UNIT–I:

Transducers

Transducers: Definition, Principle of sensing & transduction, Classification, Characteristics of transducers.

Resistance Transducer: Basic principle – Potentiometer –Loading effects, Resistance strain gauge–Types.
Inductance Transducer: - Basic principle – Linear variable differential transformer –types. Capacitance
Transducer: Basic principle- transducers using change in area of plates – distance between plates- variation
of dielectric constants –Types

INTODUCTION

A sensor is a device that detects the change in the environment and responds to some output on the other
system. A sensor converts a physical phenomenon into a measurable analog voltage (or sometimes a digital
signal) converted into a human-readable display or transmitted for reading or further processing

A device which converts a physical quantity into the proportional electrical signal is called a transducer.
The electrical signal produced may be a voltage, current or frequency. A transducer uses many effects to
produce such conversion. The process of transforming signal from one form to other is called transduction.
A transducer is also called pick up. The transduction element transforms the output of the sensor to an
electrical output, as shown in the Fig.

A transducer will have basically two main components. They are

1. Sensing Element
The physical quantity or its rate of change is sensed and responded to by this part of the transistor.

2. Transduction Element
The output of the sensing element is passed on to the transduction element. This element is responsible for
converting the non-electrical signal into its proportional electrical signal. This is also called as secondary
transducer.

There may be cases when the transduction element performs the action of both transduction and sensing.
The best example of such a transducer is a thermocouple. A thermocouple is used to generate a voltage
corresponding to the heat that is generated at the junction of two dissimilar metals.

It is important to know that “All transducers are sensors but, all sensors are not transducers.”

Advantages of transducers:

 Electrical signals are easily transmitted and proceed for measurement

 Process needs less friction
 Small power is needed to control the electrical system
 Amplification and attenuation of electrical signal are easy
 Measuring instruments used for measuring electrical signals is very compact and accurate.
Classification of Sensors

Several criteria are adopted for the classification of sensors. They are:
i. Based on principle of operations( Transduction principle)
ii. Based on energy requirements
iii. Based on material and technology used
iv. Application based classification
v. Property based classification

Classification of Transducers

There are several ways in which you can classify transducers that include but not limited to the role of the
transducer, structure of the transducer or the phenomena of their working. It is easy to classify transducers
as Input Transducers or Output Transducers, if they are treated as simple signal converters.
Input Transducers measure non-electrical quantities and convert them into electrical quantities.
Output Transducers on the other hand, work in the opposite way i.e. their input signals are electrical and
their output signals are non-electrical or physical like force, displacement, torque, pressure etc.
Depending on the principle of operation, transducers can also be classified into mechanical, thermal,
electrical, etc. The classification of transducers based on the following three ways:
1. Physical Effect
2. Physical Quantity
3. Source of Energy

1. Classification based on Physical Effect

The first classification of Transducers is based on the physical effect engaged to convert the physical
quantity to electrical quantity. An example, is the change in resistance (physical quantity) of a copper
element in proportion to the change in temperature.
The following physical effects are generally used:
 Variation in Resistance
 Variation in Inductance
 Variation in Capacitance
 Hall Effect
 Piezoelectric Effect

2. Classification based on Physical Quantity

The second classification of Transducers is based on the physical quantity converted i.e. the end use of
the transducer after the conversion. For example, a Pressure Transducer is a transducer that converts
pressure into electrical signal.
Following is small list of transducers classified based on the physical quantity and corresponding
examples
 Temperature Transducer – Thermocouple
 Pressure Transducer – Bourdon Gauge
 Displacement Transducer – LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer)
 Level Transducer – Torque Tube
 Flow Transducer – Flow Meter
 Force Transducer – Dynamometer
 Acceleration Transducer – accelerometer
3. Classification based on Source of Energy
Transducers are also classified based on the source of energy. Under this category, there usually two types
of transducers:
 Active Transducers
 Passive Transducers

Active Transducers
In Active Transducers, the energy from the input is used as a control signal in the process of transferring
energy from power supply to proportional output. They are also known as self generating type since
they produce their own voltage or current output

For example, a Strain Gauge is an Active Transducer, in which the strain is converted into resistance. But
since the energy from the strained element is very small, the energy for the output is provided by an
external power supply.
Passive Transducers
In Passive Transducers, the energy from the input is directly converted into the output. For example, a
Thermocouple is a passive transducer, where the heat energy, which is absorbed from input, is converted
into electrical signals (voltage).

Characteristics of Transducers

The performance characteristics of a Transducer are key in selecting the best suitable transducer for a
particular design. So, it is very important to know the characteristics of transducers for proper selection.
Performance characteristics of transducers can be further classified into two types:
 Static Characteristics
 Dynamic Characteristics

1. Static Characteristics
The static characteristics of a transducer is a set of performance criteria that are established through static
calibration i.e. description of the quality of measurement by essentially maintaining the measured
quantities as constant values of varying very slowly. Following is a list of some of the important static
characteristics of transducers.

 Sensitivity
 Linearity
  Resolution
 Precision (Accuracy)
 Span and Range
 Threshold
 Drift
 Stability
 Responsiveness
 Repeatability
 Input Impedance and Output Impedance
2. Dynamic Characteristics
The dynamic characteristics of transducers relate to its performance when the measured quantity is a
function of time i.e. it varies rapidly with respect to time.
While static characteristics relate to the performance of a transducer when the measured quantity is
essentially constant, the dynamic characteristics relate to dynamic inputs, which means that they are
dependent on its own parameters as well as the nature of the input signal.
The following are some dynamic characteristics that may be considered in selection of a transducer.
 Dynamic Error
 Fidelity
 Speed of Response
 Bandwidth
Overall, both static and dynamic characteristics of a Transducer determine its performance and indicate
how effectively it can accept desired input signals and reject unwanted inputs.

Resistive Transducers
1. Resistance Strain Gauge – The change in value of resistance of metal semi-conductor due to
elongation or compression is known by the measurement of torque, displacement or force.
2. Resistance Thermometer – The change in resistance of metal wire due to the change in
temperature known by the measurement of temperature.
3. Resistance Hygrometer – The change in the resistance of conductive strip due to the change of
moisture content is known by the value of its corresponding humidity.
4. Hot Wire Meter – The change in resistance of a heating element due to convection cooling of a
flow of gas is known by its corresponding gas flow or pressure.
5. Photoconductive Cell – The change in resistance of a cell due to a corresponding change in light
flux is known by its corresponding light intensity.
6. Thermistor – The change in resistance of a semi-conductor that has a negative co-efficient of
resistance is known by its corresponding measure of temperature.
7. Potentiometer Type – The change in resistance of a potentiometer reading due to the movement of
the slider as a part of an external force applied is known by its corresponding pressure or
displacement.

Capacitance Transducers

1. Variable capacitance pressure gage -

Principle of operation: Distance between two parallel plates is varied by an externally applied
force Applications: Measurement of Displacement,
pressure 2. Capacitor microphone
Principle of operation: Sound pressure varies the capacitance between a fixed plate and a movable
diaphragm. Applications: Speech, music, noise
 3. Dielectric gauge
Principle of operation: Variation in capacitance by changes in the dielectric. Applications: Liquid
level, thickness

Inductance Transducers

1. Magnetic circuit transducer

Principle of operation: Self inductance or mutual inductance of ac-excited coil is varied by
changes in the magnetic circuit. Applications: Pressure, displacement
2. Reluctance pickup
Principle of operation: Reluctance of the magnetic circuit is varied by changing the position of
the iron core of a coil. Applications: Pressure, displacement, vibration, position
3. Differential transformer
Principle of operation: The differential voltage of two secondary windings of a transformer is
varied by positioning the magnetic core through an externally applied force. Applications:
Pressure, force, displacement, position
4. Eddy current gage
Principle of operation: Inductance of a coil is varied by the proximity of an eddy current plate.
Applications: Displacement, thickness
5. Magnetostriction gauge
Principle of operation: Magnetic properties are varied by pressure and stress. Applications: Force,
pressure, sound

Voltage and current Transducers

1. Hall effect pickup

Principle of operation: A potential difference is generated across a semiconductor plate
(Germanium) when magnetic flux interacts with an applied current. Applications: Magnetic
flux, current
2. Ionization chamber
Principle of operation: Electron flow induced by ionization of gas due to radioactive radiation.
Applications: Particle counting, radiation
3. Photo emissive cell
Principle of operation: Electron emission due to incident radiation on photo emissive surface.
Applications: Light and radiation
4. Photomultiplier tube
Principle of operation: Secondary electron emission due to incident radiation on
Photosensitive cathode. Applications: Light and radiation, photo-sensitive relays

Self-Generating Transducers (No External Power) – Active Transducers

They do not require an external power, and produce an analog voltage or current when stimulated by
some physical form of energy.

1. Thermocouple and thermopile

Principle of operation: An emf is generated across the junction of two dissimilar metals or
semiconductors when that junction is heated. Applications: Temperature, heat flow, radiation.
2. Moving-coil generator
Principle of operation: Motion of a coil in a magnetic field generates a voltage. Applications:
Velocity. Vibration
 3. Piezoelectric pickup
An emf is generated when an external force is applied to certain crystalline materials, such as
quartz Sound, vibration. acceleration, pressure changes
4. Photovoltaic cell
Principle of operation: A voltage is generated in a semi-conductor junction device when radiant
energy stimulates the cell Applications: Light meter, solar cell

Primary Transducers and Secondary Transducers- Bourden tube acting as a primary detecter senses the
pressure and converts the pressure into a displacement of its free end.The displacement of the free end
moves the core of a linear variable differential transformer(LVDT) which produces an output voltage.

Analog Transducers-These transducers convert the input quantity into an analog output which is a
continuous function of time. ◦ Strain Gauge ◦ LVDT ◦ Thermocouple ◦ Thermistor

Digital Transducers-These transducers convert the input quantity into an electrical output which is in the
form of pulses. ◦ Glass Scale can be read optically by means of a light source,an optical system and
photocells
Transducers and Inverse Transducers- -A Transducer can be broadly defined as a device which converts a
non-electrical quantity into an electrical quantity. Ex:-Resistive,inductive and capacitive transducers -An
inverse transducer is defined as a device which converts an electrical quantity into a non-electrical quantity.
Ex:-Piezoelectric crystals

Advantages of Electrical transducers

Mostly quantities to be measured are non-electrical such as temperature, pressure, displacement, humidity,
fluid flow, speed etc., but these quantities cannot be measured directly. Hence such quantities are required
to be sensed and changed into some other form for easy measurement. Electrical quantities such as current,
voltage, resistance, inductance and capacitance etc. can be conveniently measured, transferred and stored,
and, therefore, for measurement of the non-electrical quantities these are to be converted into electrical
quantities first and ten measured. The function of converting non-electrical quantity into electrical one is
accomplished by a device called the electrical transducer.
Basically an electrical transducer is a sensing device by which a physical, mechanical or optical quantity to
be measured is transformed directly, with a suitable mechanism, into an electrical signal (current, voltage
and frequency). The production of these signals is based upon electrical effects which may be resistive,
inductive, capacitive etc. in nature. The input versus output energy relationship takes a definite reproducible
function. The output to input and the output to time behavior is predictable to a known degree of accuracy,
sensitivity and response, within the specified environmental conditions. Electrical transducers have
numerous advantages. Modern digital computers have made use of electrical transducers absolutely
essential.
Electrical transducers suffer due to some draw-backs too, such as low reliability in comparison to that of
mechanical transducers due to the ageing and drift of the active components and comparative high cost of
electrical transducers and associated signal conditioners. In some cases the accuracy and resolution
attainable are not as high as in mechanical transducers. Some of the advantages are:

1. Electrical amplification and attenuation can be done easily and that to with a static device.
2. The effect of friction is minimized.
3. The electric or electronic system can be controlled with a very small electric power.
4. The electric power can be easily used, transmitted and process for the purpose of measurement.
Factor to be considered while selecting transducer:

It should have high input impedance and low output impedance, to avoid loading effect.
It should have good resolution over is entire selected range.
It must be highly sensitive to desired signal and insensitive to unwanted signal.
Preferably small in size.
It should be able to work n corrosive environment.
It should be able to withstand pressure, shocks, vibrations etc..
It must have high degree of accuracy and repeatability.
Selected transducer must be free from errors.
The transducer circuit should have overload protection so that it will withstand overloads.

Requirements of a good transducers

• Smaller in size and weight.

• High sensitivity.
• Ability to withstand environmental conditions.
• Low cost.

RESISTIVE TRANSDUSERS

Resistance of an electrical conductor is given by,

R=ρl/A

Where ,

R = Resistance in „Ω‟

Ρ = Resistivity of the conductor (Ω -cm)

l = Length of the conductor in cm.

A = Cross-sectional area of the metal conductor in cm2

It is clear from the equation that, the electrical resistance can be varied by varying,
(i) Length

(ii) Cross-sectional area and

(iii) Resistivity or combination of these.

Principle:-
A change in resistance of a circuit due to the displacement of an object is the
measure of displacement of that object ,method of changing the resistance and the resulting devices are
summarized in the following
Method of changing resistance-
Length - Resistance can be changed varying the length of the conductor,(linear and rotary).

Dimensions - When a metal conductor is subjected to mechanical strain, change in dimensions of the
conductor occurs, that changes the resistance of the conductor.

Resistivity -
When a metal conductor is subjected to a change in temperature and change in resistivity occurs which
changes resistance of the conductor.

Resulting device:-
Resistance potentiometers or sliding contact devices displacements, Electrical resistance strain gauges.
Thermistor and RTD

Use:-
The resistive transducer used for the measurement of linear and angular, and used for the temperature
mechanical strain measurement.

How Potentiometer works

A potentiometer is a resistive sensor used to measure linear displacements as well as rotary motion. In a
potentiometer an electrically conductive wiper slides across a fixed resistive element. A voltage is applied
across the resistive element. Thus a voltage divider circuit is formed. The output voltage (Vout) is measured
as shown in the figure below. The output voltage is proportional to the distance travelled.

There are two types of potentiometer, linear and rotary potentiometer. The linear potentiometer has a slide
or wiper. The rotary potentiometer can be a single turn or multi turn.
The important parameters while selecting a potentiometer are
•Operating temperature
•Shock and vibration
•Humidity
•Contamination and seals
•life cycle
•dither

Types of Potentiometer:
Wire‐Wound type potentiometer
• The resistance range between 10Ω and 10M Ω
• The resistance increase in a stepwise manner.
• It is possible to construct potentiometers with 100 –200 turns per cm length (The resolution range
between 0.1 to 0.05 mm).
• Linear potentiometers are available in many lengths up to 1m.
• Helical potentiometers are commercially available with 50 to 60 turns (The angular displacement
is between 18000 – 21600 degree)
• Potentiometer life exceed 1 million cycles.

Thin film type potentiometer

• Higher resolution.
• Lower noise.
• Longer life (exceed 10 million cycles)
• Resistance of 50 to 100 Ω/mm can be obtained with conductive plastic film.
• Commercially available resolution is 0.001 mm.

Some of the advantages of the potentiometer are

•Easy to use
•low cost
•High amplitude output
•Proven technology
•Easily available
Some of the disadvantages of the potentiometer are
•Since the wiper is sliding across the resistive element there is a possibility of friction and wear. Hence
the number of operating cycles are limited.
•Limited bandwidth
•Inertial loading

Some of the applications of the potentiometer are

•Linear displacement measurement
•Rotary displacement measurement
•Volume control
•Brightness control
•Liquid level measurements using float

Strain Gauge

Strain gage is one of the most popular types of transducer. It has got a wide range of applications. It can
be used for measurement of force, torque, pressure, acceleration and many other parameters. The basic
principle of operation of a strain gage is simple: when strain is applied to a thin metallic wire, its
dimension changes, thus changing the resistance of the wire. Let us first investigate what are the
factors, responsible for the change in resistance.

Gage Factor
Let us consider a long straight metallic wire of length l circular cross section with diameter d (fig). When
this wire is subjected to a force applied at the two ends, a strain will be generated and as a result, the

dimension will change (l changing to , d changing to and A changing to

). For the time being, we are considering that all the changes are in positive direction. Now
the resistance of the wire:
Fig:Change of Resistance with strain
Thus, the Gage Factor of metallic strain gages varies in the range 1.8 to 2.6. However, the semiconductor
type strain gages have a very large Gage Factor, in the range of 100-150. This is attained due to dominant
piezo-resistance property of semiconductors. The commercially available strain gages have certain fixed
resistance values, such as, 120Ω, 350 Ω, 1000 Ω, etc. The manufacturer also specifies the Gage Factor and
the maximum gage current to avoid self-heating (normally in the range 15 mA to 100 mA).
The choice of material for a metallic strain gage should depend on several factors. The material should have
low temperature coefficient of resistance. It should also have low coefficient for thermal expansion. Judging
from all these factors, only few alloys qualify for a commercial metallic strain gage. They are:
Advance (55% Cu, 45% Ni): Gage Factor between 2.0 to 2.2
Nichrome (80% Ni, 20% Co): Gage Factor between 2.2 to 2.5
Apart from these two, Isoelastic -another trademarked alloy with Gage Factor around 3.5 is also in use.
Semiconductor type strain gages, though having large Gage Factor, find limited use, because of their high
sensitivity and nonlinear characteristics.

Metallic Strain Gage

Most of the strain gages are metallic type. They can be of two types: unbonded and bonded. The unbonded
strain gage is normally used for measuring strain (or displacement) between a fixed and a moving structure
by fixing four metallic wires in such a way, so that two are in compression and two are in tension, as shown
in fig. 6 (a). On the other hand, in the bonded strain gage, the element is fixed on a backing material, which
is permanently fixed over a structure, whose strain has to be measured, with adhesive. Most commonly
used bonded strain gages are metal foil type. The construction of such a strain gage is shown in fig. 6(b).
The metal foil type strain gage is manufactured by photo-etching technique. Here the thin strips of the foil
are the active elements of the strain gage, while the thick ones are for providing electrical connections.
Because of large area of the thick portion, their resistance is small and they do not contribute to any change
in resistance due to strain, but increase the heat dissipation area. Also it is easier to connect the lead wires
with the strain gage. The strain gage in fig. 6(b) can measure strain in one direction only. But if we want to
measure the strain in two or more directions at the same point, strain gage rosette, which is manufactured
by stacking multiple strain gages in different directions, is used. Fig. 7 shows a three-
0
element strain gage rosette stacked at 45 .
The backing material, over which the strain gage is fabricated and which is fixed with the strain measuring
structure has to satisfy several important properties. Firstly, it should have high mechanical strength; it
should also have high dielectric strength. But the most important it should have is that it should be non-
hygroscopic, otherwise, absorption of moisture will cause bulging and generate local strain. The backing
materials normally used are impregnated paper, fibre glass, etc. The bonding material used for fixing the
strain gage permanently to the structure should also be non-hygroscopic. Epoxy and Cellulose are the
bonding materials normally used.

Semiconductor type Strain Gage

Semiconductor type strain gage is made of a thin wire of silicon, typically 0.005 inch to 0.0005 inch, and
length 0.05 inch to 0.5 inch. They can be of two types: p-type and n-type. In the former the resistance
increases with positive strain, while, in the later the resistance decreases with temperature. The construction
and the typical characteristics of a semiconductor strain gage are shown in fig.8.
MEMS pressure sensors is now a days becoming increasingly popular for measurement of pressure. It is
made of a small silicon diagram with four piezo-resistive strain gages mounted on it. It has an in-built signal
conditioning circuits and delivers measurable output voltage corresponding to the pressure applied. Low
weight and small size of the sensor make it suitable for measurement of pressure in specific applications.

Thermistors:
Basically thermistor is a contraction of a word 'thermal resistors', The resistors depending on
temperature are thermal resistors. Thus resistance thermometers are also thermistors having positive -
temperature coefficients. But generally the resistors having negative temperature coefficients (NTC) are
called thermistors. The resistance of a thermistor decreases as temperature increases. The NTC of
thermistors can be as large as few percent per degree celcius change in temperature. Thus the thermistors
are very sensitive and can detect very small changes in temperature too.

Construction of thermistor:
Thermistors are composed of a sintered mixture of metallic oxides, such as manganese, nickel, cobalt,
copper, iron, and uranium. Their resistances at ambient temperature may range from 100 n to 100 ill.
Thermistors are available in a wide variety of shapes and sizes as shown in the Fig. Smallest in size are
the beads with a diameter of 0.15 mm to 1.25 mm. Beads may be sealed in the tips of solid glass rods to
form probes. Disks and washers are made by pressing thermistor materia~ under high pressure into Hat
cylindrical shapes. Washers can be placed in series or in parallel to increase power dissipation rating.
Thermistors are well suited for precision temperature measurement, temperature control, and temperature
compensation, because of their. very large change in resistance with temperature. They are widely
used for measurements in the temperature range -1000 C to +2000 C. The measurement of the change in
resistance with temperature is carried out with a Wheatstone bridge.

Inductive Transducer

Inductive transducers work on the principle of inductance change due to any appreciable change in the
quantity to be measured i.e. measured. For example, LVDT, a kind of inductive transducers, measures
displacement in terms of voltage difference between its two secondary voltages. Secondary voltages are
nothing but the result of induction due to the flux change in the secondary coil with the displacement of
the iron bar. Anyway LVDT is discussed here briefly to explain the principle of inductive transducer.
LVDT will be explained in other article in more detail. For the time being let‟s focus on basic
introduction of inductive transducers. Now first our motive is to find how the inductive transducers
can be made to work. This can be done by changing the flux with the help of measured and this changing
flux obviously changes the inductance and this inductance change can be calibrated in terms of
measured. Hence inductive transducers use one of the following principles for its working.
1. Change of self inductance
2. Change of mutual inductance
3. Production of eddy current

Change of Self Inductance of Inductive Transducer

We know very well that self inductance of a coil is given by Where, N = number of turns. R

= reluctance of the magnetic circuit. Also we know that reluctance R is given by

 where μ = effective permeability of the medium in and around the coil.

Where, G = A/l and called geometric form factor. A = area of cross-section of coil. l =
length of the coil. So, we can vary self inductance by

Change in number of turns, N,

Changing geometric configuration, G,
Changing permeability
For the sake of understanding we can say that if the displacement is to be measured by the inductive
transducers, it should change any of the above parameter for causing in the change in self
inductance.

Change of Mutual Inductance of Inductive Transducer

Here transducers, which work on change of mutual inductance principle, use multiple coils. We use here
two coils for the sake of understanding. Both coils have their self inductance as well. So let‟s denote their
self inductance by L1 and L2. Mutual inductance between these two coils is given by

Thus mutual inductance can be changed by varying self inductance or by varying

coefficient of coupling, K. The methods of changing self inductance we already discussed. Now
coefficient of coupling depends on the distance and orientation between two coils. Thus for the
measurement of displacement we can fix one coil and make other movable which moves with the source
whose displacement is to be measured. With the change in distance in displacement coefficient of
coupling changes and it causes the change in mutual inductance. This change in mutual inductance can be
calibrated with the displacement and measurement can be done.

Production of Eddy Current of Inductive Transducer

We know that when a conducting plate is placed near a coil carrying alternating current, a circulating
current is induced in the plate called “EDDY CURRENT”. This principle is used in such type of
inductive transducers. Actually what happens? When a coil is placed near to coil carrying alternating
current, a circulating current is induced in it which in turn produces its own flux which try to reduce the
flux of the coil carrying the current and hence inductance of the coil changes. Nearer the plate is to the
coil, higher will be eddy current and higher is the reduction in inductance and vice versa. Thus inductance
of coil varied with the variation of distance between coil and plate. Thus the movement of the plate can
be calibrated in terms of inductance change to measure the quantity like displacement.

Real Life Application of Inductive Transducer

Inductive transducers find application in proximity sensors which are used for position measurement,
dynamic motion measurement, touch pads etc. Particularly inductive transducer is used for the detection
of type of metal, finding missing parts or counting the number of objects.
Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)

When an externally applied force moves the core to the left-hand position, more magnetic flux links the
left-hand coil than the righthand coil. The emf induced in the left-hand coil, ES], is therefore larger than
the induced emf of the right-hand [oil, Es2' The magnitude of the output voltage is then equal to the
difference between the two secondary voltages and it is in phase with the voltage of the left-hand coil.

Construction of LVDT
Main Features of Construction are as,

The transformer consists of a primary winding P and two secondary winding S1 and S2 wound on
a cylindrical former(which is hollow in nature and will contain core).
 Both the secondary windings have equal number of turns and are identically placed on the either
side of primary winding
The primary winding is connected to an AC source which produces a flux in the air gap and
voltages are induced in secondary windings.
A movable soft iron core is placed inside the former and displacement to be measured is
connected to the iron core.
The iron core is generally of high permeability which helps in reducing harmonics and
high sensitivity of LVDT.
The LVDT is placed inside a stainless steel housing because it will provide electrostatic
and electromagnetic shielding.
The both the secondary windings are connected in such a way that resulted output is the
difference of the voltages of two windings.

Principle of Operation and Working

As the primary is connected to an AC source so alternating current and voltages are produced in the
secondary of the LVDT. The output in secondary S1 is e1 and in the secondary S2 is e2. So the differential
output is, eout = e1 - e2 This equation explains the principle of Operation of LVDT.

Now three cases arise according to the

locations of core which explains the working of LVDT are discussed below as,

CASE I When the core is at null position (for no displacement) When the core is at null position
then the flux linking with both the secondary windings is equal so the induced emf is equal in both
the windings. So for no displacement the value of output eout is zero as e1 and e2 both are equal. So
it shows that no displacement took place.
CASE II When the core is moved to upward of null position (For displacement to the upward of
reference point) In the this case the flux linking with secondary winding S1 is more as compared
to flux linking with S2. Due to this e1 will be more as that of e2. Due to this output voltage eout is
positive.
 CASE III When the core is moved to downward of Null position (for displacement to the
downward of reference point) In this case magnitude of e2 will be more as that of e1. Due to this
output eout will be negative and shows the output to downward of reference point.

Output VS Core Displacement A linear curve shows that output voltage varies linearly with
displacement of core.

Some important points about magnitude and sign of voltage induced in LVDT

The amount of change in voltage either negative or positive is proportional to the amount
of movement of core and indicates amount of linear motion.
By noting the output voltage increasing or decreasing the direction of motion can be determined
The output voltage of an LVDT is linear function of core displacement .

Advantages of LVDT
High Range - The LVDTs have a very high range for measurement of displacement.they can used
for measurement of displacements ranging from 1.25mm to 250mm
No Frictional Losses - As the core moves inside a hollow former so there is no loss of
displacement input as frictional loss so it makes LVDT as very accurate device.
High Input and High Sensitivity - The output of LVDT is so high that it doesn‟t need
any amplification.the transducer posseses a high sensitivity which is typically about
40V/mm.
Low Hysteresis - LVDTs show a low hysteresis and hence repeatability is excellent under
all conditions
Low Power Consumption - The power is about 1W which is very as compared to other transducers.
Direct Conversion to Electrical Signals - They convert the linear displacement to electrical
voltage which are easy to process
Disadvantages of LVDT
LVDT is sensitive to stray magnetic fields so they always require a setup to protect them from
stray magnetic fields.
They are affected by vibrations and temperature.
It is concluded that they are advantageous as compared than any other inductive
transducers. Applications of LVDT
1. They are used in applications where displacements ranging from fraction of mm to few cm are to
be measured. The LVDT acting as a primary Transducer converts the displacement to electrical
signal directly.
2. They can also acts as the secondary transducers. E.g. the Bourbon tube which acts as a primary
transducer and covert pressure into linear displacement.then LVDT coverts this displacement
into electrical signal which after calibration gives the ideas of the pressure of fluid.
Capacitive Transducers
A capacitor consists of two conductors (plates) that are electrically isolated from one another by a
nonconductor (dielectric). When the two conductors are at different potentials (voltages), the system is
capable of storing an electric charge. The storage capability of a capacitor is measured in farads.The
principle of operation of capacitive transducers is based upon the equation for capacitance of a parallel plate
capacitor as shown in Fig.

Where, A = Overlapping area of plates; m2,

d = Distance between two plates; m,
= Permittivity (dielectric constant); F/m.

Fig. Parallel plate capacitor

The capacitance is measured with a bridge circuits. The output impedance Z of a capacitive transducer is:
Z = 1/2πfC
Where: Z = Impedance
f = frequency, 50 Hz.
C = capacitance
In general, the output impedance of a capacitive transducer is high. This fact calls for a careful design of
the output circuitry. The capacitive transducers work on the principle of change in capacitance of the
capacitor. This change in capacitance could be caused by change in overlapping area A of the plates, change
in the distance d between the plates and change in dielectric constant .

In most of the cases the above changes are caused by the physical variables, such as, displacement, force
or pressure. Variation in capacitance is also there when the dielectric medium between the plates changes,
as in the case of measurement of liquid or gas levels. Therefore, the capacitive transducers are commonly
used for measurement of linear displacement, by employing the following effects as shown in Fig a and fig
b.
i) Change in capacitance due to change in overlapping area of plates.
ii) Change in capacitance due to change in distance between the two plates.
iii) Change in capacitance due to change in dielectric between the two plates

Fig.a Variable capacitive transducer varies; (a) area of overlap, (b) distance between plates, (c)
amount of dielectric between plates

Fig.b Differential capacitive transducer varies capacitance ratio by changing: (a) area of
overlap, (b) distance between plates, (c) dielectric between plates
As may be seen in Fig b, all of the differential devices have three wire connections rather than two: one
wire for each of the end plates and one for the common plate. As the capacitance between one of the
endplates and the common plate changes, the capacitance between the other end plate and the common
plate also changes in the opposite direction.
a) Transducers Using Change in Area of Plates
Examining the equation for capacitance, it is found that the capacitance is directly proportional to the area,
A of the plates. Thus, the capacitance changes linearly with change in area of plates. Hence this type of
capacitive transducer is useful for measurement of moderate to large displacements say from 1 mm to
several cm. The area changes linearly with displacement and also the capacitance.
For a parallel plate capacitor, the capacitance is:

Where, l = length of overlapping part of plates; m, and w

= width of overlapping part of plates; m.

The sensitivity is constant and therefore there is linear relationship between capacitance and displacement.
This type of a capacitive transducer is suitable for measurement of linear displacement ranging from 1 to
10 cm. The accuracy is as high as 0.005%.
b) Transducers Using Change in Distance between Plates
Fig. 17.2(b) shows the basic form of a capacitive transducer employing change in distance between the two
plates to cause the change in capacitance. One plate is fixed and the displacement to be measured is applied
to the other plate which is movable. Since, the capacitance, C, varies inversely as the distance d, between
the plates the response of this transducer is not linear. Thus this transducer is useful only for measurement
of extremely small displacements.

Thus the sensitivity of this type of transducer is not constant but varies over the range of the transducer.
The relationship between variations of capacitance with variation of distance between plates is hyperbolic
and is only approximately linear over a small range of displacement. The linearity can be closely
approximated by use of a piece of dielectric material like mica having a high dielectric constant, such as, a
thin piece of mica.
c) Transducers Using Change in dielectric constant between Plates
If the area (A) of and the distance (d) between the plates of a capacitor remain constant, capacitance will
vary only as a function of the dielectric constant ( ) of the substance filling the gap between the plates. If
the space between the plates of a capacitor is filled with an insulator, the capacitance of the capacitor will
change compared to the situation in which there is vacuum between the plates. The change in the
capacitance is caused by a change in the electric field between the plates.

The value of dielectric constant is initially set by design in the choice of dielectric material used to make
the capacitor. Many factors will cause the to change, and this change in will vary for different materials.
The major factors that will cause a change in are moisture, voltage, frequency, and temperature. The
dielectric constant of a process material can change due to variations in temperature, moisture, humidity,
material bulk density, and particle size etc. The in the basic formula is the effective dielectric constant of
the total space between the electrodes. This space may consist of the dielectric material, air, and even
moisture, if present. The figure shows that how in a capacitor the position of the dielectric is varied to vary
the capacitance. Physical variables, such as, displacement, force or pressure can cause the movement of
dielectric material in the capacitor plates, resulting in changes in the effective dielectric constant, which in
turn will change the capacitance.

Fig. Change in capacitance due to movement of dielectric between plates

The major advantages of capacitive transducers are that they require extremely small forces to operate them
and hence are very useful for use in small systems. They are extremely sensitive and require small power
to operate them. Owing to their good frequency response they are very useful for dynamic studies.
The disadvantages of capacitive transducers include their non-linear behaviour on account of edge effects
and the effects of stray capacitances especially when the transducers have a low value of capacitance.
Therefore guard rings must be used to eliminate this effect. The metallic parts of the capacitive transducers
must be insulated from each other. In order to reduce the effects of stray capacitances, the frames must be
earthed.
Capacitive transducers can be used for measurement of both linear and angular displacements. The
capacitive transducers are highly sensitive and can be used for measurement of extremely
small displacements down to the order of molecular dimensions, i.e., 0.1x10-6 mm. On the other hand, they
can be used for measurement of large displacements up to about 30 m as in aeroplane altimeters. The change
in area method is used for measurement of displacements ranging from 10 to 100 mm. Capacitive
transducers can be used for the measurement of force and pressure. The force and pressure to be measured
are first converted to displacement which causes a change of capacitance. Capacitive transducers can also
be used directly as pressure transducers in all those cases where the dielectric constant of a medium changes
with pressure. They can be used for measurement of humidity in gases and moisture content in soil / food
products etc.

Thermocouples
Basically thermocouple consists of two different metals which are placed in contact with each other as

shown in the diagram.

First part is called the heater element because when the current will flow through this, a heat is
produced and thus the temperature will increased at the junction. At this junction an emf is produced
which is approximately proportional to the temperature difference of hot and cold junctions.

The emf produced is a DC voltage which is directly proportional to root mean square value of electric
current. A permanent magnet moving coil instrument is connected with the second part to read the current
passing through the heater. One question must be arise in our mind that why we have used only a
permanent magnet coil instrument? Answer to this question is very easy it is because PMMC instrument
has greater accuracy and sensitivity towards the measurement of DC value. The thermocouple type
instruments employ thermocouple in their construction. Thermocouple type instruments can be used for
both ac and DC applications. Also thermocouple type of instruments has greater accuracy in measuring
the current and voltages at very high frequency accurately.
Now we will look how the temperature difference is mathematically related to generated emf at the
junction in thermocouple type of instruments. Let us consider temperature of the heater element be T a and
the temperature of cold metal be Tb. Now it is found that the generated emf at the junction is related to
temperature difference as:
Where a and b are constant whose values completely depends upon the type of metal we are using. The
above equation represents parabolic function. The approximated value of a is from 40 to 50 micro volts or
more per degree Celsius rise in temperature and value of constant b is very small and can be neglected if
the air gap field of permanent magnet moving coil is uniform. Thus we can approximate the above
temperature emf relation as e = a(Ta - Tb), here we have assume b = 0. The current flowing through the
heater coil produces heat as I2R where I is the root mean square value of current, if we assume the
temperature of cold junction is maintained at room temperature then the rise in the temperature of the hot
junction will be equal to temperature rise at the junction. Hence we can write (Ta-Tb)is directly
proportional to I2R or we can say (Ta - Tb) = kI2R. Now the deflection angle x in moving coil instrument
is equal to; x = Ke or x = K[a(Ta - Tb)] hence we can write k.K.a.I2R = k1I2, where k1 is some constant.
From the above equation we see that the instrument shows the square law response.

Construction of Thermocouple Type Instrument

Now let us look at the construction of Thermocouple type Instruments. Broadly speaking the
thermocouple type of instruments consists of two major parts which are written below: (a) Thermo
electric elements: The thermocouple type of instruments consists of thermo electric elements which
can be of four types:

1. Contact Type: It has a separate heater which is shown in the diagram.

The action of thermocouple type instruments can be explained briefly as,

o At the junction the electrical energy is being converted to thermal energy in the heater element. A
portion of the heat is transferred to the hot junction while most of the heat energy is dissipated away.
o The heat energy which is transferred to hot junction is again converted to electrical due to
Seebeck effect. Only a portion of electrical energy is converted into mechanical energy which is
used to produce a deflecting torque. The overall efficiency of the system is low thus the
instrument consumes high power. So there is a requirement of highly accurate and sensitive DC
instrument.
2. Non Contact Type: In non contact type there is insulation between the heating element and the
thermocouple i.e. there no direct contact between two. Due to this these instruments are not
much sensitive as compared contact type.
3. Vacuum Thermo-elements: These types of instruments are mostly employed for the
measurement of electric current at very high frequency of the order of 100 Mega hertz or more as
these instruments retain their accuracy even at such high frequency.
4. Bridge Type: These bridges are manufactured on the ac ratings usually from 100 mili amperes to 1
amperes. In this two thermocouple are connected to form a bridge which is shown in the figure
given

below:
5. There is no requirement of heating element, the electric current which directly passing through the
thermocouple raises the temperature which is directly proportional to the I2R losses. The bridge
works on balanced condition at which there will be no current in the arm ab. The connected
meter will show the potential difference between the junctions a and b.

Advantages of Thermocouple Type Instruments

Following are advantages of Thermocouple type of instruments,

1. The thermocouple type of instruments accurately indicates the root mean square value of current
and voltages irrespective of the waveform. There is a wide varieties of range of thermocouple
instruments are available in the market.
2. Thermocouple type of instruments give very accurate reading even at high frequency, thus
these types of instruments are completely free from frequency errors.
3. The measurement of quantity under these instruments is not affected by stray magnetic fields.
4. These instruments are known for their high sensitivity.
5. Usually for measuring the low value of current bridge type of arrangement is used i.e. ranging
from 0.5 Amperes to 20 Amperes while for measuring the higher value of current heater element is
required to retain accuracy.
Disadvantages of Thermocouple Type Instruments
Instead of many advantages these type of instruments posses one disadvantage, The over load capacity of
thermocouple type of instrument is small, even fuse is not able to the heater wire because heater wire may
burn out before the fuse blows out.

Synchro Position Transducer Working Principle

We know that Syncro is an inductive device which works on the principle of rotating transformer. Here
the term rotating transformer means the primary to secondary coupling can be changed by physically
changing the relative orientation of the winding. So based on this working principle of syncro we can
use it as position transducer.

Construction Of Position Transducer:

Position transducer is one of the basic application of the Synchro. It uses dumb-bell shaped rotor. Single
phase ac supply is given to the rotor of the Synchro. This rotor is mechanically coupled with the shaft of
rotating element whose angular position is to be determined.

Position Transducer Working Principle:

We know that the stator of the synchro has three windings. These three winding of the stator are
connected in star connection. Remaining ends of each winding are taken out to connect them with
the voltmeter as shown in the figure. When the angle of the rotor changes the output voltage i.e. the stator
voltages of each winding is given by,
E1 = Eom cosθ sin wt = instantaneous voltage for stator windings S1.

E1 = Eom cos(θ+120) sin wt = instantaneous voltage for stator windings S2.

E1 = Eom cos(θ+240) sin wt = instantaneous voltage for stator windings S3.

Where

θ= angular position of the rotor

Eom = peak value of voltage of each winding

w= 2πf

f= frequency of the rotor

t = time in seconds.

All instantaneous voltages are sinusoidal in nature. But they give different values of voltages at
different position of rotor.

Thus using these three values of stator voltages we can easily measure the position of the rotor. Hence
Synchro can be used as a position transducer.

Applications Of Position Transducer:

1) For measuring the angle of the rotating machine like antenna platform.
2) Position transducer can be used as ratary position sensor for aircraft control surfaces

Piezoelectric transducer:

A piezoelectric quartz crystal is hexagonal prism shaped crystal, which has pyramids Jt both ends. This
is shown in the Fig. (a). The marking of co-ordinate axes are fixed for such crystals. The axis passing
through the end points of pyramids is called optic axis or z axis. The axis passing through corners is
called electrical axis or x axis while the aXIs passing through midpoints of opposite sides is called
mechanical axis or y axis. The axes are shown in the
Photovoltaic cell:
Fig shows structure of photovoltaic cell. It shows that cell is actually a PN-junction diode with
appropriately doped semiconductors. When photons strike on the thin p-doped upper layer, they are
absorbed by the electrons in the n-layer; which causes formation of conduction electrons and holes.
These conduction electrons and holes are separated by depletion region potential of the pn junction.
When il load is connected across the cell, the depletion region potential causes the photocurrent to flow
through the load N

Phototransistor:
The photo transistor has a light sensitive collector to base junction. A lens is used in a transistor package
to expose base to an incident light. When no light is incident, a small leakage current flows from collector
to emitter called IeEO, due to small thermal generation. This is very small current, of the order of nA.
This is called a dark current. When the base is exposed to the light, the base current is produced which is
proportional to the light intensity. Such photoinduced base current is denoted as I)...The resulting
collector current is given by, The structure of a phototransistor is shown in the Fig. (a) while the symbol
is shown in the Fig.

To generate more base current proportional to the light, larger physical area of the base is exposed to the
light. The fig .shows the graph of base current against· the radiation flux density measured in mW/ cm2.
The Fig. (b) shows the collector characteristics of a phototransistor. As light intensity increases, the
base current increases exponentially. Similarly the collector current also increases corresponding to the
increase in the light intensity. A phototransistor can be either a two lead or a three lead device. In a
three lead device, the base lead is brought out so that it can be used as a conventional BJT with or without
the light sensitivity feature. In a two lead device, the base is not electrically available and the device use is
totally light dependent. The use of phototransistor as a two lead device is shown in the Fig. (a) while the
Fig. (b) shows the typical collector characteristic curves.

Each curve on the characteristic graph is related to specific light intensity. The collector current level
increases corresponding to increase in the light intensity. In most of the applications the phototransistor is
used as a two lead device. The phototransistor is not sensitive to all the light but sensitive to light within a
certain range. The graph of response against wavelength is called spectral response. A typical spectral
response is shown in the Fig.