A Guide to the Foundations of Logic

Logic is an important area of philosophy and mathematics, exploring the principles of correct
thinking and reasoning. This guide will help you understand the basic concepts and principles of
logic.

1. Introduction to Logic

1.1 What is Logic?

Logic is the science of correct reasoning. It studies the laws and rules that help us make justified
conclusions and build arguments.

 Example: If you know that all cats like milk, and you have a cat, logic suggests that your cat
also likes milk.

1.2 Historical Roots of Logic

Logic has ancient roots, starting with the works of Aristotle, who is considered the founder of this
science. In the Middle Ages, logic developed in the works of scholastics, and in modern times, it has
evolved through the works of mathematicians and philosophers.

 Association: Imagine logic as a tree, with roots in antiquity, a trunk forming in the Middle
Ages, and branches continuing to grow and develop in modern times.
2. Basic Concepts of Logic

2.1 Statements and Propositions

 Statements: Syntactic constructions that can be true or false.

o Example: "2 + 2 = 4" (true statement), "2 + 2 = 5" (false statement).
 Propositions: Sentences expressing a specific thought or fact that can be true or false.
o Example: "The sun is shining" (a proposition that can be true or false depending on
the time of day and weather).

2.2 Truth and Falsity

 True Proposition: Corresponds to reality.

o Example: "The Earth orbits the Sun."
 False Proposition: Does not correspond to reality.
o Example: "The Earth is flat."

2.3 Logical Operators

 AND (conjunction): A and B are true only when both parts are true.
o Example: "The sun is shining AND the sky is blue." This statement is true if both
components are true.
 OR (disjunction): A or B is true if at least one part is true.
o Example: "Today is Saturday OR Sunday." This statement is true if at least one of
the days is correct.
 NOT (negation): A is not true if A is false, and vice versa.
o Example: "NOT snowing." This statement is true if it is not snowing.
 If...then... (implication): A implies B if when A is true, B is also true.
o Example: "If it rains, then the ground is wet." This statement is true if rain leads to a
wet ground.
3. Logical Laws

3.1 Law of Identity

Each statement is identical to itself. A = A.

 Example: "A cat is a cat." This statement is always true.

3.2 Law of Non-Contradiction

A statement cannot be both true and false at the same time. A ≠ ¬A.

 Example: "It is raining and it is not raining" cannot be true at the same time.

3.3 Law of Excluded Middle

Any statement is either true or false. There is no third option. A ∨ ¬A.

 Example: "It is either raining or not raining." One of these statements must be true.
4. Logical Inferences

4.1 Deductive Reasoning

Conclusions drawn based on general statements. If all premises are true, the conclusion must also be
true.

 Example:
o All humans are mortal.
o Socrates is a human.
o Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
 Analogy: Deduction is like a mathematical proof, where you start with general rules and
come to a specific conclusion.

4.2 Inductive Reasoning

Conclusions drawn based on observations and experience. The conclusion is probabilistic, not
certain.

 Example:
o Several observations that swans are white.
o Conclusion: All swans are white (which may be incorrect).
 Analogy: Induction is like forming a hypothesis based on experiments and observations but
without a guarantee of absolute truth.
5. Formal Systems of Logic

5.1 Syllogism

A classic form of deductive argument consisting of two premises and a conclusion.

 Example:
o All humans are mortal.
o All Greeks are humans.
o Therefore, all Greeks are mortal.
 Analogy: A syllogism is like an equation in mathematics, where two initial premises lead to
a specific conclusion.

5.2 Predicate Logic

An extension of propositional logic, including quantifiers and predicates for more complex
statements.

 Universal Quantifier (∀): Asserts that something is true for all elements of a set.
o Example: "For all x, if x is a human, then x is mortal."
 Existential Quantifier (∃): Asserts that there exists at least one element for which
something is true.
o Example: "There exists an x such that x is a white swan."
6. Logical Fallacies and Sophisms

6.1 Types of Logical Errors

 Errors in Premises: When the initial statements are incorrect.

o Example: "All birds can fly. Penguins are birds. Penguins can fly." Here the initial
premise is incorrect.
 Errors in Reasoning: Incorrect use of logical operators or rules.
o Example: "If it rains, the ground is wet. The ground is wet. Therefore, it is raining."
This is a false conclusion because the ground could be wet for another reason.

6.2 Examples of Logical Fallacies

 False Dilemma: Asserting that there are only two mutually exclusive options when there
may be more.
o Example: "You are either with us or against us." This ignores other possible
positions.
 Ad Hominem: Attacking the person instead of addressing their argument.
o Example: "You can't be right because you are too young."
 Appeal to Authority: Claiming something is true because an authority says so.
o Example: "It must be true because the professor said it."
7. Applications of Logic

7.1 In Philosophy

Logic helps structure philosophical arguments and analyze them for truth and validity.

 Example: Analyzing Descartes' argument "Cogito, ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am) for its
logical soundness.

7.2 In Mathematics

Logic is used to prove theorems and build axiomatic systems.

 Example: Mathematical proofs, such as the proof of the Pythagorean theorem.

7.3 In Computer Science

Logic underlies programming and algorithm development, as well as computability theory.

 Example: Using logical operators in programming conditional statements (if-else).

7.4 In Everyday Life

Logic helps in making justified decisions and critical thinking.

 Example: Evaluating advertising claims for their truthfulness and logical basis.

Conclusion

Logic is a fundamental discipline important for various areas of knowledge and practical activities.
Mastering its basics will help you improve your argumentation, critical thinking, and decision-
making skills.