DIODE CIRCUITS AND RECTIFIERS

DIODE CIRCUITS AND RECTIFIERS

A rectifier is a circuit that converts ac input voltage to dc output voltage. Semiconductor
diodes are used extensively in power electronic circuits for the conversion of power from ac
to dc. A rectifier employing diodes is called an uncontrolled rectifier, because its average

output voltage is a fixed de voltage. For simplicity, the diodes are considered as ideal
switches. An ideal diode has no forward voltage drop and reverse recovery time is negligible.
SINGLE-PHASE DIODE RECTIFIERS
Rectification is the process of conversion of alternating input voltage to direct output voltage.
As stated before, a rectifier converts ac power to dc. In diode-based rectifiers, the output
voltage cannot be controlled.
In this section, uncontrolled single-phase rectifiers are studied. The diode is assumed ideal.
1.1. Single-Phase Half-wave Rectifier
This is the simplest type of uncontrolled rectifier. It is never used in industrial applications
because of its poor performance. Its study is, however, useful in understanding the principle
of rectifier operation. In a single-phase half-wave rectifier, for one cycle of supply voltage,
there is one half-cycle of output, or load, voltage. As such, it is also called single-phase one-
pulse rectifier.
The load on the output side of rectifier may be R, C, RE, RL or RL with a flywheel diode.
These are now discussed briefly.
(a) R load: The circuit diagram of a single-phase half-wave rectifier is shown in Fig. 1(a) .
During the positive half cycle, diode is forward biased, it therefore conducts from ωt=0∘ to
ωt=π . During the positive half cycle, output voltage v 0=¿ source voltage v s and load current
i 0=v 0 /R . At ωt=π , v 0=0 and for R load, i 0 is also zero. As soon as v s tends to become
negative after ωt=π , diode D is reverse biased, it is therefore turned off and goes into
blocking state. Output voltage, as well as output current, are zero from ωt=π to ωt=2 π .
After ωt=2 π , diode is again forward biased and conduction begins.
For a resistive load, output current i 0 has the same waveform as that of the output voltage v 0.
Diode voltage v D is zero when diode conducts. Diode is reverse biased from ωt=π to
ωt=2 π as shown. The waveforms of v s , v 0 ,i 0 and v D are sketched in Fig. 1(b). Here source
voltage is sinusoidal i.e., v s=V m sin ⁡ωt . KVL for the circuit of Fig. 1 ( a ) gives v s=v 0+ v D.

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 DIODE CIRCUITS AND RECTIFIERS

(a) (b)
Fig. 1. Single-phase half-wave diode rectifier with R load (a) circuit diagram and (b)
waveforms.
Average value of output (or load) voltage,

[∫ ]
π
1
V0 ¿ ❑V m sin ⁡ωtd (ωt )
2π 0
¿ ¿

[ ]
1/ 2
1 π 2 2
Rms value of output voltage, V ¿ = ∫ V sin ⁡ωt ⋅ d (ωt)
2π 0 m

[∫ ]
π 1 /2
Vm
¿= ❑1−cos ⁡20 ¿ t¿¿ 2 ⋅d (ωt)
√2 π 0

Vm
¿=
2
Here the subscript ' r ' is used to denote rms value.
Average value of load current,
V0 V m
I 0= =
R πR
V ar V m
Rms value of load current, I ¿= =
R 2R
Peak value of load, or diode, current
Vm
¿
R

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 DIODE CIRCUITS AND RECTIFIERS

Peak inverse voltage, PIV, is an important parameter in the design of rectifier circuits PIV is
the maximum voltage that appears across the device (here diode) during its blocking state. In
Fig. 1, PIV ¿ V m= √ 2 ⋅V s=√ 2 (rms value of transformer secondary voltage). Power delivered
to resistive load ¿ (rms load voltage) (rms load current)
2 2
Vm Vm Vm Vs 2
¿ V ¿ ⋅ I ¿= ⋅ = = =I ¿ R
2 2R 4R 2R
Input power factor
Power delivered to load
Input power factor ¿
Input VA
¿ ¿
(b) L load: Single-phase half-wave diode rectifier with L load is shown in Fig. 2 (a).
When switch S is closed at ωt=0, diode starts conducting. KVL for this circuit gives
d i0
v s=v 0=L =V m sin ⁡ωt
dt
or
Vm
¿ í 0=
L
∫ sin ⁡ωt ⋅dt
−V m
¿= cos ⁡ωt+ A
ωL
At ωt=0 ,i 0=0 , ∴
−V m
0= +A
ωL
or
A=V m /ωL

Substitution of the value of A gives

Vm
i 0= (1−cos ⁡ωt )
ωL
Output voltage,
d io Vm
v 0=L =L [sin ⁡ωt ]ω=V m sin ⁡ωt=v s
dt ωL
Source voltage v s and both output voltage v 0 and output current i 0 are plotted in Fig. 2(b).

Average value of output voltage, V 0=0

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 DIODE CIRCUITS AND RECTIFIERS

(a) (b)
Fig. 2. Single-phase one-pulse rectifier with L load (a) circuit diagram and (b) waveforms.
The output current i 0 consists of dc component and fundamental frequency component of
frequency ω .
Peak value of current I max occurs at ωt=π
Vm 2Vm
¿ ∴ I max ≃ (1+ 1)=
ωL ωL
2π
1 Vm
¿ Average value of current, I 0 = ∫ ❑ (1∼ cos ⁡ωt )d (ωt)
2π 0 ωL
V 1
¿= m = I max
ωL 2
Rms value of fundamental current, I 1r is given by
I 1r ¿

Rms value of rectified current

1/2
¿=[ I 20+ I 21 r ]

[ ]
1/ 2
2I 20
¿= I +0 =1.225 I 0
2

Voltage across diode, v D =0.

(c) C Load: In Fig. 3(a), when switch S is closed at ωt=0, the equation governing the
behaviour of the circuit is
d vs d
i 0=C =C ( V s sin ⁡ωt )
dt dt

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 DIODE CIRCUITS AND RECTIFIERS

Fig. 3. Single-phase half-wave diode rectifier with C load (a) circuit diagram and (b)
waveforms.
i 0=ωC V m cos ⁡ωt

Output voltage,
1
v 0=
C
∫ idt=V m sin ⁡ωt =v s=v C
π
Capacitor is charged to voltage V m at ωt= and subsequently this voltage remains constant
2
at V m. This is shown as v 0=v C in Fig. 3(b)

Capacitor current or load current is maximum at ωt=0. Its value at ωt=0 is ωC V m as

shown.
π π
The diode conducts for seconds only from ωt=0 to ωt= . During this interval, diode
2ω 2
voltage is, therefore, zero. After ωt=π /2 , diode voltage v D is given by
v D =−v 0 + v s ¿−V m +V m sin ⁡ωt
¿ ¿
For Eq, the time origin is redefined at ωt=π /2 .
3π
After ωt=π /2 , diode voltage is plotted as shown in Fig. 3 (b). At ωt= , v D =−2V m.
2
Average value of voltage across diode,
2π
1
VD ¿ ∫ ❑V m (sin ⁡ωt−1)d (ωt )
2π 0
¿ ¿

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 DIODE CIRCUITS AND RECTIFIERS

Rms value of fundamental component of voltage across diode,

[ ]
2π 1/ 2
1 Vm
V 1 r= ∫ ❑V 2m sin2 ⁡ωtd (ωt )
2π 0
=
√2
Rms value of voltage across diode

¿ √ V 2D + V 21 r=1.225 V m

Example
A single-phase 230 V , 1 kW heater is connected across single-phase 230 V , 50 Hz supply
through a diode. Calculate the power delivered to the heater element. Find also the peak
diode current and input power factor.
Solution.
2
230
Heater resistance, R= Ω
1000
Rms value of output voltage, from Eq, is

V ¿=
√2 ×230
2
Power absorbed by heater element
2 2
V ¿ 2 ×230 1000
¿ = × 2
=500 W
R 4 230
Peak value of diode current, is given by

√2 ×230 ×1000=6.1478 A
2
230
V ¿ √2 ×230 1
Input power factor ¿ = × =0.707 rag .
Vs 2 230

(d) RE Load: Single-phase half-wave rectifier with load resistance R and load counter emf E
is shown in Fig. 4 (a) . If the switch S is closed at ωt=0∘ or when v s=0 , then diode

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 DIODE CIRCUITS AND RECTIFIERS

(a)

(b)
Fig. 4. Single-phase half-wave diode rectifier with ℜ load.
would not conduct at ωt=0 because diode is reverse biased until source voltage v s equals E .
When V m sin ⁡θ1=E , diode D starts conducting and the turn-on angle θ1 is given by

θ1=sin−1 ⁡ ( ) E
Vm

The diode now conducts from ωt=θ1 to ωt= ( π −θ1 ), i.e. conduction angle for diode is
( π−2θ1 ) as shown in Fig. 4 (b). During the conduction period of diode, the voltage equation
for the circuit is
V m sin ⁡ωt ¿ E+i 0 R
V sin ⁡ωt −E
¿ i0 ¿ m
R
Average value of this current is given by

[∫ ]
π −θ1
1
I0 ¿ ❑ ( V m sin ⁡ωt−E ) d (ωt)
2 πR θ1
¿ ¿
Rms value of the load current of is

[ ]
1 /2

( )
π −θ 1
1 V sin ⁡ωt −E
I¿ ¿
2π
∫ ❑ m
R
⋅d (ωt )
θ1
¿ ¿

[ ]
1 /2
1
2 {( s
¿ V 2 + E 2) ( π −2θ 1 ) +V 2s sin ⁡2θ1 −4 V m E cos ⁡θ1 }
2π R

Power delivered to load,

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 DIODE CIRCUITS AND RECTIFIERS

2
P=E I 0 + I ¿ R watts

Power delivered to load

Power delivered to load
Supply pf ¿
(Source voltage) (rms value of source current)
¿ ¿
It is seen from Fig. 4 (a) that at ωt=0∘ , v D =−E and at ωt=θ1 , v D =0. During the period
diode conducts, v D =0. When ωt=3 π /2 , v s=−V m and v D =−( V m + E ). Thus, PIV for diode is
( V m + E ).
Example.
A dc battery of constant emf E is charged through a resistor as shown in Fig. 4 (a). For
source voltage of 235 V , 50 Hz and for R=8 Ω , E=150 V ,
(a) find the value of average charging current,
(b) find the power supplied to battery and that dissipated in the resistor,
(c) calculate the supply pf,
(d) find the charging time in case battery capacity is 1000 Wh and
(e) find rectifier efficiency and PIV of the diode.
Solution:
(a) The diode will start conducting at an angle θ1, where;
−1 150 ∘
θ1=sin ⁡ =27.466
√2 ×230
Average value of charging current, is

I0 ¿
1
2 π ×8 [
2 ⋅ √ 2× 230 cos ⁡27.466∘−150 π− (
2× 27.466 × π
180 )]
¿ ¿
(b) Power delivered to battery
¿ E I 0=150 ×× 4.9676=745.14 W

Rms value of charging current, is

I ¿=
[ 1
{
2 π × 64 ( )
( 2302+ 1502 ) π−2 × 27.466× π +2302 sin ⁡27.466
180
−4 √ 2 × 230150 cos ⁡27.466 } ] =9.2955 A
∘

Power dissipated in resistor

2
¿ I ¿ R=¿
(c) the supply pf is

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 DIODE CIRCUITS AND RECTIFIERS

745.14+691.25
pf = =0.672lag
230 × 9.2955
(d) (Power delivered to battery) (charging time in hours)
¿ Battery capacity in Wh.
∴ Charging time
(e) Rectifier efficiency
(f) PIV of diode
1000
¿ =1.342 h
745.14
= Power delivered to battery
Total input power
745.14
¿ ×100=51.876 %
745.14+691.25
¿ V m + E=√ 2× 230+150=475.22 V

(e) RL Load: A single-phase one-pulse diode rectifier feeding RL load is shown in Fig. 5(a).
Current i 0 continues to flow-even after source voltage v s has become negative; this is because
of the presence of inductance L in the load circuit. Voltage v R=i0 R has the same waveshape
as that of i 0. Inductor voltage v L =v s−v R is also shown. The current i 0 flows till the two areas
A and B are equal. Area A represents the energy stored by L and area B the energy released
by L. It must be noted that average value of voltage v L across inductor L is zero.

Fig. 5. Single-phase half-wave diode rectifier with RL load (a) circuit diagram and (b)
waveforms.
When i 0=0 at ωt= β ; v L =0 , v R=0 and voltage v s appears as reverse bias across diode D as
shown. At β , voltage v D across diode jumps from zero to V m sin ⁡β where β > π . Here β=γ is
also the conduction angle of the diode.

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 DIODE CIRCUITS AND RECTIFIERS

Average value of output voltage,

β
1
V0 ¿ ∫❑ V m sin ⁡ωt ⋅ d (ωt )
2π 0
¿ ¿
Average value of load or output current
V0 Vm
I 0= = (1−cos ⁡β)
R 2 πR
A general expression for output current i 0 for 0< ωt< β can be obtained as under:
When diode is conducting, KVL for the circuit of Fig. 5(a) gives
d i0
R i 0+ L =V m sin ⁡ωt
dt
The load, or output, current i 0 consists of two components, one steady state component i s and
the other transient component i t . Here i s is given by
Vm
i s= sin ⁡(ωt−ϕ)
√R 2
t X
2

−1 X
where ϕ=tan ⁡ and X =ωL. Here ϕ is the angle by which rms current I s lags V s .
R
The transient component i t can be obtained from force-free equation
d it
R it + L =0
dt
Its solution gives
−R
t
L
i t =A e

Total solution for current i 0 is, therefore, given by

Where;
−R
Vm t
i 0=i s +i t = sin ⁡( ωt−ϕ )+ A e L
Z
Z=√ Rt + X
2 2

Constant A can be obtained from the boundary condition at ωt=0.

At ωt=0, or at t=0 , i 0=0 . Thus,
−V m
0= sin ⁡ϕ + A
Z
V
A= m sin ⁡ϕ
Z

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 DIODE CIRCUITS AND RECTIFIERS

Substitution of A in gives

[ ]
−R
Vm t
i0 ¿ sin ⁡(ωt−ϕ)+sin ⁡ϕ ⋅e L
Z
0 ≤ ωt ≤ β
for 0 ≤ ωt ≤ β
It is also seen from the waveform of i 0 in Fig. 5(b) that when ωt= β , i 0=0. With this
condition, it gives

[
sin ⁡(β−ϕ )+ sin ⁡ϕ ⋅ exp ⁡
−R
ωL ]
β =0

The solution of this transcendental equation can give the value of extinction angle β .
(f) RL load with freewheeling diode: Performance of single-phase one-pulse diode rectifier
with RL load can be improved by connecting a freewheeling diode across the load as shown
in Fig. 6 (a). Output voltage is v 0=v s for 0 ≤ ωt ≤ π . At ωt=π , source voltage v s is zero. but
output current i 0 is not zero because of L in the load circuit. Just afler ωt=π , as v s tends to
reverse, negative polarity of v s reaches cathode of FD through conducting diode D , whereas
positive polarity of v g reaches anode of FD direct. Freewheeling (or flywheel) diode FD,
therefore, gets forward-biased. As a result, load current i 0 is immediately transferred from D
to FD as v s tends to reverse. After ωt=π , diode current i s=0 and it is subjected to reverse
voltage with PIV equal to V m.

Fig. 6. Single-phase one-pulse diode rectifier with RL load and freewheeling diode
(a) circuit diagram and (b) waveforms.
After ωt=π , current freewheels through circuit RL and FD. The energy stored in L is now
dissipated in R . When energy stored in L=¿ energy dissipated in R , current falls to zero at
ωt= β<2 π . Depending upon the value of R and L, the current may not fall to zero even when

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 DIODE CIRCUITS AND RECTIFIERS

ωt=2 π , this is called continuous conduction. But in Fig. 6 (b), load current decays to zero
before ωt=2 π ; load current is therefore discontinuous.
The effects of using freewheeling diode are as under:
(i) It prevents the output (or load) voltage from becoming negative.
(ii) As the energy stored in L is transferred to load R through FD , the system efficiency is
improved.
(iii) The load current waveform is smoother; the load performance is therefore improved.
The waveforms for v s , v 0 ,i 0 , v D ,i s and i fd are drawn in Fig. 6 (b).

The expression for the load current i 0 can be obtained from Art. 6.1 .2 if required. It is seen
from Fig. 6 (b) that
average output voltage,
π
1 Vm
V 0= ∫
2π 0
❑ V m sin ⁡ωtd (ωt)=
π

and average load current,

Vm
I 0=
πR
(g) Single-phase full-wave diode rectifier: There are two types of full-wave diode rectifiers,
one is centre-tapped (or mid-point) full-wave diode rectifier and the other is full-wave diode
bridge rectifier. These are now described briefly. (i) Single-phase full-wave mid-point diode
rectifier: Fig. 7 (a) illustrates a single-phase full-wave mid-point rectifier using diodes. The
turns ratio from each secondary to primary is taken as unity for simplicity. When ' a ' is
positive with respect to ' b '; diode D1 conducts for π radians. In the next half cycle, ' b ' is
positive with respect to ' a ' and therefore diode D2 conducts

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 DIODE CIRCUITS AND RECTIFIERS

Fig. 7. Single-phase full-wave mid-point diode rectifier (a) circuit diagram and (b)
waveforms.
The output voltage is shown as v 0 in Fig. 7(b). The waveform for output current i 0 (not
shown in the figure) is similar to v 0 waveform. When ' a ' is positive with respect to ' b ',
diode D 2 is subjected to a reverse voltage of 2 v s. In the next half cycle, diode D1
experiences a reverse voltage of 2 v s. This is shown in Fig. 7(b). Thus, for diodes D1 and D2,
peak inverse voltage is 2 V m. Waveforms of Fig. 7(b) show that for one cycle of source
voltage, there are two pulses of output voltage. So single-phase full-wave diode rectifier can
also be called single-phase two-pulse diode rectifier.

1 π 2Vm
Average output voltage, V 0= ∫ 0 V m sin ⁡ωtd(ωt)=
π π
V0
Average output current, I 0=
R

[ ]
1/ 2
1 π 2 2
Rms value of output voltage, V ¿ = ∫ V sin ⁡ωtd (ωt )
π 0 m
Vm
¿ =V s
√2
Vs
Rms value of load current, I ¿=
R
Power delivered to load
2
¿ V ¿ ⋅ I ¿=I ¿ ⋅ R
Input voltamperes
¿V s ⋅ I¿

∴ Input
V ¿⋅ I¿
pf = =1
V s ⋅ I¿

(ii) Single-phase full-wave diode bridge rectifier: A single-phase full-wave bridge rectifier
employing diodes is shown in Fig. 8(a). When ' a ' is positive with respect to ' b ', diodes D1,
D2 conduct together so that output voltage is v ab. Each of the diodes D3 and D4 is subjected
to a reverse voltage of v s as shown in Fig. 8(b), When ' b ' is positive with respect to ' a ',
diodes D3, D4 conduct together and output voltage is v ba. Each of the two diodes D1 and D2
experience a reverse voltage of v s as shown.

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 DIODE CIRCUITS AND RECTIFIERS

Fig. 8. Single-phase full-wave diode brdidge rectifier (a) circuit diagram and (b) waveforms.
A comparison of Figs. 7(b) and 8 (b) reveals that a diode in mid-point full-wave rectifier is
subjected to PIV of 2 V m whereas a diode in full-wave bridge rectifier has PIV of V m only.
Three-phase bridge rectifiers using diodes are discussed in Chapter 5. Example 3.7 is
formulated to illustrate the effect of reverse recovery time on the average output voltage.
Example.
In a single-phase full-wave diode bridge rectifier, the diodes have a reverse recovery time of
40 μ s. For an ac input voltage of 230 V , determine the effect of reverse recovery time on the
average output voltage for a supply frequency of (a) 50 Hz and (b) 2.5 kHz .
Solution.
Single-phase full-wave diode bridge rectifier is shown in Fig. 8(a) and output voltage v 0 is
shown in Fig. 8(b). If reverse recovery time is taken into consideration, the diodes D1 and
π
D2 will not be off at ωt=π in Fig. 8(b), but will continue to conduct until t= +t rr as
ω
depicted in Fig.9.

Fig. 9. Effect of reverse recovery time on output voltage.

The reduction in output voltage is given by the cross-hatched area. Average value of this
reduction in output voltage is given by

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 DIODE CIRCUITS AND RECTIFIERS

t rr
1
V r = ∫ ❑V m sin ⁡ωtd(ωt)
π 0

Vm
¿
π
( 1−cos ⁡ω t rr )

2 √ 2× 230
With zero reverse recovery time, average output voltage, is V 0= =207.04 V
π
(a) For f =50 Hz and t rr =40 μ s, the reduction in the average output voltage, is
Vm
Vr ¿
π
( 1−cos ⁡2 πf t rr )
¿ ¿ 8.174 mV
Percentage reduction in average output voltage
−3
8.174 ×10 −3
¿ ×100=3.948 ×10 %
207.04
(b) For f =2500 Hz , the reduction in the average output voltage, is

Vr ¿ √
2 ×230
π (
1−cos ⁡2 π × 2500 ×40 × 10−6 ×
180
π )
¿ ¿
19.77
Percentage reduction in average output voltage ¿ × 100=9.594 % .
207.04
It is seen from above that the effect of reverse recovery time is negligible for diode operation
at 50 Hz , but for high-frequency operation of diodes, the effect is noticeable.
Example.
A single-phase full bridge diode rectifier is supplied from 230 V , 50 Hz source. The load
consists of R=10 Ω and a large inductance so as to render the load current constant.
Determine
(a) average values of output voltage and output current,
(b) average and rms values of diode currents,
(c) rms values of output and input currents, and supply pf:
Solution.
The circuit diagram and relevant waveforms for this uncontrolled rectifier are shown in Fig.
10.
(a) Average value of output voltage,
2 V m 2 √ 2 ×230
V 0= = =207.04 V
π π
Average value of output current,

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 DIODE CIRCUITS AND RECTIFIERS

V 0 207.04
I 0= = =20.704 A
R 10
(b) Average value of diode current,
I 0 ⋅ π I 0 20.704
I DAV = = = =10.352 A
2π 2 2

Rms value of diode current, I D = r

√ I 0 π I 0 20.704
= =
2 π √2 √2
=14.642 A

¿
Fig. 10. Pertaining to Example (a) circuit diagram and (b) waveforms.
As load, or output, current is ripple free, rms value of output current ¿ average value of
output current ¿ I 0=20.704 A

Rms value of source current, I s=

√ I 20 π
π
=I 0=20.704 A

Load power ¿ V 0 I 0 =207.04 ×20.704 W

Input power ¿ V s I s cos ⁡ϕ

∴
230 ×20.704 ×cos ⁡ϕ=207.04 × 20.704
207.04
∴ Supply pf ¿ cos ⁡ϕ= =0.90 lagging.
230
Example.
A diode whose internal resistance is 20 Ω is to supply power to a 1000 Ω load from a 230 V
(rms) source of supply. Calculate (a) the peak load current (b) the dc load current (c) the dc
diode voltage (d) the percentage regulation from no load to given load.
Solution.
A voltage of 230 V supplying power to 1000 Ω , through a single diode, is shown in Fig.
11(a). Waveforms for the source voltage, load current i 0 and diode voltage v D are shown in
Fig. 11( b).
(a) It is seen from the waveform of i 0 that peak load current I om is given by
Vm √2 ×230 =0.3189 A
I om= =
R + Ŕ D 1020

Here R=¿ load resistance and R D=¿ internal resistance of diode.

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 DIODE CIRCUITS AND RECTIFIERS

Fig. 11. Pertaining to Example (a) circuit diagram and (b) waveforms.
1 π
(b) DC load current, I 0= ∫ I sin ⁡ωtd (ωt )
2 π 0 om
I om
¿ =0.10151 A
π
1 π
(c) DC diode voltage, V D=I 0 R D − ∫ 230 √2 sin ⁡ωtd (ωt )
2π 0
Vm 230 √ 2
¿ I 0 RD− =0.10151× 20− =−101.5 V
π π
V m √ 2× 230
(d) At no load, load voltage, V on= = =103.521 V
π π
230 √ 2 1000
At given load, load voltage, V 01= × =101.491 V
π 1020
V on−V 01 103.521−101.491
∴ Voltage regulation ¿ ×100= =1.961 %.
V on 103.521

2. ZENER DIODES
Zener diodes are specially constructed to have accurate and stable reverse breakdown
voltage.
Circuit symbol for Zener diode is shown in Fig. 12(a). When it is forward biased, it behaves
as a normal diode. When reverse biased, a small leakage current flows. If the reverse voltage
across Zener diode is increased, a value of voltage is reached at which reverse breakdown
occurs. This is indicated by a sudden increase of Zener current, Fig. 12(b). The voltage after
reverse breakdown remains practically constant over a wide range of Zener current. This
makes it suitable for use as a voltage regulator to furnish constant voltage from a source
whose voltage may vary noticeably.

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 DIODE CIRCUITS AND RECTIFIERS

For the operation of Zener diode as a voltage regulator, (i) it must be reverse biased with a
voltage greater than its breakdown, or Zener, voltage and (ii) a series resistor R s, Fig. 12 (c) is
necessary to limit the reverse current through the diode below its rated value.

Fig. 12. Zener diode (a) circuit symbol (b) V-I characteristics (c) use as a voltage regulator.
If V z=¿ voltage across Zener diode, then it is seen from Fig. 12(c ) that source current I s is
V s −V z
I s=
Rs
Vz
Load, or output, current, I 0= where R=¿ load resistance. Current through Zener diode,
R
I z =I s−I 0

Power rating of a Zener diode is V Z ⋅ I Z . These are available in a voltage range from few volts
to about 280 V .
Example.
Design a Zener voltage regulator, shown in Fig. 13, to meet the following specifications:
Load voltage ¿ 6.8 V , Source voltage V s is 20 V ± 20 % and load current is 30 mA ± 50 %.
The Zener requires a minimum current of 1 mA to breakdown. The diode D has a forward
voltage drop of 0.6 V .

Fig. 13. Pertaining to Example.

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 DIODE CIRCUITS AND RECTIFIERS

Solution.
When source voltage is maximum and load current is minimum, then source resistance
should be maximum.
∴ V s ⋅ =V L + ( I L⋅ + I z ) R s ⋅
(20 ×0.8)−6.8
∴ R s ⋅= =1075 Ω
[30 × 0.5+1]×10−3
Similarly,
V s ⋅ =V L + ( I L⋅ + I z ) Rs ⋅
(20 ×0.8)−6.8
∴ R s ⋅= −9
=200 Ω
[30 ×1.5+ 1]× 10
Maximum load resistance,
VL 6.8
R L⋅ = = =453.3 Ω
I L⋅ 30× 0.5 ×10−3
VL 6.8
Minimum load resistance, R L⋅min = = −3
=151.5 Ω The voltage rating or the
I L⋅ mex 30 ×1.5 ×10
Zener diode is
6.8−0.6=6.2 V .
Example
.The complete circuit shown in Fig. 14 (a) represents a 25 V dc voltmeter where G is a
PMMC galvanometer having full-scale deflection current I fad =200 micro-A and resistance
RG =500 ohms , and D is a 20-V Zener diode. Find R1 and R2. What is the function of the
diode D in this circuit?
Solution.
Current through galvanometer,
Zener voltage
I fsd =I 2=
R 2+ R G

or
or
20 −6
¿ 200 ×10
R 2+ 500
6
20 × 10
R2 ¿ −500=99.5 kΩ
200

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 DIODE CIRCUITS AND RECTIFIERS

Fig. 14. Pertaining to Example above.

As Zener diode current is not specified, let it be assumed zero.

∴
I 1−I 2=I 2=0 or I 1=I 2=200 μ A

Also
25−20 −6
I 1= =200 × 10
R1

or
6
5 ×10
R 1= =25 kΩ
200
Function of Zener diode is to provide a constant voltage to the galvanometer circuit.
Whenever voltage across this diode exceeds 20 V , it conducts and the excess current is
shunted away from galvanometer G . So here diode D prevents overloading of the PMMC
galvanometer.

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