66 Lecture 1.

10 Limits and Continuous Functions

(iv) Again we cannot use (c) directly. We rewrite the expression so that we
can apply (c):
   
x+4 4
lim = lim 1+ = 1.
x−→∞ x x−→∞ x

Continuity

You will have gained the impression that the common functions are what could
reasonably be called continuous, that is if you trace along the function by changing
x the graph of the function it does not have any breaks. We think, intuitively, of
a function being continuous if we can draw its graph without removing the pencil
from the paper.

We now refine these ideas and formalise them mathematically. In fact, a little
reflection should convince you that for a function to be continuous at x = c we
require two things:

1. f (c) is defined, that is, c ∈ D, where f : D −→ R, and

2. f (x) −→ f (c) as x approaches c.

But this is nothing more or less than a statement about limits.

A function f : D −→ R, D ⊆ R, is continuous at c ∈ D if

lim f (x) = f (c).

x−→c

We say that f is continuous if it is continuous at all c ∈ D.

So to formally prove that f (x) is continuous at x = c we need to formally prove

that f (x) has limit f (c) at x = c.

Example Prove that the identity function idR : R −→ R, x 7−→ x is continuous

at x for all x ∈ R.

Solution Recall that limx−→c x = c. Thus

lim idR (x) = lim x = c = idR (c).

x−→c x−→c

So we are finished, idR is continuous on the whole real line. 2

Lecture 1.10 Limits and Continuous Functions 67

1
Example Prove that f : R \ {0} −→ R, x 7−→ x
is continuous at x for all
x ∈ (0, ∞).

Solution We take x > 0 and let ε > 0 be given. Then for any c ∈ (0, ∞),
 
 1 1  |c − x|
 − = .
x c  cx

Let |x − c| < δ for some δ > 0 to be determined. Then

 
 1 1
 − < δ .
 x c  xc

Now |x − c| < δ implies

−δ < x − c < δ,
c
i.e. c − δ < x < δ + c, we take δ ≤ 2
so that
c c
x≥c− = .
2 2
Then  
1 1
 −  < δ < δ = 2δ ≤ ε,
c
 x c  xc
2
·c c2
 
c εc2
for δ = minimum , . We have our formal statement of continuity at any
2 2
point c ∈ (0, ∞). 2

A trivial consequence of our definition of continuity and our previous theorem

on limits is the following.

Theorem Let f : Df −→ R and g : Dg −→ R be continuous at x = c ∈ Df ∩ Dg .

Then

(a) αf (x) + βg(x) is continuous at x = c for all α, β ∈ R;

(b) f (x)g(x) is continuous at x = c;

f (x)
(c) is continuous at x = c for g(c) 6= 0.
g(x)

Armed with this theorem we can considerably expand our list of continuous
functions. All polynomial functions f : R −→ R given by

f (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + . . . + an xn

where n ∈ N and ai ∈ R, i = 0, 1, 2, . . . are continuous.

68 Lecture 1.10 Limits and Continuous Functions

Furthermore, all rational functions f : D −→ R given by

f (x) = p(x)/q(x)

where p(x) and q(x) are polynomials, are continuous.

For continuity at x = c it is necessary and sufficient that lim+ f (x) = f (c) = lim− f (x).
x−→c x−→c
This typically fails when there is a jump in f (x) from one side of x = c to the other.

Example The following functions are discontinuous:

(a) (
x2 , x<0
f : R −→ R, x 7−→ .
1 + x, x > 0
Here continuity fails at x = 0.

(b)
f : R −→ R, x 7−→ [x],
where [x] is the greatest integer less than or equal to x. This function has
discontinuities at x = n for all n ∈ N.

♠ Exercises 10

1. Sketch the two functions of the last example, indicating the discontinuities.

2. Evaluate the following limits:

√ √
x2 + 1 − x + 1
(a) lim
x−→0 x
2
x −1
(b) lim
x−→−∞ x2 + 1

x2 + x + 1
(c) lim
x−→∞ 2x2 − x − 1

3. Investigate the limit as x −→ 1 of

x2 − 3x + 2
.
x3 − 3x2 + 2

1
4. Prove formally that f : (−1, ∞] → R, x 7−→ is continuous.
x+1
Lecture 1.11 Continuous Functions 69

Lecture 1.11 Continuous Functions

A function f : D −→ R is continuous in an open interval (a, b) ⊆ D

if it is continuous at each point x ∈ (a, b).

A function f : D −→ R is continuous on a closed interval [a, b] ⊆ D

if

(i) f (x) is continuous for each x ∈ (a, b);

(ii) lim+ f (x) = f (a) and lim− f (x) = f (b).

x→a x→b

So f : R 7−→ R, x 7−→ |x|, for example, is continuous on (0, 1) (in fact, on

(0, ∞)), but not continuous on [0.1].

Graphs of continuous functions have all the “nice” properties one would expect
of a curve that is drawn on paper without removing your pencil from the page. A
good example of such properties is the intermediate value theorem.

The Intermediate Value Property

Theorem Suppose f is continuous on [a, b] and that f (a) 6= f (b). Then f (x), x ∈
(a, b), takes every value between f (a) and f (b).

Remark: As your pencil moves from f (a) to f (b) you must pass over every value
(every real number) between f (a) and f (b).

Proof We restrict our function f to [a, b] and suppose that there is a y ∈ ]f (a), f (b)[ \Im(f).
Put A := {x ∈ [a, b] | f (t) < y for all t ∈ [a, x]}.

Since a ∈ A, A 6= ∅. By the definition of A, b is an upper bound for A. Hence, by

the Completeness Axiom for the Real Numbers, A has a supremum, say s. Plainly,
s ∈ [a, b].

As f (s) 6= y, either f (s) < y, or f (s) > y. Put ε := |f (s) − y|, and take δ > 0.

If f (s) < y, then ε = y − f (s).

As s = sup A, it follows from the definition of A that there is an x ∈ [s, s + δ[

with f (x) > y.
70 Lecture 1.11 Continuous Functions

Then

|f (x) − f (s)| = f (x) − f (s) as f (x) > y > f (s)

= f (x) − y + y − f (s)
= f (x) − y + ε
>ε as f (x) > y.

Thus, in this case, f is not continuous at s.

If, on the other hand, f (s) > y, then ε = f (s) − y.

δ
Choose x ∈ A with s − 2
< x.

By the definition of A, f (x) < y. Then

|f (x) − f (s)| = f (s) − f (x) as f (x) < y < f (s)

= f (s) − y + y − f (x)
= ε + y − f (x)
>ε as f (x) < y,

Thus, in this case, f is not continuous at s. 2

Continuity for Trigonometric Functions

We know from the previous lecture that all polynomial functions and all rational
functions are continuous.

We would also guess that the trigonometric functions, sine, cosine, tangent,
cotangent, secant and cosecant are continuous at all points of their respective natural
domains. Just sketch them! Let’s formalise this.

Theorem The functions

sin : R −→ R, x 7−→ sin x
cos : R −→ R, x 7−→ cos x
tan : R \ { 2n+1
2
π : n ∈ Z} −→ R, x 7−→ tan x
2n+1
sec : R \ { 2 π : n ∈ Z} −→ R, x 7−→ sec x
are continuous.

Proof We will only prove continuity of sin x, the other functions can be dealt with
in a similar manner. We measure x in radians, 360◦ is 2π radians, 180◦ is π radians
and 90◦ is π2 radians. In general, x = 360
2π
◦ θ, where θ is the angle measured in degrees.
Lecture 1.11 Continuous Functions 71

In the diagram below we have a unit circle, you need to know that if the angle
made by two radii (each one unit) is x radians then the length of the arc of the circle
between the ends of the radii is x. The circumference of the circle (the angle in this
case is 2π) is just 2π — remember the radius is 1.

sin c c−x
sin x
c
x
1

From our diagram we isolate the triangle shown below.

c−x
sin c − sin x

The dotted lines form a right-angle triangle. The hypotenuse of this triangle
must be greater in length than either of the other two sides. In particular, it is
larger than sin c − sin x. However, this hypotenuse is smaller in length than the
circular arc of length c − x.

π
So for 2
≥ x ≥ 0 we have

sin c − sin x ≤ c − x.

Thus given any c ∈ [0, π2 ] and any ε > 0 we have

| sin c − sin x| < ε,

whenever |c − x| < ε , for 0 < x < c.

This proves lim− sin x = sin c. In a similar way we can prove lim+ sin x = sin c.
x→c x→c
Which then shows that sin x is continuous on [0, π2 ]. The result is easy to extend to
all values of x. 

Using the continuity results established thus far with the results on continuity of
sums and products of the last lecture we can extend our list of continuous functions
72 Lecture 1.11 Continuous Functions

in an obvious way to a large list of powers, products, of trigonometric and rational

functions.

We are also now in a position to establish many limits involving these functions.
A particularly useful way to establish these limits is the squeezing principle. It says
that, if two functions have limit L as x approaches c ∈ R, then any function in
between must also have limit L as x approaches c.

Theorem (Squeezing Principle)

Let f, g and h be functions whose domains contain the open interval (a, b), such
that
g(x) ≤ f (x) ≤ h(x)
for all x ∈ (a, c) and for all x ∈ (c, b) with a < c < b.

If lim g(x) = lim h(x) = L then

x→c x→c

lim f (x) = L.
x→c

Proof Let x ∈ (a, b). From the definition of the limit we know that for any ε > 0
there exists a δ > 0 such that

|g(x) − L| < ε and |h(x) − L| < ε

whenever |x − c| < δ. Thus

−ε < g(x) − L < ε and − ε < h(x) − L < ε

whenever |x − c| < δ. Now

g(x) ≤ f (x) ≤ h(x),
so
g(x) − L ≤ f (x) − L ≤ h(x) − L.
Combining this with the previous inequalities, we obtain

−ε ≤ g(x) − L ≤ f (x) − L ≤ h(x) − L ≤ ε,

so that, −ε ≤ f (x) − L ≤ ε, whenever |x − c| < δ.

This establishes lim f (x) = L. 2

x→c

We now use this principle to establish two very well-known limits.

Lecture 1.11 Continuous Functions 73

Theorem
sin x 1 − cos x
(a) lim =1 and (b) lim = 0.
x→0 x x→0 x
sin x
Proof (a) We first establish “squeezing” inequalities for x
. We simply adapt the
techniques used in the proof of the continuity of sin x.

x tan x
1
sin x
x
1

As before it is easy to see that x ≥ sin x using the following diagram.

x
1
sin x
x
1

On the other hand comparing the area of the large triangle (tan x as one side)
with the area of the sector of the unit circle subtended by the angle x we have

1 x


Area of triangle = 2
· 1 · tan x) ≥ Area of sector = 2
,

so that tan x ≥ x. We obtain

tan x ≥ x ≥ sin x.

sin x
Now x ≥ sin x so x
≥ 1 (for x > 0). Also tan x ≥ x is just

sin x
≥x ,
cos x
which can be written as
sin x
≥ cos x for x > 0, x near 0.
x
Therefore
sin x
cos x ≤ ≤ 1.
x
74 Lecture 1.11 Continuous Functions

Notice if x < 0 and x is near enough to 0 then

sin x sin(−x)
= ≥ cos(−x) = cos x, as sin(−x) = − sin x.
x (−x)

The same inequality applies either side of 0.

Now,
lim cos x = 1 and lim 1 = 1.
x→0 x→0

We can apply the squeezing principle to get the result

sin x
lim = 1.
x→0 x
(b) We use the result from part (a), the identity sin2 x = 1 − cos2 x and rewrite our
expression as follows
1 − cos x 1 − cos x 1 + cos x
= ·
x x 1 + cos x
2
1 − cos x
=
x(1 + cos x)
  
sin2 x sin x sin x
= = .
x(1 + cos x) x 1 + cos x

Now take limits, remember we have proved the limit of product is the product of
the limits, etc.,
     
1 − cos x sin x sin x
lim = lim lim
x→0 x x→0 x x→0 1 + cos x
 
0
= (1) = 0.
1+1


Lecture 1.11 Continuous Functions 75

♠ Exercises 11

1. Evaluate the following limits:

sin h x + sin x
(a) lim (b) lim
h→0 2h x→0 x
1 − cos2 x sin(2y)
(c) lim (d) lim
x→0 x y→0 y
1 − cos x h
(e) lim (f) lim
x→0 sin x h→0 tan h
sin x sin x
(g) lim+ (h) lim− .
x→0 |x| x→0 |x|

2. Find the value of the constant k which makes

(
sin 2x
x
, x 6= 0
f : R −→ R, x −→
k, x=0

a continuous function at x = 0.

3. Find limx→1 sin(πx)

x−1
.

4. Prove that if f : R −→ R is a continuous function then sin ◦f is also continu-

ous.