PSYC-101 - General Psychology – Midterm Exam Study Guide

Text: Psychology in Your Life

Chapter 1: Introducing the World of Psychology

After reading and studying this topic, you should be able to do the following:

1. Define psychology
the scientific study of the mind and behavior, both of which depend on processing in the brain.

2. Compare and contrast the following approaches to psychology and identify contributions of each
approach: Psychoanalytic, Cognitive, Humanistic, and Behaviorism.

Psychoanalytic theory (study unit 1.5)

understand how unconscious thoughts cause psychological disorders

Behaviorism (study unit 1.6)

describe behavior in response to environmental stimuli

Humanistic psychology (study unit 1.6)

Investigate how people become happier and more fulfilled; focus on people’s goodness

Cognitive psychology (study unit 1.6)

explore internal mental processes that influence behavior

3. Describe the five steps used in the Scientific Method.

1 Formulate a theory.

You develop a scienti c explanation about a phenomenon. A literature review of existing studies informs
your theory. In this example, your theory is that a major cause of car crashes is distracted driving.

2 Develop a testable hypothesis.

You create a speci c, testable hypothesis related to the theory. In this example, a good testable prediction
is that “Using a cell phone will interfere with driving because it is distracting.”

3 Test with a research method.

You test your hypothesis by selecting the most appropriate research method (see study units 1.9–1.11).
You then collect data to evaluate your hypothesis. For example, in an experiment you might have some
participants

talk on a handheld or hands-free cell phone in a driving simulator while other participants do not talk on a
cell phone.

4 Analyze the data.

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You analyze the data using appropriate statistical techniques and draw conclusions. If the data do not
support your hypothesis, you either discard the theory or revise it (and make plans to test the revision).
See, at the

back of the book, Appendix A: How Do Psychologists Analyze Research Data?

5 Share the results and conduct more research.

You submit results to research journals and present them at conferences to share them with the scienti c
community. Then you continue the process by re ning your theory, making further predictions, and
testing hypotheses.

4. Discuss the importance of critical thinking in Psychology

1.2 Psychology Teaches You to Think Critically Review the learning goal activities on p. 6.
Studying psychology can improve critical thinking skills when you follow the three steps in critical
thinking. Each step involves a question: (1) What is the claim I am being asked to accept?, (2) What
evidence, if any, is provided to support the claim?, and (3) Given the evidence, what are the most
reasonable conclusions about the claim—should it be accepted or rejected?
critical thinking - systematically evaluating information to reach conclusions best supported by
evidence.

5. Distinguish between a theory and hypothesis.

theory is an explanation or a model of how some mental process or behavior occurs.
hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction about the theory.

6. Discuss the advantages and limitations of the Descriptive methods: case study, self-reports, and
observational.
Observational studies are a descriptive method. They involve observing and classifying
behavior, either with intervention by the observer or without intervention by the observer.
Advantages

Disadvantages

Especially valuable in the early stages of research, when trying to determine whether a phenomenon exists. Can take
place with intervention or without intervention.

Errors in observation can occur because of an observer’s expectations (observer bias). An observer’s presence can
change the behavior being witnessed (reactivity).

Self-reports are a descriptive method that involves asking questions of research participants. The participants then
respond in any way they feel is appropriate or select from among a xed number of options.

Advantages

Disadvantages

Self-reports such as surveys and questionnaires can be used to gather data from a large number of people. They are
easy to administer, cost-ef cient, and a relatively fast way to collect data. Interviewing people face-to-face gives the
researcher the opportunity to explore new lines of questioning.
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People can introduce biases into their answers (self-report bias). They may not recall information accurately.

Case studies are a descriptive research method that involves intensive examination of one person or organization or
a few individuals or organizations.

Advantages Can provide a lot of data.

Disadvantages Can be very subjective. If a researcher has a preexisting theory (for example, people who are socially
awkward are dangerous), this theory can bias what is observed, investigated, and recorded. The results cannot be
generalized from a single case study to the population.

7. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of correlational research methods.

The directionality problem and the third variable problem are the two main reasons that
correlational methods prevent researchers from being able to state that changes in one variable actually
cause changes in another. failure to consider these problems may lead to wrong conclusions. here is a way
to visualize these problems in correlational methods.

8. Describe experimental methods and discuss advantages and disadvantages of this method.
Experimental methods examine how one variable that is manipulated by researchers affects
another variable.
experimental methods
research methods that test causal hypotheses by manipulating independent variables and measuring the
effects on dependent variables.

Advantages

Provide control over the independent variable (which is manipulated), so can demonstrate that one thing causes
another. Avoid the directionality problem.

Disadvantages

Varying something other than the independent variable (a confound) can affect the dependent variable (which is
measured) and lead to inaccurate conclusions. Often take place in an arti cial setting.

9. Define the dependent and independent variables in an experiment

(a) The independent variable is under the control of the experimenter, and
it is manipulated. (b) It may produce changes in the dependent variable, which is the outcome that is
measured.

10. Explain the purpose of random assignment and distinguish between the experimental group and the
control group in an experiment.
Placing research participants into the conditions of an experiment in such a way that each
participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any level of the independent variable.
control group
In an experiment, a comparison group of participants that does not receive the experimental treatment.
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experimental group
In an experiment, one or more treat- ment groups of participants that receive the manipulation of the
independent variable being investigated.

11. Discuss the pupose of the Institutional Review Board (IRB) in dealing with ethical concerns in
research including informed consent and protection from harm.
institutional review boards (IRBs)
groups of people responsible for reviewing proposed research to ensure that it meets the accepted
standards of science and provides for the physical and emotional well-being of research participants.

Chapter 2: The Role of Biology in Psychology

After reading and studying this topic, you should be able to do the following:
1. Be able to describe the structures of a neuron (axon, cell body, dendrite, terminal buttons)
dendrites
Branchlike extensions of the neuron’s cell body with receptors that receive information from other
neurons.
cell body
Part of the neuron where information from thousands of other neurons is col- lected and integrated.
axon
A long, narrow outgrowth of a neuron’s cell body that lets the neuron transmit information to other
neurons.
terminal buttons
Parts of the neuron, at the end of axons, that release chemical signals from the neuron into the synapse.

2. Define synapse and explain the importance of neurotransmitters in sending messages.

synapse
The space between neurons where communication takes place through neurotransmitters.
In the synapse, the neurons do not actually touch each other. Instead, they communicate by
releasing chemicals at the terminal buttons. These chemicals, called neurotransmitters, cross the tiny gap
between the sending neuron and the dendrites of the receiving neurons.
3. Briefly describe the peripheral and central nervous systems.
The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and the spinal cord, which both contain
massive numbers of nerve cells. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of the nerve cells outside
of the brain and spinal cord. These two divisions are separate, but they interact constantly.

4. Define the influence of drugs that are agonists and drugs that are antagonists on neurotransmitters (you
do not have to know the functions of individual neurotransmitters like Dopamine now)
Drugs that enhance the actions of neurotransmitters are called agonists.
By contrast, drugs that inhibit the actions of neurotransmitters are called antago- nists.

5. Briefly describe what techniques are used to study the brain in modern brain research: EEG, fMRI,
TMS
An electroencephalograph, or EEG, measures the brain’s electrical activity. Functional magnetic
resonance imaging (fMRI) maps brain activity during a mental task based indirectly on blood flow to
different brain areas. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) disrupts brain activity in a specific brain
region, letting researchers explore the brain processes involved in particular mental activity and
behaviors.

6. Describe the role of the hindbrain and midbrain

HINDBRAIN At the base of the skull, the spinal cord thickens and becomes more complex. At
this point, the spinal cord becomes the hindbrain. The hindbrain contains structures that control body
functions that are essential for
survival.
The hindbrain has three main structures (Figure 2.14).
The first structure of the hindbrain is the medulla. The medulla controls the most basic functions of
survival, including heart rate, breathing, swallowing, vomiting, urination, and orgasm. A significant blow
directly to the medulla can even cause death. Have you ever gagged on something? If so, that was caused
by the function of your medulla. Gagging is a reflex that prevents us from choking on something, so it is
crucial for survival.
The second structure of the hindbrain, the pons,
plays an important role in sleep and arousal and in coordinating movements between the left and right
sides of
the body (see Figure 2.14).

SPINAL CORD
The spinal cord is the gateway for information to travel into the brain from the body. It carries sensory
information up to the brain and carries motor signals from the brain to the body parts to initiate action.
The spinal cord also coordinates reflexes—such as the way your leg moves when a doctor taps your knee
or how your arm moves when you jerk your hand away from a flame.

Substantia nigra (initiating voluntary movements)

Pons
(sleep, arousal, left-right body motor coordination)
Cerebellum (balance, motor coordination, motor learning)
Medulla (heart rate, breathing)
Spinal cord (body-to-brain and brain-to-body communication)

The third structure of the hindbrain is a large extension called the cerebellum. It is located behind the
medulla and pons (see Figure 2.14). Its size and convoluted surface make it look like an extra brain. In
fact, the name cerebellum comes from the Latin word for “little brain.”
The cerebellum is essential for proper motor function.
Damage to the different parts of the cerebellum produces
very different effects. Damage to the very bottom causes problems with head tilt and balance. Damage to
the ridge that runs up the back of the cerebellum affects walking. Damage to the lobes on either side
causes a loss of coordination in the limbs. For example, a person with this kind of damage could not reach
out smoothly to pick up a pen.
The cerebellum is involved in motor learning and motor memory. For example, the cerebellum makes it
possible for you to ride a bicycle effortlessly—and to do so while planning your next meal. In fact, the
cerebellum may be involved in cognitive processes such as making plans, remembering events, using
language, and experiencing emotion.

7. Explain the functions of the hypothalamus, hippocampus, and amygdala

The hypothalamus is the brain’s master regulatory structure (see Figure 2.15). In other words, it
keeps the body “in balance”.It receives input from almost everywhere in the body, including other region
of the brain, and it sends its influence to almost everywhere in the body and brain.
Hippocampus plays a critical role in the formation of new memories
A subcortical forebrain structure; it serves a vital role in our learning to associate things with
emotional responses and in processing emotional information.

8. Describe the major functions of the occipital, parietal, frontal, and temporal lobes.
OCCIPITAL LOBES: vision
PARIETAL LOBES: touch, spatial information
TEMPORAL LOBES: hearing, memory
FRONTAL LOBES: planning, movement, complex thought

9. Explain the function of the prefrontal cortex

Prefrontal cortex (attention, self-control, social processes)

10.Define the general purpose of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous
system and the endocrine system
The sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system prepares the body for action.
The parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system returns the body to a resting state.

11.Define plasticity of the brain.

A property of the brain that causes it to change through experience, drugs, or injury.

12.Discuss the nature/nurture issue and how genes and the environment influence humans
The nature/nurture debate contrasted whether psychological characteristics resulted from a
person’s biological nature or are acquired through education, experience, and culture. The mind/body
problem was about whether the mind and body are separate and distinct or the mind is simply a person’s
personal experience of brain activity.
Chapter 6: Learning
After reading and studying this topic, you should be able to do the following:
1. Define learning
a change in behavior, resulting from experience.

2. Describe the primary difference between habituation and sensitization.

habituation - a decrease in behavioral response after lengthy or repeated exposure to a stimulus.
sensitization - an increase in behavioral response after lengthy or repeated exposure to a stimulus.

3. Define classical conditioning and be able to apply terms like unconditioned stimulus (US),
unconditioned response (UR), conditioned stimulus (CS), conditioned response (CR), extinction,
spontaneous recovery, generalization and discrimination.

4. Describe the difference between an operant and a reinforcer

operant - an action that is performed on an envi- ronment and has consequences.
reinforcer - a consequence of an action that af- fects the likelihood of the action being repeated, or
not, in the future.

5. Describe Thorndike’s law of effect

any behavior that leads to a “satisfying state of affairs” is likely to occur again.

6. Define operant conditioning and be able to apply terms like positive reinforcement, negative
reinforcement, positive punishment, negative punishment, and shaping to an example
operant conditioning, occurs when you learn that a behavior leads to a particular outcome. For
example, you learn that studying leads to better grades.
positive reinforcement - The addition of a stimulus to increase the probability that a behavior will
be repeated.
negative reinforcement - The removal of a stimulus to increase the probability that a behavior will
be repeated.
 positive punishment - The addition of a stimulus to decrease the probability that a behavior will
recur.
negative punishment - The removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability that a behavior will
recur.

7. Explain the 4 different reinforcement schedules fixed interval (FI), variable interval (VI), fixed ratio
(FR) and variable ratio (VR) and how they are related to learning
fixed interval schedule (FI) - reinforcing the occurrence of a particular behavior after a predeter-
mined amount of time since the last reinforcement.
variable interval schedule (VI) - reinforcing the occurrence of a particu- lar behavior after an
unpredictable and varying amount of time since the last reinforcement.
fixed ratio schedule (FR) - reinforcing a particular behavior after that behavior has occurred a
predeter- mined number of times.
variable ratio schedule (VR) - reinforcing a particular behavior after the behavior has occurred an
unpredict- able and varying number of times.

8. Define behavior modification

Behavior modification is the use of operant-conditioning techniques to eliminate unwanted
behaviors and replace them with desirable ones.

9. Define observational learning and be able to discuss the the differences between modaling and
vicarious conditioning
Observational learning - When we learn or change a behavior after watching a person engage in
that behavior.
Modeling - Displaying a behavior that imitates a previously observed behavior.
Vicarious conditioning - Learning to engage in a behavior or not, after seeing others being
rewarded or punished for performing that action.

Chapter 7: Memory
After reading and studying this topic, you should be able to do the following:
1. Define and explain the following: memory, encoding, storage, retrieval and selective attention.
Encoding: changing information into a neural code the brain can use. Here the reader is encoding
the visual input—the words and pictures on the page— to be stored.
Storage: maintaining information for some time. Here the reader is storing the encoded
information. He is strengthening storage by taking notes.
Retrieval: accessing the information for use. If the reader encodes and stores well, he will later be
able to retrieve the information and use it, such as on an exam.
Selective attention - The ability to direct mental resources to relevant information in order to
process that information further, while also ignoring irrelevant information.
2. Describe the 3 types of memory stores including sensory storage, short-term storage, and long-term
storage and be able to discuss differences in duration and capacity of storage in the 3 stores

3. Differentiate between short-term storage and working memory

short-term storage - A memory storage system that briefly holds a limited amount of information
in awareness.
working memory - An active processing system that allows manipulation of different types of
information to keep it available for current use.

4. Explain and apply different techniques used in Short-term and Long-term storage including: chunking,
maintenance rehearsal, and elaborative rehearsal.
chunking - using working memory to organize information into meaningful units to make it easier
to remember.
long-term storage - A memory storage system that allows relatively permanent storage, probably
of an unlimited amount of information.
maintenance rehearsal - using working memory processes to repeat information based on how it
sounds (auditory information); provides only shallow encoding of information and less successful long-
term storage.
elaborative rehearsal - using working memory processes to think about how new information re-
lates to yourself or your prior knowl- edge (semantic information); provides deeper encoding of
information for more successful long-term storage.

5. Define the primacy effect and recency effect

The primacy effect refers to the better memory people have for items presented at the beginning
of the list.
The recency effect refers to the better memory people have for the most recent items, the ones at
the end of the list

6. What are schemas and how are they related to long-term storage
 Schemas - Mental structures—collections of ideas, prior knowledge, and experiences—that help
organize information and guide thought and behavior.
Information in long- term storage is organized based on meaning through schemas and association
networks.

7. Explain the 2 types of amnesia: retrograde and anterograde.

Amnesia involves two forms of memory loss. (a) Retrograde amnesia is an inability to access
memories that were created before the brain damage (see red X). (b) Anterograde amnesia is an inability
to create new memories after the brain damage (see red X).

8. Be able to explain the differences between explicit, episodic, semantic, and implicit memory.
explicit memory - The system for long-term storage of conscious memories that can be verbally
described.
episodic memory - A type of explicit memory that includes a person’s personal experiences.
semantic memory - A type of explicit memory that includes a person’s knowledge about the
world.
implicit memory - The system for long-term storage of unconscious memories that cannot be
verbally described.

9. Explain the difference between consolidation and reconsolidation as it relates to memories.

According to consolidation theory, sleep facilitates learning through the strengthening of neural
connections. Over time, losing sleep impairs thoughts and behavior.
A theory developed by Karim Nader and Joseph LeDoux proposes that once memories are
activated, they need to be consolidated again for long-term stor- age (Alberini & LeDoux, 2013; Nader &
Einarsson, 2010). This process is known as reconsolidation (Figure 7.20). When memories for past events
are retrieved, those memories can be affected by new circumstances, so reconsolidated memories may
differ from their original versions (Nader, Schafe, & LeDoux, 2000). In other words, our memories begin
as versions of what we have experienced, but they might change when we use them.

10. Explain how memories are retrieved including the impact of context-dependent memory effect and
state-dependent memory effect.
Context-Dependent Memory
A unique study showed that the context of a memory can help retrieve that memory. (a) People learned
lists of words either on land or underwater. (b) Later, they remembered more words if they were tested in
the same environment where they had learned the words.
Like physical context, internal cues—such as mood and physiological states— are also encoded
with a memory. When our internal states are the same during both encoding and retrieval, the situation can
provide a retrieval cue that enhances access to a memory. This effect is known as state-dependent
memory.

11. Describe the differences between the 3 main ways we forget: interference (retroactive and proactive),
blocking, and absentmindedness
forgetting - The inability to access a memory from long-term storage.
retroactive interference - When access to older memories is impaired by newer memories.
proactive interference - When access to newer memories is impaired by older memories.
 Absentmindedness - The celebrated musician Yo-Yo Ma is pictured here with his $2.5 million
eighteenth-century cello. This instrument was returned to Yo-Yo Ma after he absentmindedly left it in a
cab.
You can’t recall the name of a favorite song. You forget the name of someone you are introducing.
You “blank” on some lines when acting in a play. This type of forgetting is called blocking. Blocking
occurs when we are temporarily unable to remember something. It is frustrating but common.

12. Explain persistance and the 5 ways memory can be distorted: memory bias, misattribution,
suggestibility, flashbulb memories, and false memories
persistence - The continual recurrence of unwanted memories from long-term storage.
distortion - Human memory is not a perfectly accurate representation of the past, but is flawed.
Memory bias - the changing of your memories over time so that they become consistent with
your current beliefs or attitudes.
flashbulb memories. These vivid memories seem like a flash photo, capturing the circum- stances
in which you first learned of a surprising and conse- quential or emotionally arousing event. Flashbulb
memories are an example of episodic memory.
Misattribution occurs when you misremember the time, place, person, or circumstances involved
with a memory.

Chapter 8: Thinking and Intelligence

After reading and studying this topic, you should be able to do the following:
1. Define thinking and explain the difference between analogical and
symbolic representation
thinking - The mental manipulation of representations of information
we encounter in our environments.
analogical representations - Mental representations that have some of
the physical characteristics of objects.
symbolic representations - Abstract mental representations that consist
of words or ideas.

2. Describe schemas and how they are related to stereotypes.

Schemas - Mental structures—collections of ideas, prior knowledge, and experiences—that help
organize information and guide thought and behavior.
Stereotypes - Schemas that allow for easy, fast pro- cessing of information about people, events,
or objects, based on their membership in particular groups.

3. Describe the 3 ways we use thinking: reasoning, decision making, problem solving
You use reasoning to determine if a conclusion is valid. In the 2016 presidential campaign,
candidate Jeb Bush stated that psychology majors needed to “realize, you’re going to be working at
Chick-fil-A.” To show this statement was not valid, many people provided evidence. They posted signs
showing what they do with their psychology degrees.
You use decision making to select between options. In 2008, a 9-month-old girl’s uncle had to
decide whether to carry her through a burning apartment building or drop her several stories into the arms
of a police officer waiting below. The uncle said, “I looked into his eyes and saw that he would catch her.
Then I let her go.”
 You use problem solving to overcome obstacles. For example, how did this man solve the problem
of getting out of the corner he painted himself into?

4. Define heuristic and the 3 types: availability, representativeness, and affective

Heuristic - A shortcut (rule of thumb or informal guideline) used to reduce the amount of thinking
that is needed to make decisions.
(a) Availability heuristic: In 2012, Hurricane Sandy damaged parts of New Jersey. Most people
remembered the news footage of devastation, so tourists decided to vacation elsewhere. Atlantic City had
to launch an advertising campaign to show that the boardwalk was repaired and the casinos were open for
business. Only then did tourists stop relying on their outdated heuristic and start returning to the city.
(b) Representativeness heuristic: If you’re familiar with Mayim Bialik’s work on television, you
might automatically place her in the category of actress. When you learn that she holds a Ph.D. in
neuroscience, you might be surprised that she belongs to a second category: scientist.
(c) Affective heuristic: Fans of teams that win major championships are often less happy one
week later than they expected to be, whereas fans of losing teams are happier than they expected to be.

5. Explain how decision making is influence by framing and the paradox of choice.
Framing - How information is presented affects how that information is perceived and influences
decisions.
Paradox of choice -

6. Explain how we solve problems to reach goals including the use of subgoals, working backward, and
insight
7. Explain restructuring, mental sets, and functional fixedness and how we can overcome them
restructuring - Thinking about a problem in a new way in order to solve it.
mental sets - A tendency to approach a problem in the same way that has worked in the past,
which may make it harder to solve a problem.
functional fixedness - A tendency to think of things based on their usual functions, which may
make it harder to solve a problem.
Overcoming Functional Fixedness to Solve Problems
The Duncker candle problem is very hard to solve. Try it yourself here.
(a) Attach the candle to the wall using only a pack of matches and a box of tacks. (b) To solve the
problem, you must overcome functional fixedness and think of the objects in a new way. The box for the
tacks can be used as a stand for the candle, and the candle can be lit with the matches.

8. Define intelligence and the intelligence quotient

intelligence - The ability to use knowledge to reason, make decisions, make sense of events, solve
problems, understand complex ideas, learn quickly, and adapt to environmental challenges.
intelligence quotient (IQ) - A mathematical measure of intelligence (originally computed by
divid- ing a child’s estimated mental age by the child’s chronological age, then multiplying this number
by 100).

9. Explain the differences between general intelligence, fluid intelligence, crystallized intelligence,
emotional intelligence and multiple intelligences
10.Describe the impact of both behavioral genetics and environment
factors on intelligence

11.Describe the difference between achievement and aptitude tests.

achievement test - A psychometric test that is designed to test a
person’s knowledge and skills.
aptitude test - A psychometric test that is designed to test a person’s
ability to learn—that is, the person’s future performance.

12.Discuss possible cultural biases in intelligence tests

That is, doing well on intelligence tests often requires knowing the
language and culture of the mainstream.