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UNIT 07 » CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Electric Current:
 Rate of flow of charges is called electric current or charge passing through cross
section area of the conductor per unit time is called current.
 Average current is given as
Voltage represents energy for every 
Q one coulomb of charge
laV 
t
Current represents flow of charge in 
 Slope of Q-t graph represent the every second
current

 Current is a scalar quantity.

Remember
 Current is a base quantity and its SI unit is ampere
( A  Cs 1 ) Current has direction but still it
is a scalar quantity
 Current is one ampere if one coulomb charge is
passing through conductor in one second.
 If ‘n’ is number of electrons (or protons) passing
through a point in time t then Q =ne and average Note:
current is One ampere current means
ne
l 6.25 1018 electrons are passing
t
through a conductor in one
second.

Charge Carriers:

Substance Metals Electrolytes Gases Semi-conductors

Charge carriers Free electron Positive and Ions and free e  Free electrons
negative ions and J holes

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Conventional Current: Electronic Current:

Equivalent current due to flow of positive Current due to flow of electrons (negative
charge carriers from high potential to low charge carriers) from low potential to high
potential is called conventional current. potential is called current.

Other Types of Current:

I. Steady current (D.C) II. Pulsating (D.C) III. Alternating Current (A.C)

Current Though Metallic Conductor:

 In metallic conductors charge carriers are free electrons.
 Free electrons are in state of random motion like gas molecules, electrons collide with
each other and with lattice atoms and thus they change their direction.
 Thermal velocity of electrons is several 100 km/s
 When no potential difference is applied across conductor
 Average velocity of electrons is zero
 Net flow of electrons is zero
 Current through conductor is zero.
 When p.d is applied across the conductor.

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 An electric field is produced in the conductor which exerts force on electrons in

opposite direction of electric field.
 Electrons are still in state of random motion but flow of electrons towards high
potential (+ve) is greater than flow of electrons towards low potential (-ve) and thus
net flow is not zero.
 Electrons are drifted towards high potential and an electric current passes through
conductor.

Drift Velocity:
“Average velocity gained by electrons when a potential difference is applied across the
conductor is called drift velocity.”
 Drift velocity is of the order of 103 m / s or 1mms 1
 Drift velocity of electrons is always opposite to
direction of electric field.

1 OR V
a Vd  Vd 
neA RneA

(n is number of charge carriers per unit volume)

Information: when eel senses danger, it turns itself into a living battery. The potential
difference between head and tail of an electric eel can be up to 600V.

Current Though Metallic Conductor:

[Source of Current:

A device which maintains a constant Ideal current source:

potential difference across the two ends of a A current source which maintains a constant
conductors is called source of current. current irrespective of load resistance is called
Source of current converts some non-electrical ideal current source.
energy into electrical energy. Its internal resistance is infinite

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Source of current Cell/Battery Generator Thermocouple Solar cell

Converts Chemical energy Mechanical Heat energy into Light energy into
into electrical energy into electrical energy electrical energy
energy electrical energy

Ideal voltage source: Remember

A voltage source whose output Three conditions are needed for the flow of current
voltage is independent of
Charge carriers .I
current drawn from it is called
ideal voltage source. Potential difference .II
Its internal resistance is zero. Close Circuit .III

EFFECTS OF CURRENT
Heating Effect:
 Current passing through a conductor produces heat in the conductor.
 When current passes through conductor electrons collide with atoms and transfer some
energy to atoms thus average K.E of atoms increases and temperature of conductor
increases.
 Applications: Electric heater, electric stove, electric kettle, electric iron, filament bulb,
toaster etc.
Joule’s Law of Heating:
When current l is passing through conductor of
resistance R for time t then heat produced in
conductor is given as
H  l 2 Rt
Magnetic Effect:
 Current passing through the conductor produces magnetic field around the conductor.
 Strength of magnetic field depends upon amount of current and distance from the wire.
 Pattern of magnetic field depends upon shape of conductor.
 Applications: Voltmeter, ammeter, galvanometer, motors, electromagnets, speaker etc.
Chemical Effect:
Current passing through electrolyte produces chemical changes in it.

Electrolytes:

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Liquid which can conduct electricity are called electrolytes.

Electrodes:
Rods, plates or wires which load current into electrolyte and out
of electrolyte are called electrodes.
Anode: Electrode connected to +ve terminal of battery.
Cathode: Electrode connected to –ve terminal of battery.

Voltmeter: Vessel containing the electrolyte At Anode: SO4 2 ions move towards the anode
and electrodes is called voltmeter. and remove one cell atom of anode.
 When CuSO4 is dissolved in water it SO4 2  Cu  CuSO4  2e 
splits up into Cu 2  SO4 2 and SO4 2 ions. Electroplating: Process of coating a thin layer
2 2
CuSO4  Cu  SO4 of some expensive metal on an article of
At Cathode: Cu 2 ions ,move towards the cheap metal is called electroplating.
cathode and get deposit there
Cu 2  2e  Cu ‫یاد رکھیں‬
The metal to be electroplated is made
cathode

OHM’S LAW
“Current passing through conductor is directly proportional to potential difference applied
across the conductor provided that physical conditions (Area, length, volume temperature,
strain etc) are constant.”
V
l  Vorl 
R
 V  lR

Where R is constant and known as resistance of conductor.

Resistance:
Resistance is measure of opposition in the flow of electrons due to their continuous bumping
with atoms of the lattice.
Resistance of a conductor is
V independent of applied voltage and
R
l current passing through the circuit.

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volt
 SI unit of resistance is ohm (ohm  )
ampere

 Resistance is one ohm if one ampere current passes through in one second.
 In terms of base units the unit of resistance is kgm2 s 3 A2
(dimensions = [ ML2T 3 A2 ])

Ohmic Devices:
Devices which obey the Ohm’s law are called ohmic devices. I-V graph for Ohmic devices is
 Conductance is reciprocal of resistance a straight line.

1
Conductance 
resis tan ce

 Resistance and conductance of an ohmic device

remains constant.
 Resistors and metallic wires for constant temperature
are ohmic. Slope of I-V graph represents
the conductance.

Non-Ohmic Devices:
 Devices which do not obey Ohm’s law are called non-ohmic devices.
 I-V graph for non-ohmic devices is not a straight line (non-linear)
 Slope of I-V graph represents the conductance.
 Resistance and conductance of a non-ohmic device does not remains constant.
 Filament bulb, diodes, discharge tubes transistors, capacitors, inductor etc. are non-
ohmic devices.

Series Combination:
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If resistors are connected end to end such that same current is passing through all of them this
combination is known as series combination.

)if resistors are connected in same path they are said to be connected in series)(

Current passing through each resistor is same

V
l1 l1  l2 
l1  l2  l and 1 Req
l2

There will be more voltage drop in

 Voltage is divided among the resistors high resistances, hence more power
will be dissipated
V  V1  V2

 As l = constant & V=lR  V R

 As l = constant & P  l 2 R  PR

Voltage Divider Rules:

If two resistance R1 and R2 are in series with voltage V then

and
R1
V1  V R2
R1  R2 V2  V
R1  R2

Example:
Two resistance R1  2 and R2  4 are connected in series with a Solution:
12V battery R2
V2 
then voltage drop across 4 resistor will be R1  R2
4
(a) 2V (b) 4V   12  8V
42
(c) 6V (d) 8V

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Equivalent Resistance:
If ‘n’ number of resistors are connected in series then
1. Req  nR
2. Req  R1  R2   Rn
3. Req  Rmax
4. To increase the resistance, resistors are connected in series.
Example: 1. Re q  R1  R2  2  4   55
If two resistors R1  2 and R2  4 are V 12
2. l  l1  l2    2A
connected in series are as shown in the figure Re q 6
below: R1 2 2
3. V1  V (12)  (12)  4V
R1  R2 24 6
R2 4 4
4. V2  V (12)  (12)  8V
R1  R2 24 6
V1 R1 2 1
5.   
V2 R2 4 2
l1 2
6.  1
l2 2

7. P1  l 2 R1  (2)2 (2)  4  2  8W
P2  l 2 R2  (2) 2 (4)  4  4  16W

Parallel Combination:
If resistors are connected side by side such that
same P.d is applied across all of them then this
combination is known as parallel combination.

 Voltage across each resistor is same V1  V2  V

 Current is divided l  l1  l2

 As V
l in parallel combination less current
R will pass through the higher resistance
hence smaller will be the power
dissipation

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V2
 As P
R

Current Divider Rule:

If two resistor R1 and R2 are connected in parallel
with total current l, then current through each other
is given as
R2 R1
l1  l and l2  l
R1  R2 R1  R2

Equivalent Resistance:

if ‘n’ number of resistors are connected in series then

R
1. Req 
n
R1 R2 product of resis tan ce
2. Req  
R1  R2 sum of reis tan ce
1 1 1 1
3.    
Req R1 R2 Rn

4. To decrease the resistance, resistors are connected in parallel.

5. Rser n2 Rprallel ( Req  Rmin imum )

Rseries = Equivalent resistance when resistors are connected.

R parallel = Equivalent resistance when resistors are connected in parallel.

Example: R1  R2 100  400

1. Re q    80
If two resistors R1  1000andR2  400 are R1  R2 500

connected in parallel then 2. V1  V2  V  20V

V 20 V
3. l1    0.2 A, l2   0.05 A
B1 100 R2

V 2 20  20 V 2 20  20
4. P1    4W , P2    1W
R1 100 R1 400
l1 R2 400 4
5.   
l2 R1 100 1
V1 20
6.  1
V2 20

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PRACTICE EXAMPLES
Example 1: Solution:
Find equivalent resistance between the points
A and B

R
R1  (resistors have same values)
2

Example 2: Solution:
Find equivalent resistance between the points
A and B

R1  10  20  30
20  30
Req   12
20  30
Example 3: Solution:
Find equivalent resistance between the points
A and B

R1  R  R  R  3R
R  3R 3R
Req  
R  3R 4

Example 4:
Solution:
Find equivalent resistance between the points
A and B

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R1  R  R  2 RandR1  R  R  2 R
2R
Req  R
2

Example 5: Solution:
Find equivalent resistance between the points
A and B

R1  20  30  50andR2  40  60  100
50  100 100
Req  
50  100 3

Example 6: Solution:
Find equivalent resistance between the points
A and B

R1  R  R  R  3R
R  3R 3R
R2  
R  3R 4
3R 7 R
Req  R  
4 4

Example 7: Solution:
Find equivalent resistance between the points
A and B

2
R1  1 and R2  1  4  5
2
2  5 10
R3  
25 7
10 66
Req  4  4  
7 7

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Example 8: Solution:
Find equivalent resistance between the points
A and B

R1  R  R  2 RandR2  R  R  2 R
1 1 1 1
  
Req R 2 R 2 R
R
Req 
2
Example 9: Solution:
Find equivalent resistance between the points
A and B

R
Req  (resisters have same value)
3

Example 10: Solution:

Find equivalent resistance between the points
A and B

R1  4  2  16 and R2  2  6  8
8  16 16
Req  
8  16 3
Example 11: Solution:
Find equivalent resistance between the points
A and B

R1  R  R  2 R and R2  R  R  2 R
2R
Req  R
2

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PRACTICE EXAMPLES
TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF RESISTIVITY
PRATICE EXAMP
LResistance:
It is found that resistance of a conductor is Resistance is property of a wire and it
directly proportional to length of conductor depends upon.
and inversely proportional to cross-sectional I. Length of conductor
area of the conductor
II. Area of conductor
III. Temperature of conductor
L
R or R
pL
IV. Nature of material
A A

Relation with length Relation with area of Relation with radius Relation with
of wire wire of wire diameter of wire
RL L 1 1
R R R
A r2 d2

Example:
If a wire is stretched to twice of its length then its
resistance will become
Remember
(a) Double (b) Half
(c) Four Times (d) One Fourth When a wire is stretched its length
will increase & area will decrease in
Solution: same proportion.
L
If length is doubled, area will become half R 
A
So resistance will become 4-times
Example: Solution:
If a wire of resistance R is cut into three equal parts If wire is cut into three equal parts
and these parts are connected in parallel then its R
then resistance of each part is by
3
equivalent resistance will become
R/3 R
R connecting in parallel Req  
(a) R (b) 3 9
3
R Solution:
(c) (d) 3R
9 R1  4  4  8
48 8
Req 
48 3

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Example:
If a wire of resistance 12 ohm is bent along the sides of
an equilateral triangle then the resistance between its any two vertices will be
4
(a) 6 ohm (b) ohm
3
8
(c) ohm (d) 4 ohm
3
Note:
As triangle has three sides so resistance of each side
12
4
3
Example: Solution:
If a wire of resistance 12 ohm is bent along the sides of
R1  3  3  6
a square then the resistance along diagonal will be R2  3  3  6
(a) 9 ohm (b) 6ohm 6
Req  3
(c) 4 ohm (d) 3 ohm 2

Note:
12
As square four sides so resistance of each side = 3
3
Example:
If a wire of resistance 20 ohm is bent along the circle then Solution:
the resistance along diameter will be
10
(a) 5 ohm (b) 10 ohm Req  5
2
(c) 20 ohm (d) 40 ohm

Conductance:
 Reciprocal of resistance is called Conductance is property of a wire and it
conductance depends upon
I. Length of conductor
1 A
G  II. Area of conductor
R pL
III. Temperature of conductor
 Unit of conductance is ohm1 or mho or IV. Nature of material
simen

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Relation with length Relation with area of Relation with radius Relation with
of wire wire of wire diameter of wire
1 G A G  r2 G  d2
G
L

Resistivity or Specific Resistance:

 Resistance of a meter cube of a Dependence:
material is called resistivity or specific  Resistivity is property of material and it
resistance. is independent of length, area or
dimensions of conductor.
RA
p  Resistivity only depends upon
l
temperature and nature of material.
 SI unit of resistivity is ohm-m
(kgm3 sA2 ) and dimensions are

[ ML3T 3 A2 ]

Remember
Resistivity is constant of proportionality and it does not
depends on other physical quantities

Conductivity:
 Reciprocal of resistivity is called Dependence:
conductivity.  Conductivity is property of material

1

L and it is independent of length, area or
p RA dimensions of conductor.
 Conductivity only depends upon
 Its SI unit ohm1m1 (kg 1m3 s3 A2 ) temperature and nature of material.

Temperature Dependence:
By increasing temperature, average K.E of atoms increases due to which the amplitude of
vibrations of atoms increases thus probability of collisions of electrons with atoms increases.
Since resistance is due to collision of electrons with atoms hence resistivity or resistance of
conductor increases by increasing temperature.
 Resistance or resistivity of metals increase linearly

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with temperature.

Temperature Coefficient of Resistance:

Fractional change in resistance per Kelvin is  For all metals (Cu, Al, Fe etc)  is
called temperature coefficient of resistance. [positive which means by increasing
Rr  R temperature their resistance increases
 (conductance decreases).
Rt

 Its SI unit is K 1  For semi-conductors insulators and

electrolytes (C, Si, Ge)  is negative
 It only depends upon nature of which means by increasing
material. temperature their resistance
decreases(and conductance increases)

Temperature Coefficient of Resistivity:

Fractional change is resistivity per Kelvin is called temperature
coefficient of resistivity.
Remember
Pt  P
 Higher Value of alpha means a slight change in
Pt
 temperature will cause large changes in resistance

 It SI unit is K 1

ELECTRICAL POWER

Electrical Power:
“Energy supplied by cell or battery per unit is called electrical power of the battery or cell.”

Energy sup plied

P P  Vl
Time Or

Charge q move from high potential to low potential and

dissipates its energy across resistance R and comes to low
potential. Battery supplies the energy to charge and move it
from low potential to high potential.

Power Dissipated Across Resistor:

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Power supplied by the battery is equal to power dissipated

across the resistor R
P  l 2 R Is for resistors connected in series
V2
Pdts  Vl or Pdts  l 2 R or Pdts  V2
R P is for resistors connected in parallel
R

Series Combination of Power:

If ‘n’ number of devices are connected in series then,
P
1. Peq 
n
P1 P 2 product of power
2. Peq  
P1  P2 sum of power
1 1 1 1
3.    
Peq P1 P2 Pn

4. Peq  Pmin

5. To decreases the power devices are connected in

series.

Example:
Two filament bulbs having power rating 100 W and 200 W
are connected in series. Then equivalent power will be? Solution:

a) 66 W (b) 150 W P1 P2 100  200

Peq   66W
P1  P2 3
(c) 240 W (d) 300 W

Parallel Combination:
If ‘n’ number of devices are connected in parallel then,
Peq  nP

Peq  P1  P2  Pn
1.
Peq  Pmax

2. To increase the power devices are connected in parallel.

Example:
Solution:
Two filament bulbs having power rating 200 W and 500 W are
Peq  P1  P2
 200  500  700W
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connected in parallel. Then equivalent power will be about?

(a) 140 W (b) 250 W
(c) 350 W (d) 700 W

Remember
Our home appliances are connected in parallel hence .1
voltage drop is same across every appliance.
V2 1
P or P  Power rating mentioned on appliances are for paralle .2
R R combination
Appliances with higher power ratings have low resitance, .3
P  thicknessoffilament hence will draw more current
P  Vl or P  l

In parallel combination if a load is removed, turned off or burnt,

other loads will net be effected

Example:
If three bulb B1 , B2 and B3 are connected with a battery as shown
In the figure. If B1 is burnt then what is effect on brightness
of B2 and B3
(a) increases (b) decreases
(c) remain same (d) become zero

series ‫ کرنے سے‬remove ‫ یا‬add device ‫کوئی بھی‬ ‫ ہونے سے یا نبد ہونے سے‬burn ‫ کے‬B1 
‫ پر ہمیشہ فرق پڑے گا ۔‬device ‫میں لگے‬ ‫ بند ہوجائے گا۔جس کی وجہ‬flow ‫ کا‬current
‫ بھی بند ہوجائیں گے‬B2 or B3 ‫سے‬
‫ کم ہوجائے گا اور‬total current ‫ بڑھ جائے تو‬Req ‫اگر‬
‫ کم ہوجائے گی۔‬brightness ‫ کی‬B3 ‫ ہوجائے تو‬burn ‫ کے‬B2 ‫اگر‬ 
‫ پر کوئی فرق نہی پڑے گا لیکن‬brightness
‫ بڑھ جائے گا‬total current ‫ کم ہوجائے تو‬Req ‫اگر‬
‫ زیادہ‬equivalent resistance ‫ کی‬circuit
‫زیادہ ہوجائے گی۔‬brightness ‫اور‬ ‫ کم ہوجائے گا‬total current ‫ہونے کی وجہ سے‬
‫ کم ہوجائے گی ۔‬brightness ‫ کی‬B3 ‫اور‬

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ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE

Energy supplied by battery per unit charge is called

electromotive force or EMF of battery

Energy sup plied ‫ چارج کو‬Coulomb ‫ ہر‬Battery ‫یاد رکھیں‬

EMF 
Ch arg e ‫کہالئے‬EMF ‫ مہیا کرے گی وہ‬energy ‫جتنی‬
 It is a scalar quantity. ‫ہر‬battery ‫ کی‬V12 ‫گی ۔ مثال کے طور ہر‬
‫ انرجی مہیا کرے‬12 J ‫ چارج کو‬Coulomb
 Ist SI unit is volt ( Jc 1  kgm2 s 3 A1 ) ‫گی ۔‬
 Its dimensions are [ ML2T 3 A1 ]

Internal Resistance:
Resistance due to presence of electrolyte Dependence:
between the electrodes is called internal I. Distance between electrodes (r  d )
resistance. It is denoted by ‘r’
1
 EMF and internal resistance act in II. Area between electrodes (r  )
A
series.
III. Nature or concentration of electrolyte
IV. temperature

 Internal resistance of an ideal voltage

source is zero.

Three Important Cases:

1. Closed Circuit:
Consider an external resistance R is connected across
a battery of EMF ‘E’ and internal resistance ‘r’
 Current drawn from the battery is

E
l
rR

 Potential drop across external resistance or terminal

potential difference is
Vt  lR

 Potential drop across internal resistance is ‘lr’

 Equation of cell/battery when it is discharging
is
E  Vt  lr

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 Power dissipated in external resistance

Vt 2 E2 R
is P  Vt l  l 2 R  
R (r  R) 2

 Output power drawn from battery is

maximum when R=r
(internal resistance = external resistance)

E2 E2
Pmax  ‫ ا‬Pmax 
4r 4r

 Current drawn from battery is maximum when R = r

E E
lmax  lmax 
2r 2R

 When R = r terminal potential is half of EMF

E Note: when battery is being charged

Yt 
2 i.e. current is given to battery then
Vt  E  lr and Vt  E

The graph between Terminal Potential and For x-intercept V=0

current is a straight line E
S E  lt or r 
t
For y-intercept l=0
Vt  E
‫ دونوں معلوم‬Internal resistance ‫ اور‬EMF ‫گراف سے‬
‫کیے جاسکتے ہیں ۔‬
2. Open Circuit:
When no current is being drawn from battery or cell it is
said to be open circuit:
 Current through circuit = 0
 Terminal potential difference is equal to (Vt  E )
 Potential drop across internal resistance and
external resistance is zero. R
3. Short Circuit:

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When two terminals of cell or battery are joined together

by thick wire.
 Maximum current is drawn from battery

E
lmax 
r

 Terminal potential difference is zero (V=0)

GROUPING OF CELLS
1. Series Grouping:
If opposite terminals are connected with each other. Equivalent EMF is given as
Eeq  E1  E2  E3

Equivalent internal resistance is given as

req  r1  r2  r3

If similar terminals are connected with each other Equivalent EMF is given as
Eeq  E1  E2

Equivalent internal resistance is given as

rrq  r1  r2

 If cells are Identical

Equivalent EMF is Equivalent internal current Power
Eeq  E resistance

2. Parallel Grouping:
If similar cathodes terminals are connected together at one
point and anodes are connected together at other point.
Equivalent EMF Equivalent internal Total Current Current through each
is resistance cell
Eeq  nE r 1
req  l
E l 
n R  req n

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KIRCHOFF’S RULES

Kirchoff’s First Rule:

 Kirchoff’s first rule is also known as Kirchoff’s current
rule, point rule or junction rule.
 Kirchoff’s 1st rule is manifestation of law of
conservation of charge.
“Sum of all the currents flowing towards a point is equal to
sum of all the currents flowing away from point.”
“Sum of all the currents meeting at a point is equal to zero.

l  0

Example:
Figure shows a network of current. Then the current l
will be Solution:

Total incoming current =2+4+1=74

Total outgoing current = 7A OR

“Sum of all the currents meeting at

(a) 1A (b) 3A point is equal to zero”
(c) 5A (d) 7A l  0
2 A  4 A  lA  l  1  7 A

Incoming Current Outgoing Current

Sign Convention
+ve -ve
Example:
Figure shows a network of currents then current l will be
(a) 1A (b) 4A Solution:
(c) 5A (d) 7A 4-3-1=0

 l  1A

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2nd Rule:
“Algebraic sum of all potential changes in closed circuit is
equal to zero.”

V  0
 Kirchoff’s 2nd rule is also known as Kirchoff’s Voltage
rule (KVL) and Kirchoff’s Loop rule.
 Kirchoff’s 2nd rule is manifestation of law of conservation
of energy.  E1  lR1  E2  E2  lR2  0

For Battery For Resistors

Traversing from –ve to Traversing from Traversing in Traversing in opposite
+ve +ve to -ve direction of current direction of current

Wheatstone:
Wheatstone bridge is a circuit which is used to
determine unknown resistance of a wire.
It’s circuit diagram is shown in the figure:
Balancing Condition
R1 R3 R R
1.  or 1  2
R2 R4 R3 R4

2. R1 R4  R2 R3
Under Balancing Condition
 No current passes through the To find equivalent resistance of the circuit
galvanometer and shows zero bridge resistor (galvanometer) is removed
deflection.
 Point B and D are at same potential
VB  VD and VB  VD  0

 R1 R4  R2 R3
‫ سے‬relation ‫ معلوم ہوں تو اس‬resistance ‫اگر کوئی تین‬
‫چوتھی کو معلوم کرسکتے ہیں ۔‬

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Example:
Five resistors are connected with a 100V battery Solution:
as shown in the figure below:
R1 R4  R2 R3

 100  400  200  200

400  400
Balancing condition is satisfied
Equivalent Resistance:
 No current passes through
R12  100  200  300 and 500 resistance.
R34  200  400  600
300  600
Req   200
300  600

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