CNS-Module 2
CNS-Module 2
Module II: Data communication:- Data flow, data transmission mode-simplex, half-duplex,
pfull-duplex.
Bandwidth- bit rate, baud rate, Digital modulation and multiplexing-FDM, TDM, WDM.
Switching - circuit,
packet, message. Mobile system-1G, 2G, 3G, GSM. Data link controls: Framing, error
control, flow
control- feedback-based, rate-based, Error detection and correction-hamming code, parity,
checksum, CRC,
Stop & wait ARQ, Stop and wait protocol, sliding window protocol-Piggybacking,
pipelining, Go-back-N,
Selective repeat
Transmission modes
Transmission mode means transferring data between two devices. It is also known as a
communication mode.
1. Simplex Mode –
In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only
one of the two devices on a link can transmit, the other can only receive. The
simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one
direction.
Example: Keyboard and traditional monitors. The keyboard can only introduce
input, the monitor can only give the output.
2. Half-Duplex Mode –
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same
time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. The
half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for communication in both
directions at the same time. The entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for
each direction.
Example: Walkie-talkie in which message is sent one at a time and messages are
sent in both directions.
3. Full-Duplex Mode –
In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. In full_duplex
mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link with signals going in
another direction, this sharing can occur in two ways:
Full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required all the time.
The capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between the two directions.
Example: Telephone Network in which there is communication between two persons by a
telephone line, through which both can talk and listen at the same time.
Bandwidth
Bandwidth refers to the data capacity of a channel. It is defined as the total amount of data
which can be transferred over a network in a specific period of time.
For example, Kilobits per second (Kbps), Megabits per second (Mbps), Gigabits per
second (Gbps), etc.
Baud Rate
The number of times a signal can change on a transmission line per second is referred
to as the baud rate
Amplitude Modulation
In case of amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the carrier wave changes according
to the message signal.
Here shape of the carrier wave changes according to the message signal.
Frequency modulation
In case of frequency modulation,the frequency of the carrier wave changes according to the
message signal.
Phase modulation
In case of phase modulation, phase of the carrier wave changes according to the message
signal.
Digital Modulation
The modulation method in which discrete signals are used to modulate carrier waves and
remove noise from the waves is knows as digital modulation.
Digital Modulation types
Amplitude shift key
Frequency shift key
Phase shift key
Multiplexing
Multiplexing is a technique used to combine and send the multiple data streams over a
single medium.
The process of combining the data streams is known as multiplexing and hardware
used for multiplexing is known as a multiplexer.
Multiplexing is achieved by using a device called Multiplexer (MUX) that combines
n input lines to generate a single output line. Multiplexing follows many-to-one, i.e., n
input lines and one output line.
Demultiplexing is achieved by using a device called Demultiplexer (DEMUX)
available at the receiving end.
DEMUX separates a signal into its component signals (one input and n outputs).
Therefore, we can say that demultiplexing follows the one-to-many approach.
Why Multiplexing?
o The transmission medium is used to send the signal from sender to receiver. The
medium can only have one signal at a time.
o
o If there are multiple signals to share one medium, then the medium must be divided in
such a way that each signal is given some portion of the available bandwidth. When
multiple signals share the common medium, there is a possibility of collision and
requires more wires to send. Multiplexing concept is used to avoid such collision.
Concept of Multiplexing
o The 'n' input lines are transmitted through a multiplexer and multiplexer combines the
o signals to form a composite signal.
o The composite signal is passed through a Demultiplexer and demultiplexer separates a
signal to component signals and transfers them to their respective destinations.
AD
Advantages of Multiplexing:
Multiplexing Techniques
It is an analog technique.
Frequency Division Multiplexing is a technique in which the available bandwidth of a
single transmission medium is subdivided into several frequency channels.
In the above diagram, a single transmission medium is subdivided into several frequency
channels, and each frequency channel is given to different devices. Device 1 has a frequency
channel of range from 1 to 5.
The input signals are translated into frequency bands by using modulation
techniques, and they are combined by a multiplexer to form a composite signal.
FDM is mainly used in radio broadcasts and TV networks.
Advantages Of FDM:
FDM is used for analog signals.
FDM process is very simple and easy modulation.
A Large number of signals can be sent through an FDM simultaneously.
It does not require any synchronization between sender and receiver.
Wavelength Division Multiplexing is same as FDM except that the optical signals are
transmitted through the fibre optic cable.
WDM is used on fibre optics to increase the capacity of a single fibre.
It is used to utilize the high data rate capability of fibre optic cable.
It is an analog multiplexing technique.
Optical signals from different source are combined to form a wider band of light with
the help of multiplexer and this composite signal is transmitted through a fibre optical
cable.
Multiplexing and Demultiplexing can be achieved by using a prism.
At the receiving end, demultiplexer separates the signals to transmit them to their
respective destinations.
Time Division Multiplexing
It is a digital technique.
In Time Division Multiplexing technique, the total time available in the channel is
distributed among different users. Therefore, each user is allocated with different time
interval known as a Time slot at which data is to be transmitted by the sender.
In Time Division Multiplexing technique, data is not transmitted simultaneously
rather the data is transmitted one-by-one.
In TDM, the signal is transmitted in the form of frames.
It can be used to multiplex both digital and analog signals but mainly used to multiplex
digital signals.
Synchronous TDM
Asynchronous TDM
Synchronous TDM
Asynchronous TDM
An asynchronous TDM is also known as Statistical TDM.
An asynchronous TDM is a technique in which time slots are not fixed as in the case
of Synchronous TDM.
Time slots are allocated to only those devices which have the data to send. Therefore,
we can say that Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor transmits only the data
from active workstations.
The difference between Asynchronous TDM and Synchronous TDM is that many
slots in Synchronous TDM are unutilized, but in Asynchronous TDM, slots are fully
utilized. This leads to the smaller transmission time and efficient utilization of the
capacity of the channel.
Switched Networks
The Switch mainly transfers the data only to the device that has been addressed (means
having proper mac address). Because verification of destination address is done by the switch
in order to route the packet appropriately.
In the above figure; A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H are end systems or we can say communicating
devices. And there are 4 switches labeled as 1,2,3,4
Circuit Switching
Packet Switching
Message Switching
On the basis of the above-given techniques, switched networks are broadly classified as
follows:
As we are using switches in the switched network, so the network becomes expensive
because switches are expensive.
In order to handle multicast packets, proper design and configuration are needed.
Circuit Switching
Circuit establishment
Data transfer
Circuit Disconnect
Advantages Of Circuit Switching:
Message Switching
Data channels are shared among the communicating devices that improve the
efficiency of using available bandwidth.
Traffic congestion can be reduced because the message is temporarily stored in the
nodes.
Message priority can be used to manage the network.
The size of the message which is sent over the network can be varied. Therefore, it
supports the data of unlimited size.
The message switches must be equipped with sufficient storage to enable them to
store the messages until the message is forwarded.
The Long delay can occur due to the storing and forwarding facility provided by the
message switching technique.
Packet Switching
The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is divided into
smaller pieces, and they are sent individually.
The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets are given a
unique number to identify their order at the receiving end.
Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source address,
destination address and sequence number.
Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as possible.
All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to resend the
message.
If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the acknowledgment message will
be sent.
The protocols used in a packet switching technique are very complex and requires
high implementation cost.
If the network is overloaded or corrupted, then it requires retransmission of lost
packets. It can also lead to the loss of critical information if errors are not recovered.
Feedback based Flow Control In these protocols, the sender sends frames after it has
received acknowledgments from the user. This is used in the data link layer.
Rate based Flow Control These protocols have built in mechanisms to restrict the
rate of transmission of data without requiring acknowledgment from the receiver. This
is used in the network layer and the transport layer.
Sliding Window
This protocol improves the efficiency of stop and wait protocol by allowing multiple frames
to be transmitted before receiving an acknowledgment.
The working principle of this protocol can be described as follows −
Both the sender and the receiver has finite sized buffers called windows. The sender
and the receiver agrees upon the number of frames to be sent based upon the buffer
size.
The sender sends multiple frames in a sequence, without waiting for acknowledgment.
When its sending window is filled, it waits for acknowledgment. On receiving
acknowledgment, it advances the window and transmits the next frames, according to
the number of acknowledgments received.
Advantages –
It performs much better than stop-and-wait flow control.
This method increases efficiency.
Multiples frames can be sent one after another.
Disadvantages –
The main issue is complexity at the sender and receiver due to the transferring of
multiple frames.
The receiver might receive data frames or packets out the sequence.
Error detection and correction
Errors
When bits are transmitted over the computer network, they are subject to get corrupted due
to interference and network problems. The corrupted bits leads to spurious data being
received by the destination and are called errors.
Types of Errors
Errors can be of three types, namely single bit errors, multiple bit errors, and burst errors.
Single bit error − In the received frame, only one bit has been corrupted, i.e. either
changed from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0.
Multiple bits error − In the received frame, more than one bits are corrupted.
Burst error − In the received frame, more than one consecutive bits are corrupted.
Error detection − Error detection involves checking whether any error has occurred
or not. The number of error bits and the type of error does not matter.
Error correction − Error correction involves determining the exact number of bits
that has been corrupted and the location of the corrupted bits.
For both error detection and error correction, the sender needs to send some additional bits
along with the data bits. The receiver performs necessary checks based upon the additional
redundant bits. If it finds that the data is free from errors, it removes the redundant bits before
passing the message to the upper layers.
Error Detecting Codes (Implemented either at Data link layer or Transport Layer of
OSI Model)
Basic approach used for error detection is the use of redundancy bits, where additional bits
are added to facilitate detection of errors.
Some popular techniques for error detection are:
1. Simple Parity check
2. Two-dimensional Parity check
3. Checksum
4. Cyclic redundancy check
3. Checksum
In checksum error detection scheme, the data is divided into k segments each of
m bits.
In the sender’s end the segments are added using 1’s complement arithmetic to
get the sum. The sum is complemented to get the checksum.
The checksum segment is sent along with the data segments.
At the receiver’s end, all received segments are added using 1’s complement
arithmetic to get the sum. The sum is complemented.
If the result is zero, the received data is accepted; otherwise discarded.
4. Cyclic redundancy check (CRC)
Unlike checksum scheme, which is based on addition, CRC is based on binary
division.
In CRC, a sequence of redundant bits, called cyclic redundancy check bits, are
appended to the end of data unit so that the resulting data unit becomes exactly
divisible by a second, predetermined binary number.
At the destination, the incoming data unit is divided by the same number. If at
this step there is no remainder, the data unit is assumed to be correct and is
therefore accepted.
A remainder indicates that the data unit has been damaged in transit and
therefore must be rejected.