑛 and 𝜃𝑛 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
nωL/R
The instantaneous current is:

the rms value of the

71
ripple current is:
Considering only the lowest order harmonic (n = 2), we have

Using the value of 𝐼𝑑𝑐 and after simplification, the ripple factor is:

For R =500 Ω and f =60 Hz, the inductance value is obtained as:
(0.4714)2 = (0.05)2 [1+(4 × 60 × 𝜋𝐿/500)2 ] and this gives L=6.22 H.

We can notice from above Eq. that an inductance in the load offers a high
impedance for the harmonic currents and acts like a filter in reducing the harmonics.
However, this inductance introduces a time delay of the load current with respect to
the input voltage; and in the case of the single-phase half-wave rectifier, a
freewheeling diode is required to provide a path for this inductive current.
72
finding the filter Capacitance to limit the amount of output ripple voltage

A single-phase bridge-rectifier is supplied from a 120 V, 60 Hz source.

The load resistance is R=500 Ω. (a) Design a C filter so that the ripple
factor of the output voltage is less than 5%. (b) With the value of
capacitor C in part (a), calculate the average load voltage 𝑉𝑑𝑐 .

Solution

1- When the instantaneous voltage 𝑣𝑠 in Figure a is higher than the

instantaneous capacitor voltage 𝑣𝑜 , the diodes (𝐷1 and 𝐷2 or 𝐷3
and 𝐷4 ) conduct; the capacitor is then charged from the supply.

2- If the instantaneous supply voltage 𝑣𝑠 falls below the instantaneous capacitor voltage 𝑣𝑜 , the diodes (𝐷1 and 𝐷2
or 𝐷3 and 𝐷4 ) are reverse biased and the capacitor 𝐶𝑒 discharges through the load resistance 𝑅𝐿 . The capacitor
73
voltage 𝑣𝑜 varies between a minimum 𝑉𝑜(𝑚𝑖𝑛) and maximum value 𝑉𝑜(𝑚𝑎𝑥) . This is shown in Figure b.
The output ripple voltage (the difference between maximum voltage

𝑉𝑜(𝑚𝑎𝑥) and the minimum voltage 𝑉𝑜(𝑚𝑖𝑛) ), can be specified in different

ways as shown in Table 3.5. 𝑡𝑐 is the charging time and that 𝑡𝑑 is the
discharging time of capacitor 𝐶𝑒 . During the charging interval, (Figure c)

the capacitor charges from 𝑉𝑜(𝑚𝑖𝑛) to 𝑉𝑚 . At an angle α (rad/s), the

positive-going input voltage is equal to the minimum capacitor

voltage 𝑉𝑜(𝑚𝑖𝑛) at the end of the capacitor discharge. As the input voltage
rises sinusoidally from 0 to 𝑉𝑚 , the angle α can be determined from:

74
By redefining the time origin (ωt = 0) at π/2 as the beginning of interval 1, we can deduce the
discharging current from the capacitor discharges exponentially through R.

which, with an initial condition of 𝑣𝑐 (ωt = 0) = 𝑉𝑚 , gives:

The instantaneous output (or capacitor) voltage 𝑣𝑜 during the discharging period can be found from:

75
Figure d shows the equivalent circuit during discharging. We can find the
discharging time 𝑡𝑑 or the discharging angle β(rad/s) as:
At t=𝑡𝑑 , 𝑣𝑜 (t) is 𝑉𝑜(𝑚𝑖𝑛) , and we can relate 𝑡𝑑 to 𝑉𝑜(𝑚𝑖𝑛) by:

which gives the discharging time 𝑡𝑑 as:

Therefore, the filter capacitor 𝐶𝑒 can be found from:

Redefining the time origin (ωt = 0) at π/2

when the discharging interval begins, we can
find the average output voltage 𝑉𝑜(𝑎𝑣) from:
76
The equations for C and 𝑉𝑜(𝑎𝑣) are nonlinear. We can derive simple explicit expressions for
the ripple voltage in terms of the capacitor value if we make the following assumptions:
The charging time 𝑡𝑐 is small compared to the discharging time 𝑡𝑑 , that is, 𝒕𝒅 ≫ 𝒕𝒄 which is
generally the case, we can relate 𝑡𝑐 and 𝑡𝑑 to the period T of the input supply as:
t d = T/2 -t c ≈ T/2 = 1/2f
Using Taylor series expansion of 𝑒 −𝑥 = 1 - x for a small value of x≪1, Eq. 𝑉𝑜(𝑚𝑖𝑛)
can be simplified to:

which gives the peak-to-peak ripple voltage 𝑉𝑟(𝑝𝑝) as:

77
Equation can be used to find the value of capacitor 𝐶𝑒 with a reasonable accuracy for most
practical purposes as long as the ripple factor is within 10%. We can observe that the ripple voltage
depends inversely on the supply frequency f, the filter capacitance 𝐶𝑒 and the load resistance 𝑅𝐿 .
If we assume that the output voltage decreases linearly from 𝑉𝑜 (max)(=Vm) to 𝑉𝑜 (min) during the
discharging interval, the average output voltage can be found approximately from:

which, after substituting for 𝑡𝑑 , becomes:

The ripple factor RF can be found from:

78
The peak input voltage 𝑉𝑚 is generally fixed by the supply, where the minimum voltage
𝑉0(𝑚𝑖𝑛) can be varied from almost 0 to 𝑉𝑚 by varying the values of 𝐶𝑒 , f, and 𝑅𝐿 .
Therefore, it is possible to design for an average output voltage 𝑉0(𝑑𝑐) in the range from 𝑉𝑚 /2
to 𝑉𝑚 . We can find the value of capacitor 𝐶𝑒 to meet either a specific value of the minimum
voltage 𝑉0(𝑚𝑖𝑛) or the average output voltage 𝑉0(𝑎𝑣) so that 𝑉0(𝑚𝑖𝑛) = (2𝑉0(𝑎𝑣) - 𝑉𝑚 ).

a. Equation can be solved for 𝐶𝑒 :

→

b. the average output voltage is:

79
Example: finding the values of an LC output filter
to limit the amount of output ripple voltage
An LC filter as shown in Figure c is used to reduce the ripple content of the
output voltage for a single-phase full-wave rectifier. The load resistance is R = 40
Ω, load inductance is L = 10 mH, and source frequency is 60 Hz (or 377 rad/s).
(a) Determine the values of 𝐿𝑒 and 𝐶𝑒 so that the RF of the output voltage is 10%.

Solution
a. The equivalent circuit for the harmonics is shown in Figure. To make
it easier for the nth harmonic ripple current to pass through the filter
capacitor, the load impedance must be much greater than that of the
capacitor. That is:

This condition is generally satisfied by the relation:

80
and under this condition, the effect of the load is negligible. The
rms value of the nth harmonic component appearing on the output
can be found by using the voltage divider rule and is expressed as:

The total amount of ripple voltage due to all harmonics is:

For a specified value of 𝑉𝑎𝑐 and with the value of 𝐶𝑒 from Eq., the value of 𝐿𝑒 can be
computed. We can simplify the computation by considering only the dominant harmonic.
The second harmonic is the dominant one and its rms value is 𝑉2ℎ = 4 𝑉𝑚 /(3 2π) and the
dc value, 𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 2 𝑉𝑚 /π. For n = 2, above Eqs give:

81
The value of the filter capacitor 𝐶𝑒 is calculated from:

the RF is defined as:

82
 Example: finding the values of an LC Input filter to
limit the amount of input ripple current
An LC input filter as shown in Figure is used to reduce the input current
harmonics in a single phase full-wave rectifier. The load current is ripple
free and its average value is Ia. If the supply frequency is f =60 Hz,
determine the resonant frequency of the filter so that the total input
harmonic current is reduced to 1% of the fundamental component.
Solution
Equivalent circuit for the nth harmonic component is shown. The rms value of the nth harmonic current
appearing in the supply is obtained by using the current-divider rule,

where 𝐼𝑛ℎ is the rms value of the nth harmonic current.

The total amount of harmonic current in the supply line is:
83
and the harmonic factor of input current (with the filter) is:

From Eq. above, 𝐼1ℎ = 4𝐼𝑎 / 2 π and 𝐼𝑛ℎ = 4𝐼𝑎 /( 2 nπ) for n = 3, 5, 7, . . . . , we get:

This can be solved for the value of 𝐿𝑖 𝐶𝑖 . To simplify the calculations, we consider only the third:

and the filter frequency is 1/ 𝐿𝑖 𝐶𝑖 = 327.04 rad/s, or 52.05 Hz. Assuming that
𝐶𝑖 =1000 μF, we obtain 𝐿𝑖 = 9.34 mH.
84
• Key points
• The design of a rectifier requires determining the
• diode ratings and the ratings of filter components at the input and output side.
• Filters are used to smooth out the output voltage by a dc filter and to
• reduce the amount of harmonic injection to the input supply by an ac filter.

85