0% found this document useful (0 votes)
35 views22 pages

CNS-Module 2

ffffff

Uploaded by

sandeepjose2004
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
0% found this document useful (0 votes)
35 views22 pages

CNS-Module 2

ffffff

Uploaded by

sandeepjose2004
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 22

Module 2

Module II: Data communication:- Data flow, data transmission mode-simplex, half-duplex,
pfull-duplex.
Bandwidth- bit rate, baud rate, Digital modulation and multiplexing-FDM, TDM, WDM.
Switching - circuit,
packet, message. Mobile system-1G, 2G, 3G, GSM. Data link controls: Framing, error
control, flow
control- feedback-based, rate-based, Error detection and correction-hamming code, parity,
checksum, CRC,
Stop & wait ARQ, Stop and wait protocol, sliding window protocol-Piggybacking,
pipelining, Go-back-N,
Selective repeat
Transmission modes
Transmission mode means transferring data between two devices. It is also known as a
communication mode.
1. Simplex Mode –
In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only
one of the two devices on a link can transmit, the other can only receive. The
simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one
direction.

Example: Keyboard and traditional monitors. The keyboard can only introduce
input, the monitor can only give the output.

2. Half-Duplex Mode –
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same
time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. The
half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for communication in both
directions at the same time. The entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for
each direction.

Example: Walkie-talkie in which message is sent one at a time and messages are
sent in both directions.
3. Full-Duplex Mode –
In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. In full_duplex
mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link with signals going in
another direction, this sharing can occur in two ways:
Full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required all the time.
The capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between the two directions.
Example: Telephone Network in which there is communication between two persons by a
telephone line, through which both can talk and listen at the same time.

Bandwidth
Bandwidth refers to the data capacity of a channel. It is defined as the total amount of data
which can be transferred over a network in a specific period of time.
For example, Kilobits per second (Kbps), Megabits per second (Mbps), Gigabits per
second (Gbps), etc.

Baud Rate

 The number of times a signal can change on a transmission line per second is referred
to as the baud rate

 Bit rate = Baud rate x the number of bit per baud.


Fig 1
Baud rate =1
No.of bit/baud 1
Bit rate=1X1=1
Fig 2
Baud rate =1
No.of bits /baud =2
Bit rate = 1X2=2
Bit rate
 It represents the speed of data transmission
 It is the number of bits transmitted per unit time
 Units are bps,Mbps,Gbps etc.
Modulation

 Modulation is the process of transforming a high frequency carrier signal so that it


can carry the information of a message signal. Any signal has three basic properties –
amplitude, frequency and phase.
 In the modulation process, one of the properties of the carrier signal is varied in
accordance with the message signal.
 There are two types of modulation – Analog and Digital
 In analog modulation, message signal is analog. If the message signal is in digital
form or in terms of 1s and 0s then it is known as digital modulation.
 Analog modulation is two types – continuous wave modulation and pulse
modulation.
 Continuous wave modulation is three types –Amplitude Modulation, frequency
modulation and phase modulation

Amplitude Modulation

 In case of amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the carrier wave changes according
to the message signal.

Here shape of the carrier wave changes according to the message signal.

Frequency modulation
In case of frequency modulation,the frequency of the carrier wave changes according to the
message signal.

Phase modulation
In case of phase modulation, phase of the carrier wave changes according to the message
signal.

Digital Modulation
The modulation method in which discrete signals are used to modulate carrier waves and
remove noise from the waves is knows as digital modulation.
Digital Modulation types
Amplitude shift key
Frequency shift key
Phase shift key

Frequency-shift keying (FSK) is a frequency modulation scheme in which digital


information is transmitted through discrete frequency changes of a carrier signal.
Amplitude Shift Keying ASK is a type of Amplitude Modulation which represents the
binary data in the form of variations in the amplitude of a signal.
Phase-shift keying (FSK) is a phase modulation scheme in which digital information is
transmitted through variations in the phase of a carrier signal.

Multiplexing

 Multiplexing is a technique used to combine and send the multiple data streams over a
single medium.
 The process of combining the data streams is known as multiplexing and hardware
used for multiplexing is known as a multiplexer.
 Multiplexing is achieved by using a device called Multiplexer (MUX) that combines
n input lines to generate a single output line. Multiplexing follows many-to-one, i.e., n
input lines and one output line.
 Demultiplexing is achieved by using a device called Demultiplexer (DEMUX)
available at the receiving end.
 DEMUX separates a signal into its component signals (one input and n outputs).
Therefore, we can say that demultiplexing follows the one-to-many approach.

Why Multiplexing?

o The transmission medium is used to send the signal from sender to receiver. The
medium can only have one signal at a time.
o

o If there are multiple signals to share one medium, then the medium must be divided in
such a way that each signal is given some portion of the available bandwidth. When
multiple signals share the common medium, there is a possibility of collision and
requires more wires to send. Multiplexing concept is used to avoid such collision.

Concept of Multiplexing

o The 'n' input lines are transmitted through a multiplexer and multiplexer combines the
o signals to form a composite signal.
o The composite signal is passed through a Demultiplexer and demultiplexer separates a
signal to component signals and transfers them to their respective destinations.
AD

Advantages of Multiplexing:

o More than one signal can be sent over a single medium.


o The bandwidth of a medium can be utilized effectively.

Multiplexing Techniques

o Multiplexing techniques can be classified as:

Frequency-division Multiplexing (FDM)

 It is an analog technique.
 Frequency Division Multiplexing is a technique in which the available bandwidth of a
single transmission medium is subdivided into several frequency channels.

In the above diagram, a single transmission medium is subdivided into several frequency
channels, and each frequency channel is given to different devices. Device 1 has a frequency
channel of range from 1 to 5.

 The input signals are translated into frequency bands by using modulation
techniques, and they are combined by a multiplexer to form a composite signal.
 FDM is mainly used in radio broadcasts and TV networks.
 Advantages Of FDM:
 FDM is used for analog signals.
 FDM process is very simple and easy modulation.
 A Large number of signals can be sent through an FDM simultaneously.
 It does not require any synchronization between sender and receiver.

 Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

 Wavelength Division Multiplexing is same as FDM except that the optical signals are
transmitted through the fibre optic cable.
 WDM is used on fibre optics to increase the capacity of a single fibre.
 It is used to utilize the high data rate capability of fibre optic cable.
 It is an analog multiplexing technique.
 Optical signals from different source are combined to form a wider band of light with
the help of multiplexer and this composite signal is transmitted through a fibre optical
cable.
 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing can be achieved by using a prism.
 At the receiving end, demultiplexer separates the signals to transmit them to their
respective destinations.
Time Division Multiplexing

 It is a digital technique.
 In Time Division Multiplexing technique, the total time available in the channel is
distributed among different users. Therefore, each user is allocated with different time
interval known as a Time slot at which data is to be transmitted by the sender.
 In Time Division Multiplexing technique, data is not transmitted simultaneously
rather the data is transmitted one-by-one.
 In TDM, the signal is transmitted in the form of frames.

It can be used to multiplex both digital and analog signals but mainly used to multiplex
digital signals.

There are two types of TDM:

 Synchronous TDM
 Asynchronous TDM

Synchronous TDM

 A Synchronous TDM is a technique in which time slot is preassigned to every device.


 In Synchronous TDM, each device is given some time slot irrespective of the fact that
the device contains the data or not.
 If the device does not have any data, then the slot will remain empty.
 In Synchrono
 us TDM, signals are sent in the form of frames
 If there are n devices, then there are n slots.

Asynchronous TDM
 An asynchronous TDM is also known as Statistical TDM.
 An asynchronous TDM is a technique in which time slots are not fixed as in the case
of Synchronous TDM.
 Time slots are allocated to only those devices which have the data to send. Therefore,
we can say that Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor transmits only the data
from active workstations.
 The difference between Asynchronous TDM and Synchronous TDM is that many
slots in Synchronous TDM are unutilized, but in Asynchronous TDM, slots are fully
utilized. This leads to the smaller transmission time and efficient utilization of the
capacity of the channel.

Switched Networks

A switched network basically consists of a series of interlinked nodes. These interlinked


nodes are known as switches.

 Thus in a switched network, connectivity is usually provided by making the use of


switches.
 Switches are those devices that are capable of creating temporary connections
between two or more devices that are linked to them.
 In this network, some switches are connected to the end system(like computer
systems or telephones) while other switches are used for routing.
 The network device switch is mainly a layer-2 device of the OSI model.
 Switching is done by the switch on the basis of the MAC address.

The Switch mainly transfers the data only to the device that has been addressed (means
having proper mac address). Because verification of destination address is done by the switch
in order to route the packet appropriately.
In the above figure; A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H are end systems or we can say communicating
devices. And there are 4 switches labeled as 1,2,3,4

There are three switching techniques:

 Circuit Switching

 Packet Switching

 Message Switching

On the basis of the above-given techniques, switched networks are broadly classified as
follows:

Advantages of Switched Networks/switching

Given below are some benefits of switched networks:

 There are fewer chances of frame collision.

 There is an increase in the performance of networks by using switches.

 There is an increase in the available bandwidth on the network by using switches.


 The workload on the individual PC gets reduced by using switches in the network.

Disadvantages of Switched Networks/switching

There are some drawbacks of using switches :

 As we are using switches in the switched network, so the network becomes expensive
because switches are expensive.

 It is difficult to trace the connectivity issues in the network through a switch.

 In order to handle multicast packets, proper design and configuration are needed.

Circuit Switching

 Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path between


sender and receiver.
 In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established then the
dedicated path will remain to exist until the connection is terminated.
 Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the telephone works.
 A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication takes place.
 In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send the data, voice,
video, a request signal is sent to the receiver then the receiver sends back the
acknowledgment to ensure the availability of the dedicated path. After receiving the
acknowledgment, dedicated path transfers the data.
 Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used for voice
transmission.
 Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.

Communication through circuit switching has 3 phases:

 Circuit establishment
 Data transfer
 Circuit Disconnect
Advantages Of Circuit Switching:

 In the case of Circuit Switching technique, the communication channel is dedicated.


 It has fixed bandwidth.
 Disadvantages Of Circuit Switching:
 Once the dedicated path is established, the only delay occurs in the speed of data
transmission.
 It takes a long time to establish a connection approx 10 seconds during which no data
can be transmitted.
 It is more expensive than other switching techniques as a dedicated path is required
for each connection.
 It is inefficient to use because once the path is established and no data is transferred,
then the capacity of the path is wasted.

Message Switching

 Message Switching is a switching technique in which a message is transferred as a


complete unit and routed through intermediate nodes at which it is stored and
forwarded.
 In Message Switching technique, there is no establishment of a dedicated path
between the sender and receiver.
 The destination address is appended to the message. Message Switching provides a
dynamic routing as the message is routed through the intermediate nodes based on the
information available in the message.
 Message switches are programmed in such a way so that they can provide the most
efficient routes.
 Each and every node stores the entire message and then forward it to the next node.
This type of network is known as store and forward network.
 Message switching treats each message as an independent entity.
Advantages Of Message Switching

 Data channels are shared among the communicating devices that improve the
efficiency of using available bandwidth.
 Traffic congestion can be reduced because the message is temporarily stored in the
nodes.
 Message priority can be used to manage the network.
 The size of the message which is sent over the network can be varied. Therefore, it
supports the data of unlimited size.

Disadvantages Of Message Switching

 The message switches must be equipped with sufficient storage to enable them to
store the messages until the message is forwarded.
 The Long delay can occur due to the storing and forwarding facility provided by the
message switching technique.

Packet Switching

 The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is divided into
smaller pieces, and they are sent individually.
 The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets are given a
unique number to identify their order at the receiving end.
 Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source address,
destination address and sequence number.
 Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as possible.
 All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
 If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to resend the
message.
 If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the acknowledgment message will
be sent.

Approaches Of Packet Switching:

There are two approaches to Packet Switching:

Datagram Packet switching:


 It is a packet switching technology in which packet is known as a datagram, is
considered as an independent entity. Each packet contains the information about the
destination and switch uses this information to forward the packet to the correct
destination.
 In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not fixed.
 Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward the packets.
 Datagram Packet Switching is also known as connectionless switching.

Virtual Circuit Switching


 Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as connection-oriented switching.
 In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a preplanned route is established before the
messages are sent.
 Call request and call accept packets are used to establish the connection between
sender and receiver.
 In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical connection.

Advantages Of Packet Switching:

 Cost-effective: In packet switching technique, switching devices do not require


massive secondary storage to store the packets, so cost is minimized to some extent.
Therefore, we can say that the packet switching technique is a cost-effective
technique.
 Reliable: If any node is busy, then the packets can be rerouted. This ensures that the
Packet Switching technique provides reliable communication.
 Efficient: Packet Switching is an efficient technique. It does not require any
established path prior to the transmission, and many users can use the same
communication channel simultaneously, hence makes use of available bandwidth very
efficiently.

Disadvantages Of Packet Switching:

 The protocols used in a packet switching technique are very complex and requires
high implementation cost.
 If the network is overloaded or corrupted, then it requires retransmission of lost
packets. It can also lead to the loss of critical information if errors are not recovered.

Data link Controls


Flow control
Flow control is a technique that allows two stations working at different speeds to
communicate with each other. It is a set of measures taken to regulate the amount of data that
a sender sends so that a fast sender does not overwhelm a slow receiver. In data link layer,
flow control restricts the number of frames the sender can send before it waits for an
acknowledgment from the receiver.

Approaches of Flow Control

Flow control can be broadly classified into two categories −

 Feedback based Flow Control In these protocols, the sender sends frames after it has
received acknowledgments from the user. This is used in the data link layer.
 Rate based Flow Control These protocols have built in mechanisms to restrict the
rate of transmission of data without requiring acknowledgment from the receiver. This
is used in the network layer and the transport layer.

Stop and Wait

This protocol involves the following transitions −


 The sender sends a frame and waits for acknowledgment.
 Once the receiver receives the frame, it sends an acknowledgment frame back to the
sender.
 On receiving the acknowledgment frame, the sender understands that the receiver is
ready to accept the next frame. So it sender the next frame in queue.
Advantages –
 This method is very easiest and simple and each of the frames is checked and
acknowledged well.
 This method is also very accurate.
Disadvantages –
 This method is fairly slow.
 In this, only one packet or frame can be sent at a time.
 It is very inefficient and makes the transmission process very slow.

Sliding Window

This protocol improves the efficiency of stop and wait protocol by allowing multiple frames
to be transmitted before receiving an acknowledgment.
The working principle of this protocol can be described as follows −
 Both the sender and the receiver has finite sized buffers called windows. The sender
and the receiver agrees upon the number of frames to be sent based upon the buffer
size.
 The sender sends multiple frames in a sequence, without waiting for acknowledgment.
When its sending window is filled, it waits for acknowledgment. On receiving
acknowledgment, it advances the window and transmits the next frames, according to
the number of acknowledgments received.

Advantages –
 It performs much better than stop-and-wait flow control.
 This method increases efficiency.
 Multiples frames can be sent one after another.
Disadvantages –
 The main issue is complexity at the sender and receiver due to the transferring of
multiple frames.
 The receiver might receive data frames or packets out the sequence.
Error detection and correction

Errors

When bits are transmitted over the computer network, they are subject to get corrupted due
to interference and network problems. The corrupted bits leads to spurious data being
received by the destination and are called errors.

Types of Errors

Errors can be of three types, namely single bit errors, multiple bit errors, and burst errors.
 Single bit error − In the received frame, only one bit has been corrupted, i.e. either
changed from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0.

Multiple bits error − In the received frame, more than one bits are corrupted.
Burst error − In the received frame, more than one consecutive bits are corrupted.

 Error detection − Error detection involves checking whether any error has occurred
or not. The number of error bits and the type of error does not matter.
 Error correction − Error correction involves determining the exact number of bits
that has been corrupted and the location of the corrupted bits.
For both error detection and error correction, the sender needs to send some additional bits
along with the data bits. The receiver performs necessary checks based upon the additional
redundant bits. If it finds that the data is free from errors, it removes the redundant bits before
passing the message to the upper layers.
Error Detecting Codes (Implemented either at Data link layer or Transport Layer of
OSI Model)
Basic approach used for error detection is the use of redundancy bits, where additional bits
are added to facilitate detection of errors.
Some popular techniques for error detection are:
1. Simple Parity check
2. Two-dimensional Parity check
3. Checksum
4. Cyclic redundancy check

1. Simple Parity check


Blocks of data from the source are subjected to a check bit or parity bit generator form,
where a parity of :
 1 is added to the block if it contains odd number of 1’s, and
 0 is added if it contains even number of 1’s
This scheme makes the total number of 1’s even, that is why it is called even parity
checking.
Two-dimensional Parity check
Parity check bits are calculated for each row, which is equivalent to a simple parity check
bit. Parity check bits are also calculated for all columns, then both are sent along with the
data. At the receiving end these are compared with the parity bits calculated on the received
data.

3. Checksum
 In checksum error detection scheme, the data is divided into k segments each of
m bits.
 In the sender’s end the segments are added using 1’s complement arithmetic to
get the sum. The sum is complemented to get the checksum.
 The checksum segment is sent along with the data segments.
 At the receiver’s end, all received segments are added using 1’s complement
arithmetic to get the sum. The sum is complemented.
 If the result is zero, the received data is accepted; otherwise discarded.
4. Cyclic redundancy check (CRC)
 Unlike checksum scheme, which is based on addition, CRC is based on binary
division.
 In CRC, a sequence of redundant bits, called cyclic redundancy check bits, are
appended to the end of data unit so that the resulting data unit becomes exactly
divisible by a second, predetermined binary number.
 At the destination, the incoming data unit is divided by the same number. If at
this step there is no remainder, the data unit is assumed to be correct and is
therefore accepted.
 A remainder indicates that the data unit has been damaged in transit and
therefore must be rejected.

Suppose the original data is 11100 and generator polynomial is


X3+1(X3+0x2+0x+1)

You might also like

pFad - Phonifier reborn

Pfad - The Proxy pFad of © 2024 Garber Painting. All rights reserved.

Note: This service is not intended for secure transactions such as banking, social media, email, or purchasing. Use at your own risk. We assume no liability whatsoever for broken pages.


Alternative Proxies:

Alternative Proxy

pFad Proxy

pFad v3 Proxy

pFad v4 Proxy