MA2002 CALCULUS

May 17, 2023

Chapter 2:Continuous Functions 2

Direct Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. . .. ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. . .. ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Discontinuity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. . .. ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
One-Sided Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. . .. ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Continuity on Interval. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. . .. ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. . .. ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. . .. ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Root Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. . .. ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Trigonometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. . .. ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Composite Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. . .. ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Intermediate Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. . .. ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. . .. ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

1
Chapter 2:
Continuous Functions 2 / 41

Recall: Direct Substitution Property

✔ Recall the “ Direct Substitution Property ” for polynomials and rational functions:
Theorem. Let f be a polynomial or a rational function. If a is in the domain of f , then

lim f (x) = f (a).

x→a

✔ Do the following functions have the same property?

y

O x

✘ Algebraically:
✓ the value of f (x), as x tends to a, is close to f (a).
✘ Geometrically:
✓ the graph of f (x) has no interruption at a.
✘ A function which satisfies the above condition is said to be Continuous.
3 / 41

2
Definition of Continuity
✔ A function f is Continuous at a Number a if

lim f (x) = f (a).

x→a

If f is not continuous at a, we say f is Discontinuous at a.

✔ Remark. The definition consists of theO
3 properties:
i) f is defined at a (i.e., a is in the domain of f ), and
③!
ii) lim f (x) exists, and
x→a

iii) lim f (x) = f (a).

x→a
✔ We can rewrite the continuity using !, δ-definition:
✘ For any ! > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that
0 < |x − a| < δ ⇒ |f (x) − f (a)| < !,
or : |x − a| < δ ⇒ |f (x) − f (a)| < !,

↳ allow (x-al 4 / 41
O
to be

because
CONTINUOUS]

3
Examples of Discontinuity
x2 − x − 2
✔ f (x) = .
x−2
(x − 2)(x + 1)
✘ For x #= 2, f (x) = = x + 1.
x−2
y y

3 3

O 2 x O 2 x

Since lim f (x) exists, we can redefine f (2) = lim f (x) = 3 to remove the discontinuity at
x→2 x→2
2.
✘ Such discontinuity is a Removable Discontinuity .

REMOVABLE ! 5 / 41

Examples of Discontinuity
!
1/x2 , if x #= 0,
✔ f (x) =
1, if x = 0.
y

O x

f is discontinuous at 0 since lim f (x) does not exist.

x→0
We see that lim f (x) = ∞.
x→0 not removable Even if define
>
-
.

✘ Such discontinuity is an Infinite Discontinuity . (0)

>
- to be some value , still

6 / 41 no limit
INFINITE

4
Examples of Discontinuity
✔ Let f (x) = %x& be the Floor Function, where %x& is the greatest integer less than or equal
to x.
✘ %1.2& = 1, %3& = 3, %−3.14& = −4.
y

−1 O 1 2 3 4 x

At each n ∈ Z, lim− f (x) = n − 1, lim+ f (x) = n.

x→n x→n
There is a “jump” from the left to the right at n.
✘ Such discontinuity is a Jump Discontinuity .

7 / 41
JUMPD

One-Sided Continuity
✔ A function f is Continuous From the Right at a if
lim+ f (x) = f (a),
x→a

and f is Continuous From the Left at a if

lim− f (x) = f (a).
x→a

Recall that (Tutorial 2, Question 4) !

limx→a+ f (x) = L
lim f (x) = L ⇔
x→a limx→a− f (x) = L.

By letting L = f (a), we have the following conclusion:

✔ Proposition. f is continuous at a if and only if f is continuous#
from the left at a
and continuous F
from the right at a.
8 / 41

5
An Example: The Floor Function
✔ Recall the floor function: f (x) = %x&.
y

X
2

−1 O 1 2 3 4 x

✘ If a ∈
/ Z, f is continuous at a.
✘ If n ∈ Z,
✓ f is continuous from the right at n,
✓ f is discontinuous from the left at n.
9 / 41

Continuity of a Function on an Interval (11]

✔ Definition. A function is Continuous on an Interval if it is continuous at every
number in the interval.
✘ f is continuous on open interval (a, b)
⇔ f is continuous at every x ∈ (a, b).
✘ f is continuous
 on closed interval [a, b]
 f is continous at every x ∈ (a, b),
⇔ f is continuous from the right at a,

f is continuous from the left at b.
✘ f is continuous on [a, b) ⇔ · · · · · · · · ·
✘ f is continuous on (a, b] ⇔ · · · · · · · · ·

Example. The floor function f (x) = %x& is continuous on [n, n + 1) for each n ∈ Z.
Question. What kinds of functions are continuous?
10 / 41

6
Properties of Continuous Function
✔ Suppose f and g are continuous at a.
✘ Let c be a constant.
lim (cf (x)) = c · lim f (x) = cf (a).
x→a x→a

∴ cf is continuous at a.

lim (f + g)(x) = lim (f (x) + g(x))

x→a x→a
= lim f (x) + lim g(x)
x→a x→a
= f (a) + g(a) = (f + g)(a).

∴ f + g is continuous at a.
✘ Similarly, replacing “+” by “−” or “×”, we can show that f − g and f g are continuous
at a as well.
11 / 41

Properties of Continuous Function

✔ Suppose f and g are continuous at a, (g(a) #= 0).

lim (f /g)(x) = lim (f (x)/g(x))

x→a x→a
limx→a f (x) f (a)
= = = (f /g)(a).
limx→a g(x) g(a)

✔ Theorem. Let f and g be functions continuous at a. Then

& weremana
✘ cf is continuous at a, where c is a constant,
✘ f + g is continuous at a,
✘ f − g is continuous at a,
✘ f g is continuous at a,
✘ f /g is continuous at a, provided that g(a) #= 0.

12 / 41

7
Examples of Continuous Function
✔ Let f (x) = c, a constant function. Then lim c = c.
x→a
✘ For ! > 0, choose δ = 1, then
0 < |x − a| < δ ⇒ |c − c| = 0 < !.
∴ Any constant function is continuous on R.
✔ Let f (x) = x. Then lim x = a.
x→a
✘ For ! > 0, choose δ = !, then
0 < |x − a| < δ ⇒ |x − a| < δ = !.
∴ f (x) = x is continuous on R.
y
y

f (x) = c f (x) = x

O x

O x

13 / 41

Examples of Continuous Function

✔ Let n be a positive integer. Then the Power Function
n copies
n % &' (
x = x·x·····x

is continuous (on R), because each factor x is continuous.

✔ The Monomial axn is thus continuous (on R), because it is the scalar multiplication of
power function.
✔ The Polynomial P (x) = an xn + · · · + a1 x + a0 is continuous (on R), because it is the sum
of monomials.
P (x)
✔ The Rational Function , where P (x), Q(x) are polynomials and Q(x) is not
Q(x)
identically zero, is continuous on its domain, because it is the quotient of polynomials.
14 / 41

8
Polynomials & Rational Functions are Continuous
✔ Theorem.
✘ A Polynomial is continuous everywhere;
✘ A Rational Function is continuous on its domain.
P (x)
Precisely, if P (x) and Q(x) are polynomial, then is continuous whenever
Q(x)
Q(x) #= 0.

x+1
✔ Example. Find lim .
x→4 2x2 − 1
x+1
✘ f (x) = is a rational function.
2x2 − 1
✘ If x = 4, 2x2 − 1 #= 0, so x = 4 is in the domain of f .

4+1 5
∴ lim f (x) = f (4) = = .
x→4 2 · 42 − 1 31
15 / 41

Root Functions
√
✔ Theorem. The Root Function x1/n = x, n ∈ Z+ , is continuous on the domain.
n

!
(−∞, ∞), if n is odd,
x1/n is continuous on
[0, ∞), if n is even.
y
y

- always the
O x

y = x1/9
1/1
1/3
1/5
1/7 Lu can't sqroot
O x
= xx1/10
yy = 1/2
1/4
1/6
1/8

odd negative
even
√ √
3
✘ xm/n is defined as xm ; 82/3 = 82 = 4.
n

✘ What is xπ ? (We will see the definition in Chapter 6)

-

↳ rational, the
it is not not in
form 16 / 41

9
Root Functions
√
✔ Theorem. The Root Function x1/n = n
x, n ∈ Z+ , is continuous on the domain.
✔ Proof. Let a > 0. ) √ *n + √ ,n
n
lim x = lim n x
x→a x→a
= lim x
x→a
= a.
√ √
∴ lim n
x= n
a.
x→a

✔ Note. This is a Wrong proof.

√
✘ We cannot apply the Product Law of Limits unless we have shown that lim n
x exists.
x→a
✘ We have to go back to the !, δ-definition.
17 / 41

Root Functions
√
✔ We now prove that “ x is continuous at a > 0”.
The general case is left as exercise (Tutorial 2).
✘ Let ! > 0. Our aim is to find a proper δ > 0 such that
√ √
0 < |x − a| < δ ⇒ | x − a| < !.
√
Note that x is only defined at non-negative numbers.
y

( )
O a x
a−δ a+δ

First of all, in order to make sure that x ≥ 0 for all x satisfying 0 < |x − a| < δ, we
must choose δ such that 0 ≤ a − δ, i.e., δ ≤ a.
18 / 41

10
Root Functions
√
✔ We now prove that “ x is continuous at a > 0”.
✘ Suppose δ ≤ a. Then 0 < |x − a| < δ ⇒ x > 0.
√ √ |x − a| δ δ
| x − a| = √ √ <√ √ <√ .
x+ a x+ a a
√ √
In order to make sure that | x − a| < !,
δ √
it suffices to take √ ≤ !, i.e, δ ≤ ! a.
a
√
✔ Proof. Let ! > 0. Choose δ = min{a, ! a}.
If 0 < |x − a| < δ, then x > a − δ ≥ 0, and
√ √ |x − a| δ δ
| x − a| = √ √ <√ √ < √ ≤ !.
x+ a x+ a a
19 / 41

Trigonometric Functions
✔ Other than rational functions and root functions, there is another class of continuous
functions.
✘ Trigonometric Functions:
sin x, cos x, tan x, cot x, sec x, csc x.

y = tan x

y = sin x y = cos x

x
O

20 / 41

11
 Continuity of Trigonometric Functions
A
1

x B
O H 1
Let 0 < x < π/2.
✔ f (x) = sin x.
x = AB
$
sin x = |AH|
$
AB > |AB| > |AH|
x > sin x
✘ For any 0 < x < π/2, 0 < sin x < x.
Squeeze Theorem

y
✓ lim 0 = lim+ x = 0 −−−−−−−−−→ lim+ sin x = 0.
x→0+ x→0 x→0

21 / 41

Continuity of Trigonometric Functions

✔ f (x) = sin x.
✘ lim sin x = 0.
x→0+
✘ −π/2 < x < 0 ⇒ 0 < −x < π/2
⇒& 0 < sin(−x) < −x ⇒ x < sin x < 0.
shown
✓ By Squeeze Theorem again, lim sin x = 0. side
I 7

previously loss multipled

− x→0 from left I

lim sin x = 0 = sin 0; so sin x is continuous at 0. I

-
∴
x→0
itself ,

27109232
so
✔ g(x) = cos x. Let −π/2 < x < π/2. by
uS
1 ≥ cos x ≥ cos2 x = 1 − sin2 x ≥ 1 − x2 .
than -
squeeze lim 1 = 1
agein x→0
⇒ lim cos x = 1 = cos 0.
lim (1 − x2 ) = 1 x→0
x→0

∴ cos x is continuous at 0.
22 / 41

12
 Let x = a+ h
Continuity of Trigonometric Functions
- then him is the same as Rim
x - 7a h >
-
0

✔ Let a ∈ R.
identifies
w
lim sin x = lim sin(a + h) use by we
x→a h→0
know
= lim (sin a cos h + cos a sin h) this
h→0
= sin a · lim cos h + cos a · lim sin h
h→0 h→0
= sin a · 1 + cos a · 0
= sin a.
✘ sin x is Continuous Everywhere.

O x

23 / 41

Continuity of Trigonometric Functions

✔ Let a ∈ R.
lim cos x = lim cos(a + h) use
identifies
x→a h→0
= lim (cos a cos h − sin a sin h)
h→0
= cos a · lim cos h − sin a · lim sin h
h→0 h→0
= cos a · 1 − sin a · 0
= cos a.
✘ cos x is Continuous Everywhere.

O x

24 / 41

13
Continuity of Trigonometric Functions

sin x 
tan x = 

cos x
are continuous whenever cos x #= 0,
1  
sec x = 
cos x
Domain = R\{± π2 , ± 3π
2
, ± 5π
2
, ± 7π
2
, . . .}.
y
y = sec x

y = tan x

O x

25 / 41

Continuity of Trigonometric Functions

cos x 
cot x = 
sin x 
are continuous whenever sin x #= 0,
1 
csc x = 
sin x
Domain = R\{0, ±π, ±2π, ±3π, ±4π, . . .}.
y

y = csc x

y = cot x

O x

26 / 41

14
 Example
2
4
✔ Example. f (x) = | x50 − x2 + 1| is continuous on R.

O x

✘ We may prove it using !, δ-definition directly.

However, it may be too· · · oo tedious.
✘ f is the composite of continuous functions.
Do we have a shortcut?
27 / 41

Composite of Continuous Functions

✔ Theorem. If f is continuous at b and lim g(x) = b, then
① x→a
lim f (g(x)) = f (b).

3
x→a
iflim g(x) exist
Or equivalently, ) *
lim f (g(x)) = f lim g(x) .
x→a x→a

In other words, lim commutes with continuous function.

②
Sies
✔ Corollary. If g is continuous at a and f is continuous at g(a), then the composite f ◦ g
is continuous at a.
✔ Proof of Corollary. is
) *
lim (f ◦ g)(x) = lim f (g(x)) = f lim g(x) continuous
x→a x→a x→a
= f (g(a)) = (f ◦ g)(a).

28 / 41

15
 then its basically
Example O where we get

9(b)
himg( + (x)
=

-
E
✔ Suppose y = f (x) such that lim f (x) = b. If -7 a

x→a

(i) g is continuous at b; OR
(ii) f (x) #= b for all x near a (i.e., for all x in an open interval containing a), except at a,

③
-

and lim g(y) exists,

2
y→b

Then lim g(f (x)) = lim g(y).

x→a y→b
Proof. (Exercise.)
✔ Example. h = h(x) = x − a ⇒ lim h(x) = 0.
x→a

✘ h(x) = 0 ⇔ x = a,
so h(x) #= 0 for all x near a (except at a).
∴ lim f (x) = lim f (a + h) = lim f (a + h).
x→a x→a h→0

✔ Remark. In particular, assuming that lim g(y) exists, then (ii) holds if f is a One-to-One
y→b -

function (Chapter 6).

29 / 41

Example
✔ Suppose y = f (x) such that lim f (x) = b. Then
x→a

✘ lim g(f (x)) = lim g(y),

x→a y→b
provided that the limit on the right exists.

Proof. Define g(b) = lim g(y).

y→b

✘ Then g is continuous
) at y =
* b, and then
✘ lim g(f (x)) = g lim f (x) = g(b) = lim g(y).
x→a x→a y→b

✔ Example. We see that lim sin x = 0.

x→0

✘ Then lim sin(sin x) = lim sin(y) = 0.

x→0 y→0

✔ Exercise. Can you find a counterexample such that to make sure

need
✘ lim f (x) = b but lim g(f (x)) #= lim g(y)? > not continuous
a+ b AND
x→a x→a y→b
-
Og is ,

not true that

f(x) #b
② 30 / 41
for i near a
,
but not equal to a

4
1 if 0
y =

we+
gly) =

doesn't-
O if 0
y +

satisfy Let f(x) = 0

b
= f(x) = 0
16 ,

Then lim
x 70
g(f(x)) = ein
g(0) = 1

-
-

x -
>0
1

f(x) = 0 /different
 Y
lim gly) =mo-

Composite of Continuous Functions

✔ Theorem. If f is continuous at b and lim g(x) = b, then Proving D on

x→a
page 15
lim f (g(x)) = f (b).
x→a

✔ Idea of the Proof.

✘ f is continuous at b.
For any !1 > 0, there exists δ1 > 0 such that
|y − b| < δ1 ⇒ |f (y) − f (b)| < !1 .
✘ lim g(x) = b.
x→a
For any !2 > 0, there exists δ2 > 0 such that
0 < |x − a| < δ2 ⇒ |g(x) − b| < !2
✘ There two statements can be combined by taking
✓ y = g(x), and !2 = δ1 .
31 / 41

Composite of Continuous Functions

✔ Theorem. If f is continuous at b and lim g(x) = b, then
x→a
lim f (g(x)) = f (b).
x→a

✔ Proof of Theorem.
✘ Let ! > 0. There exists δ1 > 0 such that
Given this ;
|y − b| < δ1 ⇒ |f (y) − f (b)| < !.
✘ For this δ1 > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that
and given this :
0 < |x − a| < δ ⇒ |g(x) − b| < δ1 .
✘ Therefore,
0 < |x − a| < δ ⇒ |g(x) − b| < δ1
that
⇒ |f (g(x)) − f (b)| < !.
We show

this must be tre

↑ 32 / 41

17
Intermediate Value Theorem
✔ Let f be a function Continuous on [a, b].
Suppose f (a) < 0 and f (b) > 0.
y

O b x

✘ As x moves from a to b,
f (x) moves smoothly from negative to positive.
✘ f is continuous ⇒ the graph has no break.
✔ The graph cuts the x-axis somewhere between a and b .

33 / 41

Intermediate Value Theorem

✔ Intermediate Value Theorem (Simple Version)
Let f be a function continuous on [a, b].
✘ If f (a) < 0 and f (b) > 0, then
there exists a number c ∈ (a, b) such that f (c) = 0.
✔ Remark. The proof of IVT requires the “Completeness of Real Numbers”. We will
not prove IVT in MA2002.
✘ It Does Not tell us the exact value of the solution.
It shows only the existence of solution.
✘ It Does Not show the number of the solutions.
There may be more than one root for f (x) = 0.
y

O b x

34 / 41

18
Example
✔ Show that there is a real root to 4x3 − 6x2 + 3x − 2 = 0.
✘ Let f (x) = 4x3 − 6x2 + 3x − 2.
✓ f is a polynomial ⇒ f is continuous on R.
In order to use Intermediate Value Theorem,
we shall find two numbers a and b such that
✓ f (a) < 0 and f (b) > 0.

f (0) = −2 < 0 
there is a c ∈ (0, 2)
f (2) = 12 > 0 ⇒
 such that f (c) = 0.
f is continuous on [0, 2]
y

33
√
1 +
2 2

O 1

2 x

35 / 41

Example
✔ Stretch a rubber band by moving one end to the right and the other to the left.

It seems that some point of the rubber band will end up in its original position.
✔ Solution. Suppose the rubber band has length 1, and it is put on the interval [0, 1].
✘ Let f (x) be the position of x after stretching. Then
✓ f is continuous on [0, 1], f (0) < 0, f (1) > 1.
✘ Define g(x) = f (x) − x. Then
3
g is continuous on [0, 1]
⇒ g(c) = 0 for some c ∈ (0, 1).
g(0) < 0 and g(1) > 0
i.e., f (c) = c. The rubber band has a fixed point.

36 / 41

19
Intermediate Value Theorem (General Version)
✔ Intermediate Value Theorem
Let f be a function continuous on [a, b] with f (a) #= f (b).
◦ Let N be a number between f (a) and f (b),
◦ Then there exists c ∈ (a, b) such that f (c) = N.
y

f (b)

f (a)

O a c x
b

✔ The proof is to use the Simple Version of Intermediate Value Theorem.

37 / 41

Intermediate Value Theorem (General Version)

✔ Proof. Case 1. f (a) < f (b).
y y

f (b) f (b) − N

a x
N
O c b
y = f (x)
f (a) f (a) − N y = f (x) − N

O a c b x

✘ Let g(x) = f (x) − N.

Then g is continuous on [a, b].
3
g(a) = f (a) − N < 0
⇒ g(c) = 0 for some c ∈ (a, b).
g(b) = f (b) − N > 0
✘ That is, f (c) = N.
38 / 41

20
Intermediate Value Theorem (General Version)
✔ Proof. Case 2. f (a) > f (b).
y y

f (a) N − f (b)
y = f (x)
a x
N
O c b

f (b) N − f (a) y = N − f (x)

O a c x
b

✘ Let g(x) = N − f (x).

Then g is continuous on [a, b].
3
g(a) = N − f (a) < 0
⇒ g(c) = 0 for some c ∈ (a, b).
g(b) = N − f (b) > 0
✘ That is, f (c) = N.
(Alternatively, we may define g(x) = −f (x) and use the result of case 1 to prove case 2.)

39 / 41

Appendix: Sum Formula of Trigonometry

✔ The sum formula for cos x:

cos(a + b) = cos a cos b − sin a sin b, a, b ∈ R.

y A" (cos(a + b), sin(a + b))

A(cos a, sin a) |AB|2

lABI" =
(A'B12
= (cos a − cos b)2 + (sin a + sin b)2

= 2 − 2 · (cos a cos b − sin a sin b)

⑮
|A! B ! |2
a x = (cos(a + b) − 1)2 + sin2 (a + b)
O b B " (1, 0) = 2 − 2 · cos(a + b). equate

B(cos b, − sin b)

40 / 41

21
Appendix: Sum Formula of Trigonometry
✔ The sum formula for sin x:

sin(a + b) = sin a cos b + cos a sin b.

4π 5
sin(a + b) = cos − (a + b)
4 2π 5
= cos ( − a) + (−b)
) π2 * )π *
= cos − a cos(−b) − sin − a sin(−b)
2 2
= sin a cos b + cos a sin b.
✔ The sum formula for tan x: (provided that both sides exist)

tan a + tan b
tan(a + b) = .
1 − tan a tan b
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