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Properties of Matter and

05 Fluid Mechanics

Mechanical Properties of Solids

Introduction to types of forces and types of bodies
Types of forces
Deforming Forces
External force which tends to bring about a change in the length, volume or shape of a body is called
deforming force.
Restoring Forces
When an external force acts at any object then an internal resistance produced in the material due to the
intermolecular forces which is called restoring force.
Elasticity
Elasticity is that property of a material of a body by virtue of which it opposes any change in its shape or
size when deforming forces are applied on it, and recover its original state as soon as the deforming force
are removed
Types of Bodies
Rigid Body
A body is said to be rigid if the relative positions of its constituent particles remain unchanged when external
deforming forces are applied to it. The nearest approach to a rigid body is diamond or carborundum.
Perfectly Elastic Body
A body which perfectly regains its original form on removing the external deforming force, is defined as a
perfectly elastic body. Example : quartz. – It is quite close to a perfect elastic body.
Plastic Body
A body which does not have the property of opposing the deforming forces, is known as a plastic body.
All bodies which remain in the deformed state even after the removal of the deforming forces are known
as plastic bodies. Example : clay, wax, putty.
Stress and its types, breaking stress
Stress
The restoring force acting per unit area of the deformed
body is called stress.
internal restoring forces Fr F
stress =
area of cross sec tion
F (at equilibrium)
stress = external
A
SI Unit: N/m 2 Dimensions: [M1L–1T–2]
Types of Stress

Longitudinal Stress Volumetric Stress Shear Stress

Tensile Stress

Compressive Stress
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Types of stress
(i) Longitudinal Stress
When the stress is normal to the cross sectional area, then it
F
is known as longitudinal stress.

F⊥
Longitudinal Stress =
A
There are two types of longitudinal stress:
(a) Tensile Stress F
The longitudinal stress, produced due to increase in the
length of a body, is defined as tensile stress.

(b) Compressive Stress

The longitudinal stress, produced due to the decrease
in the length of a body, is defined as compressive stress. F

(ii) Volume Stress/Hydraulic Stress

If equal normal forces are applied over every unit surface of a body, then it undergoes a certain change
in volume. The force opposing this change in volume per unit area is defined as volume stress.
F
Volume Stess/Hydraulic Stress = ⊥ = P
A
(iii) Shear Stress/Tangential Stress F
When the stress is tangential or parallel to the surface of a body
then it is known as shear stress. Due to this stress, the shape of
the body changes or it gets twisted but not its volume.
F FTangential
Shear stress = t =
A A
(iv) Breaking Stress
The minimum stress required to cause the actual fracture of a material is called the breaking stress or
ultimate strength. or
The maximum stress that a material can bear is called breaking stress.

Fmax Fmax

Fmax
Breaking stress = Fmax = force required to break the body.
A
Dependence of breaking stress:
(i) Nature of material (ii) Temperature (iii) Impurities.
Independence of breaking stress :
(i) Cross sectional area or thickness (ii) Applied force (Fmax = B.S. × Area).
Maximum load (force) which can applied on the wire depends on
(i) Cross sectional area or thickness (ii) Nature of material
(iii) Temperature (iv) Impurities
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Illustration 1:
The ratio of radii of two wires of same materials is 2 : 1. Find if they are stretched by the same force, the
ratio of stress:
Solution:
2 2
force F (stress)1 F r22  r2  1  1
Stress = = 2  = 2 × =   =   =
area r (stress)2 r1 F  r1  2 4
Illustration 2:
A body of mass 10 kg is attached to a 30 cm long wire whose breaking stress is 4.8 × 107 N/m2. The area of
cross section of the wire is 10-6 m2. What is the maximum angular velocity with which it can be rotated in
a horizontal circle?
Solution:
m2L (BS)A 4.8  107  10−6
= breaking stress (BS)   = = = 4 rad/s
A mL 10  0.3
Illustration 3:
The breaking stress of aluminium is 7.5 × 108 dyne/cm2. Find the maximum length of aluminium wire that
can hang vertically without getting broken under its own weight. Density of aluminium is 2.7 g/cm3.
Given : g = 980 cm/s2.
Solution:
Let L be the maximum length of the wire that can hang vertically without getting broken.
Mass of the wire, m = cross-sectional area (A) × length (L) × density ()
Weight of the wire = mg = ALg
This is equal to the maximum force that the wire can withstand.
LAg
 Breaking stress = = Lg
A
7.5  108
Or 7.5 × 108 = L × 2.7 × 980  L = = 2.834 × 105 cm = 2.3 km
2.7  980
Strain and its types
Strain
change in the dimension of the body
Strain =
original dimension of the body
It is a unitless and dimensionless quantity.

Types of Strain

Longitudinal Strain Volumetric Strain Shear Strain

Tensile Strain

Compressive Strain

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(i) Longitudinal strain:
L
When applied force is ⊥ to cross-section, length changes
change in length of the body L F
Longitudinal strain = =
initial length of the body L
(ii) Volumetric strain: L
When pressure is applied on body, volume changes
change in volume of the body V
Volume strain = =
original volume of the body V
F⊥

F⊥ F⊥

F⊥
(iii) Shear strain:
When applied force is ∥ to cross-section, shape changes x
x F
tan = (Here  is very small)
L
L
displacement of upper face relative

x to the lower face
= =
L distance between two faces
ϕ = shear strain OR angle of shear

Relation between angle of twist and angle of shear

When a cylinder of length L and radius r is fixed at one end and a tangential force is applied at the other
end, then the cylinder gets twisted. Figure shows the angle of shear  and angle of twist .
From diagram
r = L
r L
=  
L
r
 = angle of twist
 = angle of shear
Illustration 4:
A wire of length 1m and radius 2mm is clamped from it’s upper end. The lower end is twisted through an
angle of 45°. The angle of shear is?
Solution:
r 2  10−3
= = × 45° = 0.09°
L 1
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Hooke's law
According to this law within the elastic limit the stress produced in a body is directly proportional to the
corresponding strain.
Stress α Strain Or Stress = E × strain
Here, E = coefficient of elasticity or modulus of elasticity
Stress
E=
Strain
Stress
The slope of stress & strain graph gives coefficient of elasticity.
(i) E depends on :
1. Nature of material Slope = tan= E
2. Impurities
3. Temperature
(ii) E independent from:- 
1. Stress
Strain
2. Strain

BEGINNER’S BOX-1
1. Find out the longitudinal stress and tangential stress on the fixed block shown in figure.
100N
30°
1m

5m

2. A 2 m long rod of radius 1 cm which is fixed at one end is given a twist of 0.8 radians at the other
end. Find the shear strain developed.
3. The maximum stress that can be applied to the material of a wire employed to suspend an elevator
3
is × 108 N/m2. If the mass of the elevator is 900 kg and it moves up with an acceleration of 2.2

m/s2 then calculate the minimum radius of the wire.
4. A human bone is subjected to a compressive force of 5.0 × 105 N. The bone is 25 cm long and has
an approximate cross sectional area of 4.0 cm2. If the ultimate compressive strength of the bone
is 1.70 × 108 N/m2, will the bone be compressed or will it break under this force?
5. The breaking stress of steel is 7.9  108 N/m2 and density is 7.9  103 kg/m3. What should be the
maximum length of a steel wire so that it may not break under its own weight?
6. A wire can bear a weight of 20 kg before it breaks. If the wire is divided into two equal parts, then
each part will support a maximum weight .....
Significance of Modulus of Elasticity
More is the value of Modulus of Elasticity, more is the Elasticity of material.
It means more elastic material will have more tendency to regain its shape under elastic limit deformation
(not permanent deformation).
Young's Modulus of Elasticity
Within elastic limit, the ratio of longitudinal stress to longitudinal strain is called Young's modulus of elasticity.
longitudinal stress F / A
Y= =
longitudinal strain L / L
FL
Y=
AL
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Unit of Y: N/m2 Dimensions of Y: [M1L–1T–2] Load
longitudinal stress F / A YA (F)
Y= =  F= L
longitudinal strain L / L L
Note : For spring : F = kx …(i) Slope = tan=
YA
For wire : F = L …(ii) =K
L 
YA Elongation
From (i) and (ii), k =
L (L)
Illustration 5:
A copper wire of negligible mass, length 1 m and cross-sectional area 10–6 m2 is kept on a smooth horizontal
table with one end fixed. A ball of mass 1kg is attached to the other end. The wire and the ball are rotating
with an angular velocity of 20 rad/s. If the elongation in the wire is 10 –3 m, obtain the Young's modulus of
copper.
Solution:
Centripetal force F = m2r
F m2r L
 Stress in the wire = = and strain in the wire =
A A L
Stress m2L  L 1  (20)2  (1)2
Young’s modulus Y = = = = 4 × 1011 N/m2
Strain A.L 10−6  10−3
Illustration 6:
The graph shows the extension of a wire of length 1m suspended W(N)
from a roof at one end and with a load W connected to the other
end. If the cross sectional area of the wire is 1 mm 2, then the 100
Young's modulus of the material of the wire is 80
Solution: 60
F/A WL W YA 40
Y= =  = = slope
L / L AL L L 20
L 1  40 − 20  L(mm)
Y= × (slope) = −6   = 2 × 1010 N/m2 1 2 3 4 5
A 10  (2 − 1) 10−3 
Illustration 7:
Two wires are made of the same metal. The length of the first wire is half that of the second wire and its
diameter is double that of the second wire. If equal loads are applied on both the wires, find the ratio of
increase in their lengths.
Solution
F
A FL FL L 4FL d2Y L d2 1 1 1
Y=  L = = 2 = 1 = 2 1  2 = 1  22 =  2 =
L AY r Y L2 d1Y 4FL2 L2 d1 2 (2) 8
L
Illustration 8.
Calculate the force required to increase the length of a steel wire of cross-sectional area 10−6 m2 by 0.5%.
given: Y(for steel) = 2 × 1011 N/m2 .
Solution:
L L
× 100 = 0.5%  = 5 × 10-3
L L
L
So, F = YA = 2 × 1011 × 10-6 × 5 × 10-3 = 103 N
L
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Elongation in hanging wire due to its own weight
Since the weight can assumed to be act at the centre of gravity, therefore
L
L Mg 
 The original length will be taken as  Y = 2  L = MgL L
2 A  L 2AY CG
LAgL gL2
But, M = (LA)   L = or L =
2AY 2Y
Illustration 9:
A rubber rope of length 8 m is hung from the ceiling of a room. What is the increase in length of the rope due
to its own weight? (Given : Young's modulus of elasticity of rubber = 5 × 106 N m–2 and density of rubber =
1.5 × 103 kg/m3 and g = 10 m/s2).
Solution:
g 2 1.5  103  10  8  8
L = = = 9.6 × 10–2 m = 9.6 × 10–2 × 103 mm = 96 mm.
2Y 2  5  106
Bulk modulus of elasticity 'K' or 'B'
Within elastic limit, the ratio of the volumetric stress (i.e., change in pressure) to the volumetric strain is
called Bulk modulus of elasticity.
volumetric stress F / A P
K orB = = =
volumetric strain –V –V
V V
The negative sign indicates a decrease in volume with an increase in pressure and vice-versa.
Unit of K: N/m2 or Pascal
Compressibility ‘C’
The reciprocal of Bulk modulus of elasticity is defined as compressibility.
1
C= SI unit of C: m2/N or pascal–1
K
Illustration 10:
A sphere contracts in volume by 0.01% when taken to the bottom of sea 1 km deep. Find the Bulk modulus
of the material of the sphere. Given: density of sea water is 1 g/cm3, g = 980 cm/s2.
Solution:
| V | 0.01
= , h = 1 km = 105 cm,  = 1 g/cm3 ; P = hg = 105 × 1× 980 dyne/cm2, K = ?
V 100
P P  V 105  980  100
K= = = dyne/cm2 = 9.8 × 1011 dyne/cm2.
| V |/V | V | 0.01
Modulus of Rigidity ''
Within elastic limit, the ratio of shearing stress to shearing strain is called modulus of rigidity of a material.
 Ftangential  x
shearing stress   F F
= = A  = tangential
shearing strain    A
  L
  
Note: Angle of shear 'Ф' is always taken in radians
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Material
Solid Liquid Gas Ideal rigid body
E
Young's modulus defined Not defined (0) Not defined (0) Infinite
Bulk modulus defined defined defined infinite
Shear modulus defined Not defined (0) Not defined (0) infinite

Work done in stretching a wire (Potential energy of a stretched wire)

When a wire of length 'L' is stretched by an external force F, then work has to be done against the restoring
force this work is stored as potential energy of wire.
1 2
For spring :W.D.= Elastic Potential energy = kx
2
1  YA 
For wire :W = PE =   ( L )2
2 L 
1  YA  1
EPE =  L  ( L ) = F (  L ) Fr
F
2 L  2
1 F  L 
EPE = ( AL ) L X
2 A  L 
1
EPE = ( stress ) ( strain ) ( volume )
2
1
EPE = Y(strain)2(volume)
2
1  (stress)2 
EPE =   (volume)
2  Y 
Illustration 11:
A rubber cord has a cross–sectional area 1 mm 2 and total unstretched length 10 cm. It is stretched to
12 cm and then released to project a mass of 5 g. Young's modulus for rubber is 5 × 108 N/m2. Find the
tension in the cord and velocity of the mass.
Solution:
YA 5 108  1  10−6  2 10−2
Tension in the cord = L = = 100 N.
L 10  10−2
When the mass is released, elastic energy stored = Kinetic energy of mass
1 1 F  L 100  2 10−2
F  L = mv2  v = = = 20 m/s.
2 2 m 5 10−3
Illustration 12:
Young modulus of elasticity of brass is 1011 N/m2. The increase in its energy on pressing a rod of length 0.1
m and cross–sectional area 1 cm2 made of brass with a force of 10 kg along its length, will be ............
Solution:
1 1 FL 1 0.1
Increase in energy = F × L = × F × =  (10  10)2  −4 = 5 × 10–5 J
2 2 AY 2 10  1011
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Potential energy density
Potential energy per unit volume stored in the wire Stress
PE
PED =
vol
SI unit : J/m3 or N/m2
1 1 1  (stress)2 
PED = (stress)(strain) = Y(strain)2 =   Area = PED
2 2 2 Y  
Note: Slope = tanθ = E = coefficient of elasticity Strain
1
Area =  stress  strain = Potential Energy Density
2
Poisson’s Ratio ()
L r
longitudinal strain = ; lateral strain = L
L r
Within elastic limit, the ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal r
strain is called poisson's ratio. r
lateral strain r / r
=  =−
longitudinal strain L / L L
–1    0.5 (theoretical limit)
  0.2 – 0.4 (experimental limit)
Interatomic Force Constant F
Interatomic force constant k is equal to the product of Young’s modulus of the material of the wire and the
normal distance r0 between the atoms of the wire.
k or ka = Y. r0
Y = Young's modulus; r0 = interatomic distance
Illustration 13:
Young modulus of elasticity of steel is 2 x 1011 N/m2. If interatomic distance for steel is 3.2 Å, then find the
interatomic force constant.
Solution:
k = Y× r0 = 2 × 1011 × 3.2 × 10–10 = 64 N/m.
Relation between Y,K, and  : (To be remembered)
9 3 1
1. Y = 3K (1 – 2) 2. Y = 2 (1 + ) 3. = +
Y  K

Stress Strain relationship and Graphical analysis

Proportional limit
Elastic limit
Breaking stress
Stress

C
x D
B
Fracture point
A

Permanent set

strain
O Elastic Region Plastic Region
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1. In the region between O to A the curve is linear. Hooke's law is obeyed. In this region the solid
behaves as an elastic body.
2. In the region A to B stress and strain are not proportional but body regains its original shape and
size when the load is removed. Point B is known as the elastic limit.
3. If the load is increased further the strain developed increases rapidly than stress.
4. In the region from B to D, when load is removed the body does not regain its original dimensions.
Even when stress is zero the strain is not zero. The material is said to have a permanent set. The
region beyond point B is known as the plastic region.
5. Point C corresponds to the ultimate tensile strength; beyond this point additional strain is
produced by even a reduced applied force and fracture occurs at point D.
6. If plastic region is large then material will be ductile. Stress
7. If plastic region is small then material will be brittle.
Note: For some materials elastic region is very large and the material
does not obey Hooke's law over most of the region. These are
called elastomers e.g. Tissue of Aorta, rubber, etc.
Strain
Illustration 14:
The stress versus strain graphs for two materials A and B are shown below. Explain the following
A
B
Stress

Strain
(a) Which material has greater Young's modulus? (b) Which material is more ductile?
(c) Which material is more brittle? (d) Which of the two is stronger material?
Solution:
(a) Material A has greater value of Young's modulus, because slope of A is greater than that of B.
(b) Material A is more ductile because there is a large plastic deformation range between the elastic
limit and the breaking point.
(c) Material B is more brittle because the plastic region between the elastic limit and breaking point is
small.
(d) Strength of a material is determined by the stress required to cause fracture. Material A is stronger
than material B.

BEGINNER’S BOX-2
1. A stress of 20  108 N/m2 is developed when the length of a wire is doubled. Its Young's modulus
of elasticity in N/m2 will be ............
2. The ratio of lengths of two wires made up of the same material is 3 : 1 and the ratio of their radii
is 1 : 3. The ratio of increments of lengths on account of suspending the same weight will be ............
3. The following four wires are made of same material. Which one will have the largest elongation
when subjected to the same tension?
(1) Length 500 cm, diameter 0.05 mm. (2) Length 200 cm, diameter 0.02 mm.
(3) Length 300 cm, diameter 0.03 mm. (4) Length 400 cm, diameter 0.01 mm.
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4. The bulk's modulus of copper is 138  109 Pa. The additional pressure generated in an explosion
chamber is 345  106 Pa. Then the percentage change in the volume of a piece of copper placed in
this chamber will be ............
5. The compressibility of water per unit atmospheric pressure is 4  10–5. Decrease in the volume of
100 cm3 water of volume at 100 atmospheric pressure will be ............
6. Two parallel and opposite forces, each of magnitude 4000 N, are applied tangentially to the upper
and lower faces of a cubical metal block of side 25 cm. If the shear modulus for the metal is
8 × 1010 Pa, then the displacement of the upper surface relative to the lower surface will be ............

F


F L = 25 cm
7. Young modulus of elasticity of brass is 1011 N/m2. The increase in its energy on pressing a rod of
length 0.1 m and cross–sectional area 1 cm2 made of brass with a force of 10 kg along its length,
will be ............

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