THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF MATHEMATICS AND NATURAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
2021/2022 ACADEMIC YEAR LECTURE NOTES (FOR GROUP E)

INTRODUCTORY PHYSICS PH 110

CHAPTER 11
DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Understand the concept of the electric current.

• Define drift velocity and derive the relationship between drift velocity and electric current.

• Define electric current density and derive the relationship between drift velocity and electric
current density.

• State and explain Ohm’s law, and define the resistance of the conductor.

• Understand the concepts of electrical resistivity and conductivity of a material of a conductor,

and describe the factors that affect the resistivity of a material of a conductor.

• Define electric power and derive the expression for electric power in terms of voltage, and
current.

• Derive the expression for the equivalent resistance of circuits containing series and parallel
combination of various resistors.

• Define electromotive force, internal resistance and terminal potential difference.

• State Kirchhoff’s laws, and use them to simplify and analyze direct current circuits.

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In the previous chapter, we dealt with electrostatics, that is, we studied the behavior of charges at
rest. In this chapter we shall study current electricity, that is charges in motion. In this chapter, we
analyze simple electric circuits that contain devices such as batteries and resistors in various
combinations. We begin by introducing the concept of rate of flow of charges, known as direct
current (d.c). In addition, we shall discuss Kirchhoff’s two laws, which are used to simplify and
analyze more complicated circuits.

11.1. Electric current

The flow of charge in a definite direction constitutes the electric current and is important in many
ways. For example, it is the electric current by means of which electrical energy is transferred from
one place to another for utilization. The electric current in a circuit denoted by I, is defined as the
rate of flow of charge through it. Mathematically it is given by

When the rate of flow varies with time, we define instantaneous current as:

The SI unit of electric current is the Ampere (A) or Coulomb per second (C/s). Thus, 1A is
equivalent to 1C of charge passing through the surface area in 1 s. In an electric circuit, the arrow
head marked represents the direction of conventional current, that is, the direction of flow of the
positive charge, whereas the direction of the flow of the electrons gives the direction of electronic
current which is opposite to that of convectional current. A moving charge, positive or negative, is
usually referred to as a mobile charge carrier. The current flowing through a conductor depends
upon the nature and the dimensions of the conductor. The device used to measure the current in
the circuit is called ammeter.

11.2. Drift Velocity

Good conductors have large numbers of free charges in them. In metals for instance, the free
charges are electrons. The distance that an individual electron can move between collisions with
atoms or other electrons is quite small. The electron paths thus appear nearly random. However,
there is an electric field in the conductor that causes the electrons to drift in the direction opposite
to the field. The drift velocity vd, is the average velocity with which free electrons get drifted
towards the positive end of the conductor under the influence of an external electric field.

11.3. Relation between electric current and drift velocity

It is possible to obtain an expression for the relationship between the electric current and drift
velocity by considering the number of free charges in a segment of a conductor. Let us consider a
portion of cylindrical rod that has a volume V, cross sectional area A, length ∆x, and carries a

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constant current I. For convenience, we consider charge carriers each having a charge e. Let N be
the number of charge carriers. See figure 11.1.

Figure 11.1 A portion of a straight rod of uniform cross-sectional area A, carrying a constant
current I. The mobile charge carriers are assumed to be positive and move with an average speed
vd
The electric current is given by:

We know that the relation between time, distance and velocity is:

Then, the expression for electric current becomes:

We know that the relation between volume, length and area is:

The expression for electric current then becomes:

𝑁
Where 𝑉 = 𝑛, is the electron density, defined as the number of electrons per unit volume.
Therefore, the expression for electric current becomes:

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 I = nevA
Here v = vd, the drift velocity. Finally, the expression for electric current becomes:

𝐈 = 𝐧𝐞𝐯𝐝𝐀

11.4. Electric current density

The electric current density denoted by J, is defined as the electric current flowing per unit area.
That is:

The SI unit of the current density is A/m2. Generally, the current density is a vector quantity.

Using the relation, I = nevdA, we get the expression for the electric current density as:

11.5. Ohm’s law and electrical resistance

The relationship between voltage across and current through a conductor was discovered by
German scientist George Simon Ohm. This relationship is called Ohm’s law and states that the
electric current I flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference V
or ∆V, across the conductor provided the physical conditions of a conductor such as temperature,
strain etc do not change. That is:

V∝I
Then:

Where R is known as the resistance of the conductor. Note that Ohm’s law is valid only for metallic
conductor. The graph of the electric current versus the potential difference is a straight line as
shown in figure 11.2.

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 Figure 11.2 The slope of the I versus V curve in the linear region yields a value for 1/R
Resistance of a conductor is the obstruction posed by the conductor to the flow of electric current
through it. It is given by:

The SI unit of resistance is the ohm (Ω). The resistance of a conductor depends on the nature of the
material and changes with temperature. A material obeying Ohm’s law is called an ohmic material
or a linear material. If a material does not obey Ohm’s law, the material is called a non-ohmic or a
nonlinear material.

11.6. Electrical resistivity and conductivity

Resistance R of a conductor is directly proportional to the length l of a conductor and inversely
proportional to the area A of the cross section of the conductor. That is:

Here k = 𝜌, is a constant called the resistivity (or specific resistance) of the material of the
conductor. Hence:

The SI unit of resistivity is ohm-metre (Ωm).

The conductivity denoted by 𝛅, of a conductor is defined as the reciprocal of its resistivity. It is
given by:

The SI unit of electrical conductivity is per ohm-metre (/Ωm).

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11.7. Effect of temperature on resistance
It has been found that in the normal range of temperatures, the resistance of a metallic conductor
increases linearly with the rise in temperature. Therefore resistance/temperature graph is a straight
line.

The resistance 𝐑𝟐 of a metallic conductor at a temperature 𝐭𝟐 is given by:

𝐑𝟐 = 𝐑𝟏[𝟏 + 𝛂(𝐭𝟐 − 𝐭𝟏)]

Where 𝐑𝟏 is the resistance of a conductor at initial temperature 𝐭𝟏 and 𝛂 is the temperature

coefficient of resistance. The same applies for the resistivity. Thus;

𝛒𝟐 = 𝛒𝟏[𝟏 + 𝛂(𝐭𝟐 − 𝐭𝟏)]

Where 𝐑𝟐 is the resistance of a conductor at final temperature 𝐭𝟐, 𝐑𝟏 is the resistance of a conductor
at initial temperature 𝐭𝟏 and 𝛂 is the temperature coefficient of resistivity. That is;

11.8. Electric Power

Electric power denoted by P is the rate at which electrical energy is transferred. That is;

We know that W = qV, then;

𝑞
Since 𝐼 = therefore;
𝑡
𝐏 = 𝐕𝐈
Where I, is the current and V is the potential difference across the circuit. Electric power is
measured in watts (W).

11.9. Combinations of resistors

Resistors in a circuit may be used in different combinations, and we can sometimes replace a
combination of resistors with one equivalent resistor. In this section, we introduce two basic
combinations of resistors that allow such a replacement.

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11.9.1. Resistors in a series combination
Various resistors are said to be connected in series if they are connected as shown below. Figure
11.3(a) shows two resistors R1 and R2 that are connected in series with a battery B. Figure 11.3(b)
shows a circuit diagram for this combination of resistors.
When the circuit is connected, the amount of charge that passes through R1 must also pass through
R2 in the same time interval. Otherwise, charge will accumulate on the wire between resistors.
Thus, for series combination of resistors, the current I is the same in both resistors. Figure 11.3(c)
shows a single resistor Req that is equivalent to this combination and has the same effect on the
circuit. This means that when the potential difference ∆V is applied across the equivalent resistor,
it must produce the same current I as in the series combination.

Figure 11.3 (a) Two resistors are connected in series to a battery B that has a potential difference
∆𝑉. (b) The circuit diagram for this series combination. (c) An equivalent resistance Req replacing
the original resistors set up in a series combination.
In this case the effective resistance is given by the relationship:
𝐑𝐞𝐪 = 𝐑𝟏 + 𝐑𝟐

We can extend this treatment to n resistors connected in series as:

𝐑𝐞𝐪 𝐑𝐧

Thus, the equivalent resistor of a series combination of resistors is simply the algebraic sum of the
individual resistances and will always be greater than any one of them.
In series combination, the potential difference across each resistor is different and the total potential
difference in this case is given by;

∆𝐕 = ∆𝐕𝟏 + ∆𝐕𝟐
We can extend this treatment to n resistors connected in series as:

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 ∆𝐕 = ∆𝐕𝟏 + ∆𝐕𝟐 𝐕𝐧
11.9.2. Resistors in a parallel combination
Various resistors are said to be connected in parallel if they are connected as shown below. Figure
11.4(a) shows two resistors R1 and R2 that are connected in parallel with a battery B. Figure 11.4(b)
shows a circuit diagram for this combination of resistors. Figure 11.4(c) shows a single resistor Req
that is equivalent to this combination and has the same effect on the circuit. The potential difference
∆V between the battery’s terminals is the same as the potential difference across each resistor.

Figure 11.4 (a) Two resistors are connected in parallel to a battery B that has a potential difference
∆𝑉. (b) The circuit diagram for this parallel combination. (c) An equivalent resistance Req
replacing the original resistors set up in a parallel combination.
In this case the effective resistance is given by the relationship:

We can extend this treatment to n resistors connected in parallel as:

Thus, the equivalent resistance of a parallel combination of resistors is simply the algebraic sum
of the reciprocal of the individual resistances and is less than any one of them.
In parallel combination, the current passing through each resistor is different and the total current
in this case is given by;

𝐈 = 𝐈𝟏 + 𝐈𝟐
We can extend this treatment to n resistors connected in parallel as:
𝐈 𝐈𝐧

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11.10. Electromotive force, internal resistance and terminal potential difference
A battery is often called a source of electromotive force or, a source of emf (this unfortunate
historical name describes a potential difference in volts, but not a force). The emf 𝜺 of a battery is
the maximum possible potential difference that the battery can provide between its terminals,
usually the voltage at zero current.
Because a real battery is made of matter, there is a resistance against the flow of charge within the
battery. This resistance is called the battery’s internal resistance and is usually denoted by r.
Internal resistance of a cell is defined as the resistance offered by the electrolyte and electrodes of
a cell when electric current flows through it.
Terminal potential difference of a cell is defined as the potential difference between two
electrodes of a cell in a closed circuit. Terminal potential difference of a cell is always equal to or
less than emf of a cell. For an ideal battery with zero internal resistance, the potential difference
between its terminals is equal to its emf 𝜺 (directed from the −terminal to the + terminal). For real
batteries, this is not the case. A voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring electrical potential
difference between two points in an electric circuit.
Given a simple circuit containing a resistor of resistance R, a battery with an emf 𝜺 and internal
resistance r, the current flowing through that circuit is given by:

Note that the current I depends on the resistance R of the external resistor (which is called the load)
and the internal resistance r of the battery. Since 𝑅 𝑟 in most circuits, we can usually neglect r.

11.11. Kirchhoff’s Laws

Not all circuits can be reduced to simple series and parallel combinations. To solve complicated
circuits, Kirchhoff gave two simple laws, called Kirchhoff’s laws. These laws are simply the
applications of laws of conservation of charge and energy.

11.11.1. Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) or Kirchhoff’s Junction Rule

This law is based on the principle of conservation of charge and may be stated as “The algebraic
sum of currents meeting at a junction in an electrical circuit is zero.” The signs of currents flowing
towards the junction are assigned positive, then the currents flowing away from the junction are
assigned negative. Thus, Kirchhoff’s current law may also be stated as “At any junction in a circuit,
the sum of the ingoing currents must equal the sum of the outgoing currents.” That is:

𝑰𝒐𝒖𝒕

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11.11.2. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) or Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule
This law is based on the principle of conservation of energy and states that “For any closed
electrical circuit or loop, the sum of the potential differences across all elements must be zero.”
That is:

This law follows from the law of conservation of energy but is expressed in terms of potential
energy.

When we apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law to a loop, we should note the following sign conventions:

(1) When a resistor is traversed in the direction of the current, the potential difference ∆𝑉 is −IR
(Fig. 11.5a).
(2) When a resistor is traversed in the direction opposite the current, the potential difference ∆𝑉 is
+IR (Fig. 11.5b).

(3) When a source of emf is traversed in the direction of its emf (from− to +), the potential

difference ∆𝑉 is + 𝜺 (Fig. 11.5c).

(4) When a source of emf is traversed in the direction opposite to its emf (from + to −), the

potential difference ∆𝑉 is −𝜺 (Fig. 11.5d).

Figure 11.5 The potential differences ∆𝑉 = 𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑎 across a resistor of resistance R and a

battery of emf E (assumed to have zero internal resistance), when each element is traversed
from a to b

EXERCISES
1. The charge that passes a cross-sectional area A = 10−4 m2 varies with time according to the
relation Q = 4 + 2t + t2, where Q is in coulombs and t is in seconds.

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 (a) Find the relation that gives the instantaneous current at any time, and evaluate this
current at time t = 2 s. [I = 2(1 + t),6 A]
(b) Find the relation that gives the current density at any time, and evaluate this current
density at time t = 2 s. [J = 2 × 104(1 + t), 60 kA/m2]
2. Estimate the drift speed of the conduction electrons in a copper wire that is 2 millimetres
in diameter and carries a current of 1 A. The free-electron density is 8.45 × 1028
electrons/m3. [2.35 × 10−5 m/s]
3. A metallic rod has a length 1.5 m and a diameter 0.2 cm. The rod carries a current of 5 A
when a p.d of 75 V is applied between its ends.
(a) Find the current density in the rod. [1.59×106 A/m2]
(b) Calculate the resistivity of the material of the rod. [3.14 ×10−5 Ω.m1]
4. At 20 ℃, a silver wire has a diameter of 2 mm, a length of 50 cm, a resistivity of 1.6×10−8
Ω.m, a temperature coefficient of resistivity of 4×10−3 /℃ and carries a current of 5 A.
(a) What is the current density in the wire? [1.59×106A/m2]
(b) What is the resistance of the wire? [2.55×10−3 Ω]
(c) What is the potential difference between the ends of the wire? [1.28× 10−2 V]
(d) Find the temperature of the wire when its resistance increases to 6.5×10−3 Ω. [408℃]
5. A coil consists of 5000 turns of wire, each turn having a length of 200 mm and the wire has
a cross sectional area of 0.032 mm2. Calculate the resistance of the coil at 20 ℃ if the
resistivity of the wire is 17.5 × 10−9 Ωm at 20℃. [547 Ω]
6. A steady uniform current of 5 mA flows axially along a metal cylinder of diameter 0.5 mm,
length 5 m and resistivity 3 × 10−5 Ωm. Determine
(a) the p.d between the ends of the cylinder. [3.75 V]
(b) the rate of production of heat. [0.01875 W]
7. A heating coil is made from a nichrome wire of diameter 0.9 mm. The coil is designed to
produce 240 W of thermal power when connected to a source that has a potential difference
of 24 V.
(a) What is the resistance of the coil? [2.4 𝛀]
(b) What current does the heating coil draw from the source? [10 A]
(c) What is the length of the coil? [102 mm]
8. In figure 11.6, R1 = 3 Ω, R2 = 6 Ω, R3 = 1 Ω, R4 = 7 Ω, and the p.d ∆𝑉 =3 0 V.
(a) What is the equivalent resistance between points a and d? [10 𝛀]
(b) Evaluate the current passing through each resistor. [3 A; 2A; 1 A]

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 Figure 11.6 See exercise 8
9. For each of the combinations shown in figure 11.7, find a formula that represents the
equivalent resistance between the terminals A and B. Assume that R = 2 Ω and the p.d
across each combination = 12 V, then for each combination, find the current in each branch
of the circuit. [(a) 5 R/2, (b) R, (c) 3 R/5, (d) 6 R/11: (a) 2.4 A, 1.2 A, 1.2 A, 2.4 A, (b)
3A, 3 A, 3 A, 3 A, (c) 4 A, 6 A, 2 A,2 A, (d) 2 A,3 A, 6 A]

Figure 11.7 See exercise 9

10. When a 10 Ω resistor is connected across the terminals of a cell of emf 𝜺 and internal
resistance 𝒓, a current of 0.10 A flows the resistor. If the 10 Ω resistor is replaced with 3 Ω
resistor, the current increases to 0.24 A. Determine the values of 𝜺 and 𝒓. [1.2 V; 2 𝛀]
11. Two resistors 4 Ω and 6 Ω are connected in parallel and then connected to a 3 Ω in series.
A battery of internal resistance 0.6 Ω and e.m.f 3 V is connected across the combination of
resistors. Calculate the current in each of the resistors. [0.5 A; 0.3 A; 0.2 A]
12. For the circuit shown in figure 11.8, let R1 = 3 Ω, R2 = 6 Ω, R3 = 3 Ω, and 𝜺 = 7.5 V. Using
Kirchhoff’s rules, find the values of the currents I1, I2 and I3 in the circuit. Hence, calculate
the voltage across each resistor. [I1 = 0.5 A, I2 = −1 A, I3 = 0.5 A; V1 = 1.5 V, V2 = 6 V, V3
= 1.5 V]

Figure 11.8 See exercise 12

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