A12 - Sensors and Transducers

1.What is transducer?
A transducer is an electronic device that converts energy from one form to
another. Common examples include microphones, loudspeakers, thermometers,
position and pressure sensors, and antenna. Although not generally thought of as
transducers, photocells, LEDs (light-emitting diodes), and even common light
bulbs are transducers.
Efficiency is an important consideration in any transducer. Transducer efficiency
is defined as the ratio of the power output in the desired form to the total power
input. Mathematically, if P represents the total power input and Q represents the
power output in the desired form, then the efficiency E, as a ratio between 0 and
1, is given by:
E = Q/P
If E% represents the efficiency as a percentage, then:
E% = 100Q/P

2.Criteria to Choose a Sensor

The following are certain features that are considered when choosing a sensor.
Type of Sensing: The parameter that is being sensed like temperature or pressure.
Operating Principle: The principle of operation of the sensor.
Power Consumption: The power consumed by the sensor will play an important
role in defining the total power of the system.
Accuracy: The accuracy of the sensor is a key factor in selecting a sensor.
Environmental Conditions: The conditions in which the sensor is being used
will be a factor in choosing the quality of a sensor.
Cost: Depending on the cost of application, a low-cost sensor or high-cost sensor
can be used.
Resolution and Range: The smallest value that can be sensed and the limit of
measurement are important.
Calibration and Repeatability: Change of values with time and ability to repeat
measurements under similar conditions.
3. Characteristics of a Sensor or Transducer
Range: It indicates the limits of the input in which it can vary. In case of
temperature measurement, a thermocouple can have a range of 25 – 250 0C.
Accuracy: It is the degree of exactness between actual measurement and true
value. Accuracy is expressed as percentage of full range output.
Sensitivity: Sensitivity is a relationship between input physical signal and output
electrical signal. It is the ratio of change in output of the sensor to unit change in
input value that causes change in output.
Stability: It is the ability of the sensor to produce the same output for constant
input over a period of time.
Repeatability: It is the ability of the sensor to produce same output for different
applications with same input value.
Response Time: It is the speed of change in output on a stepwise change in input.
Linearity: It is specified in terms of percentage of nonlinearity. Nonlinearity is
an indication of deviation of curve of actual measurement from the curve of ideal
measurement.
Ruggedness: It is a measure of the durability when the sensor is used under
extreme operating conditions.
Hysteresis: The hysteresis is defined as the maximum difference in output at any
measurable value within the sensor’s specified range when approaching the point
first with increasing and then with decreasing the input parameter.

4.Classification of Sensors
The scheme of classifying sensors can range from very simple to very complex.
The stimulus that is being sensed is an important factor in this classification.
Acoustic: Wave, spectrum and wave velocity.
Electric: Current, charge, potential, electric field, permittivity and conductivity.
Magnetic: Magnetic field, magnetic flux and permeability.
Thermal: Temperature, specific heat and thermal conductivity.
Mechanical: Position, acceleration, force, pressure, stress, strain, mass, density,
momentum, torque, shape, orientation, roughness, stiffness, compliance,
crystallinity and structural.
Optical: Wave, wave velocity, refractive index, reflectivity, absorption and
emissivity.
The sensors’ conversion phenomenon is also an important factor in classification
of sensors. Some of the conversion phenomena are magneto electric,
thermoelectric and photoelectric.
I. Displacement, Position and Proximity Sensors
Resistive Element or Potentiometer
Capacitive Elements
Strain Gauged Element
Inductive Proximity Sensors
Eddy Current Proximity Sensors
Differential Transformers
Optical Encoders
Hall Effect Sensors
Pneumatic Sensors
II. Temperature Sensors
Thermistors
Thermocouple
Bimetallic Strips
Resistance Temperature Detectors
Thermostat
III. Light Sensors
Photo Diode
Phototransistor
Light Dependent Resistor
IV. Velocity and Motion
Pyroelectric Sensors
Tachogenerator
Incremental encoder
V. Fluid Pressure
Diaphragm Pressure Gauge
Tactile Sensor
Piezoelectric Sensors
Capsules, Bellows, Pressure Tubes
VI. Liquid Flow and Level
Turbine Meter
Orifice Plate and Venturi Tube
VII. IR Sensor
Infrared Transmitter and Receiver Pair

5. Resistive Transducer
Definition: The transducer whose resistance varies because of the environmental
effects such type of transducer is known as the resistive transducer. The change
in resistance is measured by the ac or dc measuring devices. The resistive
transducer is used for measuring the physical quantities like temperature,
displacement, vibration etc.
Example – The circuit of the sliding resistive transducer is shown in the figure
below. The sliding contacts are placed on the resistive element. The slider moves
horizontally. The movement of the slider changes the value of the resistive
element of the transducer which is measured by the voltage source E.
Working Principle of Resistive Transducer
The resistive transducer element works on the principle that the resistance of the
element is directly proportional to the length of the conductor and inversely
proportional to the area of the conductor.

Where R – resistance in ohms.

A – cross-section area of the conductor in meter square.
L – Length of the conductor in meter square.
ρ – the resistivity of the conductor in materials in ohm meter.
The resistive transducer is designed by considering the variation of the length,
area and resistivity of the metal.
6. Potentiometer: Definition, Types, And Working Principle

A potentiometer (also known as a pot or potmeter) is defined as a 3 terminal

variable resistor in which the resistance is manually varied to control the flow of
electric current. A potentiometer acts as an adjustable voltage divider.
How Does a Potentiometer Work?
A potentiometer is a passive electronic component. Potentiometers work by
varying the position of a sliding contact across a uniform resistance. In a
potentiometer, the entire input voltage is applied across the whole length of the
resistor, and the output voltage is the voltage drop between the fixed and sliding
contact as shown below.

A potentiometer has the two terminals of the input source fixed to the end of the
resistor. To adjust the output voltage the sliding contact gets moved along the
resistor on the output side.
7. Loading Effect of Electrical Measurement Instruments
Any type of electrical measurement device/equipment connected to a circuit
impacts its electrical properties to some extent. A voltmeter connected to some
high-value resistance can impact the actual resistance of the circuit, similarly, an
ammeter connected in the circuit can impact the amount of current flowing in the
circuit.
8. What is a Strain Gauge?
Strain Gauge or Strain Gage was invented in 1938 by Edward E. Simmons and
Arthur C. Ruge. It is one of the significant sensors used in the geotechnical field
to measure the amount of strain on any structure (Dams, Buildings, Nuclear
Plants, Tunnels, etc.). The resistance of a strain gauge varies with applied force
and, it converts parameters such as force, pressure, tension, weight, etc. into a
change in resistance that can be measured later on.
How does a strain gauge work?
A strain gauge depends on the electrical resistivity of any conductor. The
resistance in any conducting device is dependent on its length as well as the cross-
section area.
Suppose L1 is the original length of wire and L2 is the new length after an external
force is applied on it, the strain (ε) is given by the formula:
ε = (L2-L1)/L1
Now, whenever an external force changes the physical parameters of an object,
its electrical resistivity also changes. A strain gauge measures this deformity by
using the Gauge Factor formula.
9. Types of Strain Gauges
There are several strain gauge types based on the principle of their working viz.
mechanical, optical, acoustical, pneumatic or electrical. Considering the
mounting, strain gauges can be either bonded or unbonded and based on the
construction, we can have foil, semiconductor, and photoelectric strain gauges.
Encardio-rite primarily deals with six different types of strain gauges:
The Model EDS-11V strainmeter is suitable for embedment in soil or concrete or
for surface mounting by welding on steel structures. It provides significant
quantitative data on the magnitude and distribution of compressive and tensile
strain and its variations with time.
The Encardio-rite strain meter incorporates the latest vibrating wire technology
to provide the remote digital readout of compressive and tensile strain in dams,
bridges, underground cavities, sewer/metro/rail/road tunnels, mines, steel
structures and other areas of application where strain measurement is required.
Long term stability is achieved by thermal and load cycling, the unique method
of wire clamping by generating a vacuum of 1/1000 Torr inside the sensor by
electron beam welding. This results in the effect of oxidation, moisture,
environmental conditions and any ingress of water being completely eliminated.
Working Principle of Hermetically Sealed Vibrating Wire Strain Gauge

The Encardio-rite vibrating wire strain meter basically consists of a magnetic,

high tensile strength stretched wire, one end of which is anchored and the other
end is displaced proportionally to the variation in strain.
Any change in the strain directly affects the tension of the wire, resulting in a
corresponding change in the frequency of vibration of the wire. The resonant
frequency, with which the wire vibrates, is read by the readout unit. The strain is
proportional to the square of the frequency and the readout unit is able to display
this directly in strains.
10. Inductive Transducers

Inductive transducers work on the principle of inductance change due to any

appreciable change in the quantity to be measured i.e. measured. For example,
LVDT, a kind of inductive transducers, measures displacement in terms of
voltage difference between its two secondary voltages. Secondary voltages are
nothing but the result of induction due to the flux change in the secondary coil
with the displacement of the iron bar. Anyway, LVDT is discussed here briefly
to explain the principle of inductive transducer. LVDT will be explained in
another article in more detail. For the time being let’s focus on the basic
introduction of inductive transducers.
An example of an Inductive Transducer (LVDT)
Now first our motive is to find how the inductive transducers can be made to
work. This can be done by changing the flux with the help of measured and this
changing flux obviously changes the inductance and this inductance change can
be calibrated in terms of measured.
11. Linear Variable Differential Transformer LVDT
Definition of LVDT
The term LVDT stands for the Linear Variable Differential Transformer. It is the
most widely used inductive transducer that converts the linear motion into the
electrical signal.
The output across secondary of this transformer is the differential thus it is called
so. It is very accurate inductive transducer as compared to other inductive
transducers.

Principle of Operation and Working

As the primary is connected to an AC source so alternating current and voltages
are produced in the secondary of the LVDT. The output in secondary S1 is e1 and
in the secondary S2 is e2. So the differential output is,
Types of LVD
TsLD400: Miniature DC Output Displacement Transducers with Acetal Bearings
LD400: Miniature DC Output Displacement Transducers with Acetal Bearings
LVDT Sensors - determine whether you need to measure a relative current: C-in,
AC-out, DC-in, DC-out; or measuring resonant frequencies of coils as a function
of coil position, frequency-based devices.
Captive Armatures: These mechanisms are better for long working ranges.
Captive armatures help prevent misalignment because they are guided and
restrained by low friction assemblies.
Unguided Armatures: Infinite resolution qualities, the unguided armature LVDT
mechanism is a no-wear design that doesn’t restrict the resolution of measured
data. This mechanism type is attached to the specimen to be measured, fitting
loosely in the tube, requiring the body of the linear transducer to be supported
separately.
Force-Extended Armatures: Use internal spring mechanisms, pneumatic force, or
electric motors to push the armature continuously to its fullest extension possible.
Force-extended armatures are used in LVDT’s for slow moving applications.
These mechanisms require no connection between the specimen and armature.
Linear Variable Displacement Transducers are commonly used in modern
machining tools, avionics, robotics, and computerized or motion control,
Automation manufacturing. The selection of an applicable type of LVDT can be
considered
12.Capacitive Transducers
Definition: Capacitive transducers are passive transducers that determine the
quantities like displacement, pressure and temperature etc. by measuring the
variation in the capacitance of a capacitor.
As we know that a transducer changes a form of energy into another form. So, in
the capacitive transducer, the change in the capacitance is used to measure the
physical quantities.
Principle of Capacitive Transducer
The operating principle of a capacitive transducer is variable capacitance.
Now, the question arises that how the change in the capacitance of the capacitor
occurs?
Assume a parallel plate capacitor, whose capacitance is given by:

: A denots the area of the plates,

ε0 is the permittivity of free space,
εr is the relative permittivity and
d is the distance between the two plates in metre.

From the above equation is it clear that the capacitance of the capacitor is
dependent on the area of the two plates, the distance between two plates and the
permittivity of the material.
Hence, by varying either area, distance or permittivity, the non-electrical
quantities can be determined.
So basically, it can be concluded that there exist 3 methods by which the
capacitance of the capacitive transducer can be varied. The methods are:
By the change in the area of overlapping of the two plates i.e., A
By the change in the distance, d between the two plates
By the change in relative permittivity of dielectric material present between the
two plates.
So, let us now move further and understand, how the unknown physical quantity
is being measured by causing variation in the different parameters.
Working of Capacitive Transducer
By changing the overlapping area of the two capacitive plates:
The figure below shows the parallel plate capacitor, whose 2 plates have width b
and are overlapped up to a length l as shown below:

It operates in such a way that capacitance of the capacitor is proportional to the

area of overlapping of the two plates.
This overlapping length is changed according to the displacement that is to be
measured. Hence displacement variation allows the change in the capacitance.
By changing the distance between the capacitive two plates:
The operation of these capacitors is such that the capacitance of the capacitor is
inversely proportional to the distance i.e., d between the plates. Hence used to
determine the linear displacement.
In such transducers, among the two capacitive plates, one is stationary (fixed)
while the other is mobile (movable). So, with the motion of the movable plate,
the capacitance increases or decreases depending on the displacement which is to
be measured.
By changing the permittivity of the dielectric material:
This type of transducer operates by the variation in the relative permittivity of the
dielectric material placed between the plates.

The motion of dielectric material between the plates determines the capacitance
in order to determine the displacement.
The figure below represents a capacitive transducer with the variation of relative
permittivity:
Here, the distance between the plates is d while b is the width of each plate. x
denotes the displacement of dielectric material; l denotes the overlapped region
of the two plates.
What is Dielectric Constant?
The dielectric constant of a substance can be defined as:
The ratio of the permittivity of the substance to the permittivity of the free space
It expresses the extent to which a material can hold electric flux in it.
13. Dielectric Constant
The dielectric constant of a substance can be defined as:
The ratio of the permittivity of the substance to the permittivity of the free space
It expresses the extent to which a material can hold electric flux in it.
Dielectric Constant Formula
It is mathematically expressed as:
κ=εε0
Where,
κ is the dielectric constant
𝜺 is the permittivity of the substance
𝜺0 is the permittivity of the free space
Dielectric Constant Units
As it is the ratio of two like entities, it is a unitless, dimensionless quantity.