resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

INTRODUCTION TO CLIMATOLOGY AND
resh Presh Presh esh Presh Presh
PrBIOGEOGRAPHY Presh Presh Presh
WMA 202

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

Lecturers in charge: Prof. G.C. Ufoegbune and Miss
Barakat Layi-Adigun
resh Presh P r esh P r esh P r esh P r esh P
Department of Water Resources management andr esh P r esh Presh
Agrometeorology, COLERM.
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex) 1
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Introduction to Climatology
• Climatology is a science that deals with the study of the climates of different parts of the
resh Presh It is concerned
world. Presh sh description
Prethe
with Presh and explanation
Presh esh
ofPrclimatic Preshof the Presh
regions
world, its spatial and temporal variations and influence on the environment and life on the
earth’s surface
resh • Presh
Climatology Presh the long-term
studies Presh statePof h atmosphere.
resthe Presh It is Pfundamentally
resh esh
Prconcerned Presh
with the weather and climate of a given area.
• Climatology examines both the nature of micro, meso and macro (global) climates and the
resh Presh and anthropogenic
natural Presh P resh
influences resh
onPthem. Presh Presh Presh Presh
• Climate implies an average or long – term record of weather conditions at a certain region
for at hleast 30 years. It conveys ha generalization of all the hrecorded weather observations in
resh s
re location.
aPgiven Pre s h Pres Pre s h Pre s Pre s h Pre s h Presh
• Climate is the expected mean and variability of the weather conditions for a particular
location,
h season andh time of thehday.
resh Pres Pres Pres h
Pres hPres h Pres h Pres Presh
• Climate is often described as the mean values of meteorological variables such as
temperature, precipitation, wind, humidity and cloud cover.
resh • Presh also exhibits
Climate Presh significant
Preshyear to Pyear
reshvariability sh longer-term
Preand Presh changes shboth a Presh
Preon
From
regional and The
global Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex)
basis
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Weather and Climate
• Climate can be defined as the average weather conditions of a place over a long period of time,
resh Presh
usually about orPresh
above 30 P resh The elements
years. Presh Presh
of weather esh
whichPrcontrol esh
thePrclimate esh
canPrbe
systematically observed, recorded and processed over a long period of time.
• The climatic conditions of a location may be affected by certain factors whose effects may differ
resh sh the location
Preon
based Presh and thePrfactors
esh present
Presath the location.
Presh Presh Presh Presh
• These factors include; Latitude or distance from the equator, altitude or elevation, distance from
the sea, prevailing winds, direction of mountain, amount of rainfall, ocean currents, slope of the
resh esh vegetation.
Prand
land Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
• The study of climate is called climatology while specialists in climatology are known as
climatologists
resh • Weather
Presh is the condition
Presh of P
h
resatmosphere
the sha particular
Preat Presh Pre
time over
h esh period
a scertain orPrshort esh
Prof
time. This is determined by various meteorological conditions. The daily and seasonal changes or
variation in weather influence human lives.
resh • The esh of weather
Prstudy Presh is known sh
Preas Preshwhile those
meteorology Preshwho study sh h
Presare
Premeteorology esh
Pras
known
meteorologist
• Weather keeps changing all the time and the time-scale of such changes could vary from minute
r e sh P r e sh P r e sh P r esh P r esh P r e sh P r e sh P r e sh P r e sh
to minute hour
Fromto The
hourOffice
and day to day.
Of The Generally
Nassa welfare the time scale of
Director-Elect (Mr thephlex)
variability in weather
3 is
considerably shorter than that of climate
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh
Comparison
resh resh
between
resh
Weather
resh resh
and Climate
resh resh
P P P P P P P Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex) 4
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Elements of Climate and Weather
• The following are the elements of weather and climate: Temperature, rainfall, atmospheric pressure,
resh Presh wind, Psunshine
humidity, resh andPclouds.
resh The main
PreshelementsPrconsidered
esh Pre
as sh significant
very Presh resh
for now Pare
temperature and rainfall, the nature of winds and the degree of humidity.
Temperature
resh • The eshis the ultimate
Prsun Presh sourceProf h
esenergy eshEarth’s Psurface.
Prthe
on resh The Penergy
resh exists Pinreheat
sh and light
Presh
called solar radiation. The amount is usually expressed in terms of the solar constant. Although
numerous observations of the solar constant have been made, its value is not precisely known. The
resh Presh
current Presh
best estimate esh
is 1370WPrm-2. Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
• Temperature is described as the hot and cold conditions experienced in a particular location at a
given period of time. Temperature is highest at ground level compared to the atmosphere. This
resh h temperature
Presthat
means Presh decreases h increase
Preswith h height.PrTemperature
Presin esh sh
Priseusually Presh in degree
measured Presh
centigrade (o C) using an instrument called thermometer.
• Temperature is usually represented on maps by lines drawn to join locations having the same amount
resh resh
of Ptemperatures resh as ‘isotherm”.
Pknown Presh Oo Csh
Pre sh knownPrto
and 32oPFreare esh Presh pointPof
be the freezing resh
temperature in centigrade and Fahrenheit respectively.
• There are two major types of thermometers which record temperature under different conditions:
resh Presh and minimum
maximum Presh Presh
thermometer. Presh thermometer
Maximum Presh Preshthe highest
records Presh Presh
temperature
From
attained during The
a day Office
while Of The thermometer
minimum Nassa welfarerecords
Director-Elect (Mr
the lowest phlex)
temperature reached 5during
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Temperature
• Thermometers are read at different time of the day and are kept alongside with other
resh Presh
instruments esh known
in Pa rplace esh
Pras h
Presscreen”
“Stevenson Presh to protect
designed Presh the thermometers
Presh Presh
from
the effects of sun and rain so as to get accurate temperature readings of the day
• There are formulae for calculating temperature applicable to the situation or condition of need.
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
1. Mean daily temperature = Max. Tempt + Min. Tempt
That is, maximum temperature and minimum temperature for a day.
resh 2. Duirnal
Presh range of sh
Pretemperature: sh
Prediurnal Preshdaily and
means h
Prisescalculated h
esmax.
Pras Pres–hmin. tempt
tempt Presh
for that day
3. Annual temperature = Total temperature from January to December for that year
resh P resh P resh P resh P resh P resh P resh P resh P resh
4. Mean annual temperature is expressed by = Temperature from January to December divided by
12
resh s h s h s h s h s h s h s h Presh
5. An annual
r e range rof
e temperature
r e = difference
r e between temperature
r e ofr ehottest month
r e and coldest
P P P P P P P
month
6. Monthly range of temperature = difference between temperature of hottest and coldest daily
resh temptPrfor
eshthe month
Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex) 6
resh P r esh P r
Solar Radiation esh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
• Solar radiation is the radiation from the sun. Solar radiation is the primary source of energy in to the
h terrestrial
h ecosystemsh
r e s Pr e s Pres Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
• Solar radiation from the sun is referred to as the incoming shortwave electromagnetic radiation
The top of the earth’s atmosphere receives about 4.5 x 10-10 of the energy output from the centre
•
resh h (Photosphere).
ressun
ofPthe Presh esh is usually
ThePramount PreshexpressedPreinsh h
ressolar
terms ofPthe Presh
constant. Presh
• Although numerous observations of the solar constant have been made, its value is not precisely
known. The current best estimate is 1370W m-2.
resh • Not
Preallshthe solarPenergy
resh that penetrates
Presh intoPthe h
resatmosphere sh reallyPgets
Prethat resh sh
Presurface.
to the earth AsPresh
solar energy impinges upon the top of the Earth’s atmosphere are sort of energy cascade begins.
• For instance as solar radiation starts to pass down from the atmosphere, scattering and
resh Presh of the
absorption sh
Preradiation Presh
commences. Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Ozone absorbs all ultraviolet radiation below 0.29µm and water vapour a less amount ranging from
•
0.9µm to 2.1µm.On the average about 20% of the incident solar energy is absorbed by ozone, water
resh Preshand aerosols.
vapour PreshAbsorption h ozone Pisre
Presby sh 3%, and
about h water vapour
Presby Presh and aerosols
Presh is 17%.Presh
• From satellite data 30% of the incident solar energy are reflected back to space as reflection by
cloud tops (20%) earth surface (4%) and scattering by air (6%).by cloud. Eventually only about 45%
resh h earth’sPsurface.
Presthe
reach resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex) 7
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Solar Radiation
• The final interaction as the solar radiation passes through the atmosphere is with the surface of the earth.
resh
Radiationhincident on theh earth’s surface
h is either absorbed
h h h h Presh
or reflected.
Pres Pres Pres Pres Pres Pres Pres
• Usually a small amount is absorbed by the earth surface while the remaining is given off as the terrestrial long
wave radiation.

resh s h s h s h s h s h h h Presh
• Carbon e dioxide and water
e vapour inethe atmosphere e are able to absorb
e long waveesradiation s
and ethere by
P r
producing P r
the radiation r
blanketPover the earth’s r
P surface. P r P r P r
• However the amount of incident energy that is reflected by the earth’s surface back into the atmosphere depends
on the reflective capacity of the receiving surface. Reflectivity of the short wave radiation at the earth’s surface is
resh Presto
referred h as the albedo
Presh (∞). Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
• Solar radiation is unequally distributed over the earth. The unequal distribution of radiation is the primary cause
of weather and climate.
resh • It isPdirectly
resh responsible
Preshfor photosynthesis
Presh h
esvarying
andPrthe Presh of day Pand
lengths
h
resnight, sh effectPron
Praemajor
have esh
the growth of plants.
• It also plays an important role in influencing evapotranspiration (i.e water loss) and therefore the water
resh Presh of plants.
requirements Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex) 8
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

Solar Radiation (Contd)

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
• Generally the amount of energy received by the earth and its
atmosphere in the form of insolation varies eover spaceeand time. esh
resh P r e s h P r e s h P r es h P r es h P r s h P r s h Pr Presh
Amount of insolation received by the earth, assuming no interference
by the atmosphere, is influenced by the following four factors:
resh resh constant
PSolar Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Altitude of the sun
resh Presh
Distance Presh
from the sunPresh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Length of the day
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex) 9
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

INTRODUCTION TO CLIMATOLOGY AND
resh Presh Presh esh Presh Presh
PrBIOGEOGRAPHY Presh Presh Presh
WMA 202

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

Lecturers in charge: Prof. G.C. Ufoegbune and Miss
Barakat Layi-Adigun
resh Presh P r esh P r esh P r esh P r esh P
Department of Water Resources management andr esh P r esh Presh
Agrometeorology, COLERM.
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex) 1
resh P resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Rainfall
• Rain is described as a liquid state of precipitation which is derived from large droplets of
resh Presh
water Presh
– normally h clouds.
resthe
producedPby Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
• It is measured by an instrument called raingauge.
• Raingauge consists of a metal container, a metal jar or glass bottle and metal funnel. The
resh Presh
instrument is P reshin an open
kept sh far P
Prespace reshbuildings
from sh shelterPrinesorder
Preand h Presh accurate
to obtain Presh
measurement by collecting rain water directly without obstruction.
• Rainfall is usually measured in (mm) or (cm),a line used to join two places on a map with
resh Presh
same sh
amount Pofrerainfall Presh“isohyets.”
is called Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
• Formulae for calculating rainfall is the same with that of temperature. There are different
types of rainfalls formed under different conditions with different features;
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
❑ Convection rainfall: is common in regions with high temperature i.e. the tropics, formed after
intensive heating of the earth surface, air is forced to rise thus carrying water vapour into the
upperhatmosphere hin a process hcalled evaporation. Normally accompanied with lightning and h
resh Pre s
thunderstorm Pre s Pre s Pre s h Pre s h Pre s h Pre s h Pres
❑ Orographic Rainfall: This is sometimes called relief rainfall. This occurs whenever moisture –
laden hair is forcedhto ascend an area with hhigh-elevation. The air upon reachingh the land h
resh Pr e s
surface Pr
is From e s
compelled to es h
Pr to the P
move r e
upper
s Pr e
atmosphere
s h
where e s h Pres cool and
r air becomes
Pthe Pres
The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex) 2
saturated. Condensation at this point sets in thereby forming clouds and finally rain
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Atmospheric Pressure
• Atmospheric pressure is described as the weight of the volume of air which extends from
resh resh
Pthe Presh to thePoutermost
ground surface resh Preshof the atmosphere.
layers Presh Presh Presh Presh
• There is a decrease in atmospheric pressure with increase in height (altitude), temperature
and the rotation of the earth.
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
• Atmospheric pressure over a place does not remain constant or fixed for a very long time
due to both daily and seasonal variations.
resh •
Presh resh
Pressure is Pmeasured Presh
with Presh
an instrument Presh
called barometer. Presh Presh Presh
• Places with same amount of pressure on a map are joined together by lines called
“isobars”
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex) 3
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Humidity

resh •
Presh Presh
This is expressed
Presh
as the dampness
Presh
of the
P sh
atmosphereredue
Presh
to the pressure
Presh
of water vapour. resh
P
• It is derived through evaporation and transpiration from water bodies and plants
respectively.
resh resh
• PThere Presh
is a maximum Preshof water
amount esh
Prvapour h air can
Presthe
which sh at a time
Prehold Preshand when
Presh
reached, the air is saturated.
• The humidity of the air to a greater degree depends on the temperature because a rise in
resh resh
Ptemperature resh to increase
Pleads Presh Presh of water
in the quantity sh
Prevapour Presithholds. Presh
which Presh
• The proportion of water vapour in the atmosphere compare with the quantity which could
be in the same portion of the atmosphere, if such portion of the atmosphere were saturated
resh sh
reknown
Pis resh humidity
as Prelative Presh (RH).Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
• It is measured using an instrument called hygrometer, which consists of wet and dry bulbs
thermometer.
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
• The measurement of humidity is recorded in percentage.

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex) 4
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Wind
• Wind is air in motion and has direction and speed.
resh P resh P resh P resh P resh P resh P resh P resh P resh
• Wind developed as the air moves from area of high pressure to area of relatively lower
pressure. The air expands and rises when it get heated and becomes lighter. It is the
horizontal movement of air that creates wind.
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
• Wind has permanent characteristics of movement, from areas of higher pressure to areas of
lower pressure. Wind vane is used to measure the direction of wind while anemometer is
used for measuring wind speed.
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex) 5
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Sunshine
• The amount of sunshine in a given location to a greater extent depends on the season, and
resh resh in turn
Pseasons h determined
Presare Presh by latitude
Preshand by Pthe h
resposition sh earth Pinreits
rethe
Pof shrevolution
Presh
around the sun.
• The amount of sunshine may likely vary depending on the location of the place. Places
resh resh towards
Plocated Preshthe equator
Preshreceive Pconsiderable
resh resh
Pamount resh
of Psunshine Preshthe sunPrisesh
because
overhead twice on the equator and twice around the equator at 23o North and South during
revolution of the earth and the sun is inclined at an angle of 66½o North and South of the
resh resh
Pequator. Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
• Places located within this angle receive less and beyond the angle receives lesser compared to
66½o North and South.
resh resh
• PSunshine is P
sh
re
recorded Pre
using
sh sh sh
Pre called sunshine
an instrument Pre Pre
recorder.
sh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex)
resh P resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Clouds
• When air cools, some of its water vapour may condense into tiny water droplets. The
resh Presh
temperature resh this occur
atPwhich Presis h called the sh pointPtemperature.
Predew resh Presh Presh Presh
• Some condensation takes place on tress and grasses directly on the earth surface. The water
droplets forming on these surfaces are called dew, often formed in some parts of Nigeria at
resh h the dryPrseason
Presin
night esh and P esh a significant
it rplay Preshrole in keeping
Presh plantsPalive.
resh Presh Presh
• Clouds are formed by water droplets and ice particles. Mist and fog are also considered as cloud
types because they are formed close to the earth surface.
resh P r e sh P r e sh P r esh P r esh P r e sh P r e sh P r e sh P
• The major form of condensation is the clouds while the minor ones are the fogs, mist, haze,r e sh
dew and frost.
Meteorologists suggest that, weather can be determine saccording toshthe shape, sheight and sh
resh h h h h h h
•
P r e s r e s
P clouds. P r es P r es P r e P r e P r e Pre
movement of the
• Clouds are classified into three (3);
resh • resh clouds:Prwhose
i)PHigh esh heightPreisshbetweenP6,000
resh to 12,000mPresh above Pthe h
researth PreshExamples
surface. Presh
include: Cirrus, cirrocumulus.
• ii) Middle cloud: Middle cloud has two distinct parts namely: altocumulus and altostratus.
resh • Pre
iii) sh cloud:PLow
Low resh cloudsPconsist
resh of three
Pres(3)h
layers resh stratocumulus,
Pnamely: Presh Presh
nimbostratus Presh
and
From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex)
stratus clouds.
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Classification of clouds

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex) 8
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

INTRODUCTION TO CLIMATOLOGY AND
resh Presh Presh esh Presh Presh
PrBIOGEOGRAPHY Presh Presh Presh
WMA 202

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

Lecturers in charge: Prof. G.C. Ufoegbune and Miss
Barakat Layi-Adigun
resh Presh P r esh P r esh P r esh P r esh P
Department of Water Resources management andr esh P r esh Presh
Agrometeorology, COLERM.
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex) 1
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh
Introduction to
Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh
Biogeography
Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex) 2
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Biogeography
• Biogeography is a branch of geography that studies the past and present distribution of the world's
resh manyPspecies.
resh It isPrusually
esh considered
Presh to beParepart
sh of physical
Presh geography
Presh sh
Prerelates
as it often resh
to Pthe
examination of the physical environment and how it affects species and shaped their distribution
across space.
resh Presh is the
• Biogeography
sh of the
Prestudy sh
Predistribution shspeciesPand
Preof reshecosystems h
Presin Preshspace and
geographic Presh
through (geological) time. Organisms and biological communities often vary in a regular fashion
along geographic gradients of latitude, elevation, isolation and habitat area.
resh Presh
• The geographical P resh
distribution Pre
of sh
plants Presh to as P
is referred resh
phytogeography,
h
Preswhile esh
thePrdistribution resh
Pof
animals is referred to as zoogeography.
• Biogeography also provides explanation of the factors responsible for the distribution ofhplants and h
resh s h s h
Preusing the Pscientific
animals re Pre s h
principles Pre s h
of environmental re s h
Pstudies. From
s h res
Prethis note, Pbiogeography Prises
defined as the study of the distribution of plants and animals including microorganisms together
with the geographical relationship with their environment
resh Presh includes
• Biogeography Preshthe study sh
Preof Presh of P
all components
h
resphysical
the P resh esh
Prthat
environments Presh
constitute
the habitat of various species and organisms. Biogeography focuses on the biological and
geographical components of the environment. Therefore, biogeography as a subject is both
resh biological
Presh Presh
and geographical Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex) 3
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Biogeography
resh • Biogeography
Presh Presh
also
P esh
studies therbiotic
Presh
complex
Presh
of the environment
Presh Presh Presh
• Biotic complex is the interacting complex of soil, plants, animals and the interaction of plants
and animals with climate.
resh • Plants
Preshare regarded
Preshas the Pautotrophs
resh h
resprimary
Por resh
Pproducers Preshthe animals
while Preshare known
Presh
generally as the consumers.
• The amount of chemical energy contained in a group of growing plants at any given time is
resh Presh to as biomass.
referred Presh It isPexpressed
resh sh
Pregrams
in h
Presmatter/m
of dry Pr2esh Presh Presh
• Biomass should not be confused with plant productivity. Productivity in plants is the actual rate
at which a plant grows while yield is the amount of energy stored in the desired grain or fruit
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
• Generally, Biogeography is interested in two important spatial patterns
❑ Reciprocal relationship between the organic and inorganic elements of the environment
resh ❑ Relationship
Presh Presh biosphere
between Preshand manPralone
esh (biosphere
Preshis the surface
Presh zone of eshearth and
Prthe Presh
its adjacent atmosphere in which organic life, plants, animals and man exist)
• The relationship between organisms and their environment can be studied at various scale (e.g
resh esh scale,Precosystem
thePrglobal esh Preshbut the Pmost
scale) reshimportant sh in which
Preunit h
Presthese Presh
relationships arePresh
studied is anFrom The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex)
ecosystem. 4
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex) 5
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Biogeography
TYPES
h OF BIOGEOGRAPHY
resh Pres h Pres h Pres Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Today, biogeography is broken into three main fields of study. The three fields are historical
biogeography, ecological biogeography, and conservation biogeography.
resh esh
A. PrHistorical Presh
biogeography sh
rethe
Pis sh
reanimal
study Pof Presh
distributions Presh
emphasizing Presh and Pover
evolution resh
evolutionary time scales, and using a combination of phylogenetic (relating to evolutionary
development and diversification) and distributional information.
resh esh
B. PrEcological resh esh
Prlooks
Pbiogeography resh factors
at thePcurrent sh
Preresponsible
Pre shthe distribution
for Presh of plants
Presh
and animals. The most common fields of research within ecological biogeography are climatic
equability, primary productivity, and habitat heterogeneity.
resh esh
C. PrConservation sh h well
Presis
Prebiogeography Preshto makeParesignificant
poised sh resh
Pcontribution h process
resthe
Pto sh
Preof
providing policy makers with objectively formulated scenarios and options for the effective
management of biodiversity. Conservation biogeography is a relatively new academic
resh P r e s h
endeavor that
P r e s h P r es h
brings conservation
P
and
r es h P e s h
applied rconcerns s
to rthe
P e h s h
fore byrecombining
P P esh
rthe
traditions of biogeography with the concerns of conservation biology

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex) 6
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
The scope of biogeography
This includes the following:
resh 1. Pre
sh Presh –
Phytogeography
h h
Pres of plantsPrdistribution
the study es Pres h Presh Presh Presh
2. Zoogeography – the study of animal’s distribution
resh reshstudy ofPall
3.PThe h
rescomponents h the physical
Presof Preshenvironment
Presh that constitute
Presh habitat sh variousPresh
Prefor
species of biological organisms. This consists of land, water, air and energy i.e.
a) study of the interactions of organisms and their physical environment
resh b) Pre sh sh
Prefactors
atmospheric sh Preofshplants and
Predistribution
in the sh
Preanimals Presh composition,
–gaseous Presh supply Presh
of light, condensation and precipitation, temperature and general atmospheric conditions
c) edaphic factors in the growth and distribution of plants and animals – this include those
resh sh properties
Presoil h
Preswhich h
Presplants
affect Preshand distribution
growth Presh andPconversely
resh shanimals.
Preof
that Presh
The physical and chemical properties of soil either promote or inhibit plants growth and
distribution
resh sh
4.Pbiotic
sh
re and anthropogenic
Pre re sh
Pfactors re sh
in thePgrowth re sh
and Pdistribution of e sh
Prplants re sh
and Panimals Presh
5. plants and animals evolution and distribution
resh resh of manPron
6.Peffect esh sh
Preanimal
plants and Presh and distribution
evolution Presh Presh Presh Presh
From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex) 7
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Importance of studying Climatology and Biogeography
• In recent years climate change and variability have become more obvious than ever before.
resh resh is therefore
PThere Presh no doubt
Presh that the sh
Preglobal PreshchangePrand
climate esh the vulnerability
Presh esh
ofPrthe
bio-physical environment to the various climate-related hazards have significant implications
to the components of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.
resh esh
• PrIt is Presh
therefore Pre
necessary toshtreat the sh Preshproblems
Preenvironmental sh
Preholistically. eshother words
PrIn Presh
problem solving in environmental issues has to adopt both interdisciplinary and
multidisciplinary approach.
resh resh
• PTherefore
sh
Precourse
this titled
h
Presclimatology h
s biogeography
Preand Pres h h
res
will Pconsider res h h
s
Preof
thePcharacteristics
the environment and examined the influence of atmospheric processes particularly the climate
on the biotic and abiotic components of the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.
resh resh
• PGenerally Presh elements
climatic
h
Preshave Presh influence
significant
h
Preson Presh parameters
the ecological Presh studied sh
Prein
biogeography

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex) 8
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
• Examples of crop and weather data of interest to climatology and biogeography are as below
resh Weather sh
PreData Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
i. Daily maximum and minimum temperature (air and soil)
ii. Daily global solar radiation
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
iii. Daily total precipitation, relative humidity and wind
iv. Evaporation and Evapotranspiration
resh Soil Data
Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
i. Soil moisture
resh ii. h
resdensity
Bulk
P Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
iii. Total carbon by soil layer
iv. Soil pH
resh P resh P resh P resh P resh P resh P resh P resh Presh
v. Nitrate and Ammonium Nitrogen
Crop Data
resh i. Root h
Presgrowth Presh
parameters Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex) 9
ii. Phenology and growth characteristics of the crop
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

Management Practices
resh sh
i. PreSeeding resh and Pdate
Pdepth resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
ii. Planting density
resh sh
iii. PreFertilizer esh sh
Prerate
Prapplication Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex) 10
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh FACTORS

Presh P r esh P r esh P r e
CONTROLLING CLIMATE ANDsh P r e sh P r e sh Presh
WEATHER
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
WMA 202

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

Lecturers in charge: Prof. G.C. Ufoegbune and Miss
Barakat Layi-Adigun
resh Presh P r esh P r esh P r esh P r esh P
Department of Water Resources management andr esh P r esh Presh
Agrometeorology, COLERM.
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex) 1
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
FACTORS CONTROLLING CLIMATE AND WEATHER
• The climatic elements are controlled on a daily basis by the passage of the sun the nature of the
resh resh systems
Pweather h
Presand sh
Preatmospheric
by local sh
Prefactors such
h
eslocal
Pras sh
Preand
winds Presh
air movements. Presh
• Local geography including distance from the ocean, type of vegetation and nearest to mountains,
also has a significant influence
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
• In the longer term the climate is determined by the relationship of an area to the sun and by its
position relative to major atmospheric features such as the permanent centres of high or low
pressure, or the main components of the circulation.
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
• Climate varies based on location and as a result is influenced by the following factors:
LATITUDE
resh reshaltitudePof
❑ PThe h sun isPralways
resthe esh highPat h equator
resthe sh
Pre(equator sh temperatures
Prehigh
has Presh resh
allPyear
round due to the tilt of the Earth’s axis), resulting to hot condition within the latitudes of this
region, those within the region where the sun’s elevation is usually lower experience cold
resh Presh
condition.
Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
❑ Changes in latitudes cause changes in temperature and this brings about seasonal temperature
changes.
resh Presh
ALTITUDES P resh RELIEF
AND Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex) 2
❑ This is described as the height of a place above the sea level and thus account for the reduction in
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
FACTORS CONTROLLING CLIMATE AND WEATHER
THE NATURE OF OCEAN CURRENTS
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
❑ Ocean currents control the average weather which in the long term characterizes the climate.
❑ Ocean currents change the effects of winds blowing over them, thereby influencing the
resh Presh sh coastalPlands.
temperature Pofrethe resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
❑ A cold current causes the wind blowing over it to be cold and as such dry, whereas, a warm
current causes the wind blowing over it to be warmed and moisture laden.
resh reshwarm air
❑ PThe esh the seas
Prfrom sh keepPthe
Preoften h
resimmediate esh
Prsurrounding esh
Prenvironment esh
Prespecially Presh
the
lowlands warm, while the cold currents tend to have a reduction effect on summer temperature
especially the onshore winds.
resh Presh
PREVAILING esh
PrWINDS AND h
PresTHE Presh
LOCATION OF esh MAIN
PrTHE sh
PrePRESSURE sh
PreCENTRE Presh
❑ Wind blows from high pressure belts towards low pressure belts. When this happens, the
climate of places or locations along their paths may be affected.
resh resh
❑ PThe movement
h
Presof esh esh resh
windsPrbrings aboutPrchanges in Ptemperature resh
Pand relative P resh
humidity. Presh
This
therefore, determines the type of precipitation that may occur in the location.
❑ Thehlow pressure hbelt is usuallyhsituated alongh the equator hwhile high pressure belts exist North h
resh e s
r South ofPthe
Pand e s
r equator Pr e s Pr es Pr e s Pr e s h Pr e s h Pres
From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex) 3
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
FACTORS CONTROLLING CLIMATE AND WEATHER
DISTRIBUTION OF LAND AND SEA
resh P resh P resh P resh P resh P resh P resh P resh P resh
❑ This has a complex effect, for the land gains and losses heat rapidly than the sea. Thus, temperature
range tends to be greater over the continents than over the oceans.
❑
resh h h
The lands surface warms
s up andshcools downshmore quickly s h than the seas h h
surface. Therefore,
s in sh
r e r e r e r e r e r e e e
P
temperate P the sea warms
latitude, P coastal regions
P P while in summer
in winter, P they areP cooled by it.Pr
r

❑The temperature of such coastal areas is always affected by the influence of the cooled wind from
h the seas hin summer sand
h that of the hwarm wind sfrom
h the sea in hwinter
r e s Pr e s Pr e Pr e s Pr e Pr e s Presh Presh Presh
NON - CLIMATIC ELEMENTS
Types of Surfaces: Various types of surfaces react differently to solar radiation incidence in terms of
resh reflection,
Preshabsorption, sh transmission
Preand Presh and this sh
Preaccounts eshvariation
Prthe
for h
esheating
Prin Presh
potentials. Presh
1. Vegetation surface: Both the reflectivity and transmission coefficient affect the amount of solar
radiation over vegetated surfaces and consequently the amount of sensible heat generated. Also,
resh Presh
part resh is lost
of the Pheat sh
Prethrough resh
Pevaporation reshtranspiration.
Pand Presh SurfacesPreshwith high
Presh
evapotranspiration heat more slowly than surfaces with less evapotranspiration
2. Land and water surface: Although the heating properties of the many kinds of land and vegetated
resh Presh vary considerably,
surfaces Presh sh
Pregreatest
the Presh are those
contrasts sh
Prebetween h waterPsurfaces,
Presand
land resh Presh
which
From The
react so differently Office
to solar Of The The
radiation. Nassa welfare
surfaces ofDirector-Elect
relatively deep (Mr phlex)
bodies of water heat and4 cool
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
FACTORS CONTROLLING CLIMATE AND WEATHER
resh The most sh
Preimportant resh for this
Preason esh
Prslowness resh
ofPtemperature P resh is thatPin
change sh a highly
rewater, h
Presmobile Presh
matter, redistribution of heat occurs mainly through turbulence. In contrast to this medium of heat
distribution, heat in the solid earth is distributed by molecular heat conduction, and so proceeds by moving
h from particleh to particle. In
h water, on the
h other handhocean currents,h waves, tidesh and conventional
s
re overturning s
Pre systemsPhelp s
re dispersed s
e absorbedPsolar
Prto s
re energy P re s
throughout aPlarge resh Because
res mass of Pwater. Presh
there is no such mixing on land, and assuming that equal amount of energy fall on both surfaces, water
surfaces would heat up more slowly and have lower temperatures than land surfaces
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex) 5
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
IMPORTANCE OF CLIMATE AND WEATHER
•Importance on Agriculture
resh P resh P resh P resh P resh P resh P resh P resh P resh
Adequate knowledge of the atmospheric conditions of a place will assist farmers to plan for their
various farming activities both seasonally and annually especially on rainfall regime. With good
information to farmers, effective steps can be taken against hail, frost, heavy rainfall, drought and
resh diseases
Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
• Importance on Transportation and Communication Transportation and communication can be
enhanced where the atmospheric conditions is well understood. Air transport system requires an
resh Presh and reliable
effective PreshweatherPinformation
resh Presh it can be
before esh
Prsuccessfully resh
Poperated. Presat
Sailors h sea require
Presh
adequate weather information at all times
•Importance on Mode of Dressing and Nature of Houses Built
resh A good sh
Preknowledge h
Profesweather P r esh P r esh P r esh P r esh P r esh P r
will assist in building the kind of houses that are suitable for our climate.esh
The type of dresses used in any area is to a greater extent determined by the climatic and weather
conditions obtainable in that particular area. For instance, in Polar regions where temperature is
resh reduced, h
Presinhabitants esh thick and
Prwear h
Presheavy Preshand a more
clothing h
Preshigher Presh is usedPin
clothing h equatorial
resthe Presh
region where temperature is more or less high

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex)
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Lapse rate and Temperature Inversion
Lapse Rate
resh • ThePratmosphere
esh reshmost ofPrthe
Pgets eshheat energy h
Presfrom esh in the
thePrground sh of terrestrial
Preform Presh radiation
Presh
therefore the lower parts of the atmosphere are heated more than the upper part.
•The average rate of fall of temperature with height in the troposphere is about 6.5 degree per km of
resh h is called
PresThis
ascent. h normal
Presthe sh rate.Presh
Prelapse Presh Presh Presh Presh
Inversion of Temperature
• Phenomenon of temperature inversion is one of the anomalies sometimes observed in the vertical
r e sh P r e sh P r e sh P r esh P r esh P r e sh P r e sh P r e sh P r e sh
distribution of temperature. The inversion of temperature refers to a condition of temperature
increasing with increasing height in the atmosphere.
• Certain hprocesses in hthe lower atmosphere may cause an actual increasehin the temperature with h
resh Pre s
increasing e s
PrAccording
height.
s h
torethe processes
P s h s
Pre that causePrthem
e h s s
Prerelative heights
and the
h Pres
Pre from earth's
surface at which they develop, the temperature inversions may be classified in the following types:
(1) Ground or surface inversions
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
(a) Radiation inversion
(b) Advection inversion
resh (2) Upper-air
Presh inversions h Subsidence
Pres(a) Preshinversion shTurbulence
Pre(b) h convective
Presand Presh inversion
Presh Presh
From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex) 7
(3) Frontal inversions.
resh P resh P resh P resh P resh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Lapse rate and Temperature Inversion
Radiation inversion
resh • ThePsurface
resh inversion
PreshproducedPrby h
esradiational esh
Prcooling Preshair is called
of lower h
Presradiational esh
Prinversion. Presh
The
inversion layer develops at an altitude of about 90 meters.
• Nocturnal cooling produced by the terrestrial radiation is the principal factor for this type of
resh Presh inversion.
temperature PreshSince a Pland
resh Presh more heat
surface radiates h the P
Presthan sh
reground
air, resh more Presh
is Pcooled
rapidly than the air at great heights during night time.
• Consequently the coldest air lies at the ground and is overlaid by warmer air. The layers of air in close
resh Presh to the earth's
proximity Presh surfacePare h
rescooled esh
byPrthe h
esradiation
Prof
processes h
resconduction
Pand sh quickly
Premore Presh
than the upper layers of air.
Thus, at a certain height (90 meters) the temperature increases with attitude, and this increase continues
•
resh up to
Pre sh 300 meters
about Presh from the sh
Presurface. Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Advection inversion
• Advection of a thick layer of warm air over a coldhsurface produces an inversion of temperature in the h
resh s h
Prelayers of the
lower e s h
Pratmosphere s h
re the warmPair
Pfor s
re is cooled P s h
byreconduction.
Pre s h Pre s h Pres
Of course, this type of inversion occurring at a certain height, i.e. the height of the warmer layer of air,
•
is called advection inversion.
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Frominversion
• This type of stable The Office Of The
occurs Nassa
when welfare
the warm Director-Elect
air passes (Mr
over a cold phlex)
water surface. Under 8these
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Lapse rate and Temperature Inversion
So when a cool mass of air is transported to the land, the presence of a warmer mass of air aloft
•
resh produces
Preshthe same esh of advection
Prtype Presh inversion.
Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Subsidence inversion

resh h has the nameshindicates, is sproduced

h wellshabove the earth's
h h esh
• Subsidence
s inversion,s s surfaceson account of
P r e P r e P r e P r e P r e P r e P r e P r
subsidence of air currents. This type of upper-air inversion occurs in an air mass when a thick mass of
air subsides.
h • The sinking h air warms hat the dry adiabatic
h rate of h10℃/km. In h certain cases, h the subsidenceh continues
r e s P r e s P r e s P r es P r es P r e s P r e s P r e s P r esh
to a particular level where the air diverges horizontally above a lower layer.
•Temperature inversion of this type generally develops in a layer separating the upper region of
subsidinghair and the lower region characterized by the absencehof vertical motion.
resh P r e s P r e s h P r es h P r es h Pres Presh Presh Presh
• Subsidence inversions are of common occurrence in regions of high pressure that are characterized by
sinking air.
resh • There sh circumstances
Preare Presh whenPduring
resh the night h inversion
Prestwo Preshlayers may sh
Predevelop reshhigh pressure
inPthe Presh
regions, one at the ground produced by radiational cooling and the other at considerable altitudes
produced by subsidence.
resh • ThePsubsidence
resh Presh is ofPgreat
inversion reshenvironmental
Presh significance,
Presh for thePpollutants
resh h
Presmotor
from Presh
vehicles
From The
and other industrial Office
sources Of The
become Nassa welfare
concentrated in theDirector-Elect
lower layers of(Mr
thephlex)
atmosphere and thus
9 form
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Lapse rate and Temperature Inversion
Turbulence and convective inversion
resh • ThisPrtype
eshof inversion
Preshis produced
Presath altitudes esh the surface
Prabove Presh by mechanical
Presh processes.
Presh Presh
• Turbulence and convection are the contributory factors in causing this type of inversion. Because of the
frictional forces eddies form in the lower layers of atmosphere which transport lower air to higher
resh sh bring back
Preand
levels h upperPair
Presthe h the lower
resto sh
Prelevels. Presh Presh Presh Presh
Convectional currents set up in the air near the ground are mainly responsible for the exchange of air
•
between upper and lower levels of the atmosphere.
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
• The phenomena of turbulence and convection cause a thorough mixing of the atmosphere in turbulent
layers. However, the turbulent or convective mixing is limited to a certain height beyond which it does
not and cannot penetrate. It is at this height that the convective inversion is formed.
resh P resh P resh P resh P resh P resh P resh P resh P resh
• In the process of vertical mixing the air carried upward is cooled adiabatically. Similarly the air brought
downwards heated at the same adiabatic rate.

resh h h h h h h r sh resh
• After aesprolonged e s
mixing es
in the atmosphere, the
esair s
at the maximum
e heighte sof turbulentepenetration
P r P r P r P r P r P r P P
becomes colder than what it was before, and that at the bottom of the turbulence layer will be warmer
than what it originally was

resh resh r sh resh r sh resh resh r sh resh

• The transition fromethis cold upper part of theeturbulence zone to the air above with itsetemperature
P
unaffected by FromP
adiabatic P P P P P P
Thecooling
Office comprises a temperature
Of The Nassa inversion
welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex) 10
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Lapse rate and Temperature Inversion
resh • Clouds,
Preshif they ever sh in this
Preform Pre sh
inversion h of stratus
Presare
layer, h stratocumulus
Presor Presh type.PIn sh
recertain Presh
situations, turbulence in association with heat from the ground leads to the formation of cumulus or
cumulonimbus clouds.
resh • Turbulence
Presh inversion
Preshmay occur
Preatsha low level shit may form
Preor h very high
Presat sh
Prealtitudes. Presh Presh
• In case the inversion has formed at lower levels, smoke, dust particles and other pollutants are carried
up to the inversion where they spread beneath the inversion layer and form distinct smoke or haze
resh h weather.
esclear
Prin
lines Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Frontal inversion
• The inverted lapse rate at the front is called frontal inversion, when differing air masses are brought
resh Preshby converging
together Presh movements;
Preshthe warmer Presh resh higher
air beingPrelatively sh to overlie
Pretends Preshthe colder
Presh
and denser air in a horizontal layer.
• However, because of the Coriolis force, the boundary zone between the air masses with contrasting
resh Preshproperties
physical shnever horizontal;
Preare Presh eshrather sloping.
Prare
they Presh In fact,Pthe
reshfrontal zone h is Presh
Presitself
converted into inversion layer in which the lapse rate is inverted.
•In other words, at the frontal zone as one move up from the lower to upper layers of the atmosphere,
resh Preissh
there Preinshtemperature
an increase h increasing
Preswith Presh altitudes.
Presh Presh Presh Presh
From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex)
• The following characteristics distinguish frontal inversion from other types of inversion: -
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Lapse rate and Temperature Inversion
(a) The inversion layer associated with fronts is sloping, while in the other types of inversion it is
resh Presh
horizontal, Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
(b) In frontal inversion the moisture content shows a marked increase with elevation, while in other
types the temperature increases and humidity decreases with the increasing elevation. That is why
resh Preshthe inversion
above Preshlayer clouds h
Presare sh
Preseen.
generally Presh Presh Presh Presh
•In other words, the frontal inversions show an increasing specific humidity in the inversion layer. It is
generally seen that along the fronts the inversion, in the strictest sense of the term, is never found.
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
• What happens is that the actual lapse rate becomes very low in the inversion layer. The reason is quite
simple.
resh • ThePrwarmer
esh air masses
Presh Presh
ascend the
Presh
retreating wedge
P sh
of coldre
Presh
air and they cool
Presh
by adiabatic expansion.resh
P
Because of expansional cooling of the upward moving air at adiabatic rate, the frontal inversions are
rarely observed beyond the height of 2 kilometers.

resh • At Pgreater
resh heightsP r e s
thereh is a marked
P r es h P h
decrease rinesthe lapse rate
P r e s h
in frontal zone,
P r e s h s
whereasrjust
P e habove theresh
P
top of the clouds formed by the rising warm air currents the inversion is always present. Recent
investigations attach special significance to frontal inversions in the origin of extra tropical cyclones

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex) 12
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh FACTORS

Presh P r esh P r esh P r e
CONTROLLING CLIMATE ANDsh P r e sh P r e sh Presh
WEATHER
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
WMA 202

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

Lecturers in charge: Prof. G.C. Ufoegbune and Miss
Barakat Layi-Adigun
resh Presh P r esh P r esh P r esh P r esh P
Department of Water Resources management andr esh P r esh Presh
Agrometeorology, COLERM.
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex) 1
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
FACTORS CONTROLLING CLIMATE AND WEATHER
• The climatic elements are controlled on a daily basis by the passage of the sun the nature of the
resh resh systems
Pweather h
Presand sh
Preatmospheric
by local sh
Prefactors such
h
eslocal
Pras sh
Preand
winds Presh
air movements. Presh
• Local geography including distance from the ocean, type of vegetation and nearest to mountains,
also has a significant influence
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
• In the longer term the climate is determined by the relationship of an area to the sun and by its
position relative to major atmospheric features such as the permanent centres of high or low
pressure, or the main components of the circulation.
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
• Climate varies based on location and as a result is influenced by the following factors:
LATITUDE
resh reshaltitudePof
❑ PThe h sun isPralways
resthe esh highPat h equator
resthe sh
Pre(equator sh temperatures
Prehigh
has Presh resh
allPyear
round due to the tilt of the Earth’s axis), resulting to hot condition within the latitudes of this
region, those within the region where the sun’s elevation is usually lower experience cold
resh Presh
condition.
Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
❑ Changes in latitudes cause changes in temperature and this brings about seasonal temperature
changes.
resh Presh
ALTITUDES P resh RELIEF
AND Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex) 2
❑ This is described as the height of a place above the sea level and thus account for the reduction in
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
FACTORS CONTROLLING CLIMATE AND WEATHER
THE NATURE OF OCEAN CURRENTS
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
❑ Ocean currents control the average weather which in the long term characterizes the climate.
❑ Ocean currents change the effects of winds blowing over them, thereby influencing the
resh Presh sh coastalPlands.
temperature Pofrethe resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
❑ A cold current causes the wind blowing over it to be cold and as such dry, whereas, a warm
current causes the wind blowing over it to be warmed and moisture laden.
resh reshwarm air
❑ PThe esh the seas
Prfrom sh keepPthe
Preoften h
resimmediate esh
Prsurrounding esh
Prenvironment esh
Prespecially Presh
the
lowlands warm, while the cold currents tend to have a reduction effect on summer temperature
especially the onshore winds.
resh Presh
PREVAILING esh
PrWINDS AND h
PresTHE Presh
LOCATION OF esh MAIN
PrTHE sh
PrePRESSURE sh
PreCENTRE Presh
❑ Wind blows from high pressure belts towards low pressure belts. When this happens, the
climate of places or locations along their paths may be affected.
resh resh
❑ PThe movement
h
Presof esh esh resh
windsPrbrings aboutPrchanges in Ptemperature resh
Pand relative P resh
humidity. Presh
This
therefore, determines the type of precipitation that may occur in the location.
❑ Thehlow pressure hbelt is usuallyhsituated alongh the equator hwhile high pressure belts exist North h
resh e s
r South ofPthe
Pand e s
r equator Pr e s Pr es Pr e s Pr e s h Pr e s h Pres
From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex) 3
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
FACTORS CONTROLLING CLIMATE AND WEATHER
DISTRIBUTION OF LAND AND SEA
resh P resh P resh P resh P resh P resh P resh P resh P resh
❑ This has a complex effect, for the land gains and losses heat rapidly than the sea. Thus, temperature
range tends to be greater over the continents than over the oceans.
❑
resh h h
The lands surface warms
s up andshcools downshmore quickly s h than the seas h h
surface. Therefore,
s in sh
r e r e r e r e r e r e e e
P
temperate P the sea warms
latitude, P coastal regions
P P while in summer
in winter, P they areP cooled by it.Pr
r

❑The temperature of such coastal areas is always affected by the influence of the cooled wind from
h the seas hin summer sand
h that of the hwarm wind sfrom
h the sea in hwinter
r e s Pr e s Pr e Pr e s Pr e Pr e s Presh Presh Presh
NON - CLIMATIC ELEMENTS
Types of Surfaces: Various types of surfaces react differently to solar radiation incidence in terms of
resh reflection,
Preshabsorption, sh transmission
Preand Presh and this sh
Preaccounts eshvariation
Prthe
for h
esheating
Prin Presh
potentials. Presh
1. Vegetation surface: Both the reflectivity and transmission coefficient affect the amount of solar
radiation over vegetated surfaces and consequently the amount of sensible heat generated. Also,
resh Presh
part resh is lost
of the Pheat sh
Prethrough resh
Pevaporation reshtranspiration.
Pand Presh SurfacesPreshwith high
Presh
evapotranspiration heat more slowly than surfaces with less evapotranspiration
2. Land and water surface: Although the heating properties of the many kinds of land and vegetated
resh Presh vary considerably,
surfaces Presh sh
Pregreatest
the Presh are those
contrasts sh
Prebetween h waterPsurfaces,
Presand
land resh Presh
which
From The
react so differently Office
to solar Of The The
radiation. Nassa welfare
surfaces ofDirector-Elect
relatively deep (Mr phlex)
bodies of water heat and4 cool
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
FACTORS CONTROLLING CLIMATE AND WEATHER
resh The most sh
Preimportant resh for this
Preason esh
Prslowness resh
ofPtemperature P resh is thatPin
change sh a highly
rewater, h
Presmobile Presh
matter, redistribution of heat occurs mainly through turbulence. In contrast to this medium of heat
distribution, heat in the solid earth is distributed by molecular heat conduction, and so proceeds by moving
h from particleh to particle. In
h water, on the
h other handhocean currents,h waves, tidesh and conventional
s
re overturning s
Pre systemsPhelp s
re dispersed s
e absorbedPsolar
Prto s
re energy P re s
throughout aPlarge resh Because
res mass of Pwater. Presh
there is no such mixing on land, and assuming that equal amount of energy fall on both surfaces, water
surfaces would heat up more slowly and have lower temperatures than land surfaces
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex) 5
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
IMPORTANCE OF CLIMATE AND WEATHER
•Importance on Agriculture
resh P resh P resh P resh P resh P resh P resh P resh P resh
Adequate knowledge of the atmospheric conditions of a place will assist farmers to plan for their
various farming activities both seasonally and annually especially on rainfall regime. With good
information to farmers, effective steps can be taken against hail, frost, heavy rainfall, drought and
resh diseases
Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
• Importance on Transportation and Communication Transportation and communication can be
enhanced where the atmospheric conditions is well understood. Air transport system requires an
resh Presh and reliable
effective PreshweatherPinformation
resh Presh it can be
before esh
Prsuccessfully resh
Poperated. Presat
Sailors h sea require
Presh
adequate weather information at all times
•Importance on Mode of Dressing and Nature of Houses Built
resh A good sh
Preknowledge h
Profesweather P r esh P r esh P r esh P r esh P r esh P r
will assist in building the kind of houses that are suitable for our climate.esh
The type of dresses used in any area is to a greater extent determined by the climatic and weather
conditions obtainable in that particular area. For instance, in Polar regions where temperature is
resh reduced, h
Presinhabitants esh thick and
Prwear h
Presheavy Preshand a more
clothing h
Preshigher Presh is usedPin
clothing h equatorial
resthe Presh
region where temperature is more or less high

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex)
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Lapse rate and Temperature Inversion
Lapse Rate
resh • ThePratmosphere
esh reshmost ofPrthe
Pgets eshheat energy h
Presfrom esh in the
thePrground sh of terrestrial
Preform Presh radiation
Presh
therefore the lower parts of the atmosphere are heated more than the upper part.
•The average rate of fall of temperature with height in the troposphere is about 6.5 degree per km of
resh h is called
PresThis
ascent. h normal
Presthe sh rate.Presh
Prelapse Presh Presh Presh Presh
Inversion of Temperature
• Phenomenon of temperature inversion is one of the anomalies sometimes observed in the vertical
r e sh P r e sh P r e sh P r esh P r esh P r e sh P r e sh P r e sh P r e sh
distribution of temperature. The inversion of temperature refers to a condition of temperature
increasing with increasing height in the atmosphere.
• Certain hprocesses in hthe lower atmosphere may cause an actual increasehin the temperature with h
resh Pre s
increasing e s
PrAccording
height.
s h
torethe processes
P s h s
Pre that causePrthem
e h s s
Prerelative heights
and the
h Pres
Pre from earth's
surface at which they develop, the temperature inversions may be classified in the following types:
(1) Ground or surface inversions
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
(a) Radiation inversion
(b) Advection inversion
resh (2) Upper-air
Presh inversions h Subsidence
Pres(a) Preshinversion shTurbulence
Pre(b) h convective
Presand Presh inversion
Presh Presh
From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex) 7
(3) Frontal inversions.
resh P resh P resh P resh P resh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Lapse rate and Temperature Inversion
Radiation inversion
resh • ThePsurface
resh inversion
PreshproducedPrby h
esradiational esh
Prcooling Preshair is called
of lower h
Presradiational esh
Prinversion. Presh
The
inversion layer develops at an altitude of about 90 meters.
• Nocturnal cooling produced by the terrestrial radiation is the principal factor for this type of
resh Presh inversion.
temperature PreshSince a Pland
resh Presh more heat
surface radiates h the P
Presthan sh
reground
air, resh more Presh
is Pcooled
rapidly than the air at great heights during night time.
• Consequently the coldest air lies at the ground and is overlaid by warmer air. The layers of air in close
resh Presh to the earth's
proximity Presh surfacePare h
rescooled esh
byPrthe h
esradiation
Prof
processes h
resconduction
Pand sh quickly
Premore Presh
than the upper layers of air.
Thus, at a certain height (90 meters) the temperature increases with attitude, and this increase continues
•
resh up to
Pre sh 300 meters
about Presh from the sh
Presurface. Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Advection inversion
• Advection of a thick layer of warm air over a coldhsurface produces an inversion of temperature in the h
resh s h
Prelayers of the
lower e s h
Pratmosphere s h
re the warmPair
Pfor s
re is cooled P s h
byreconduction.
Pre s h Pre s h Pres
Of course, this type of inversion occurring at a certain height, i.e. the height of the warmer layer of air,
•
is called advection inversion.
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Frominversion
• This type of stable The Office Of The
occurs Nassa
when welfare
the warm Director-Elect
air passes (Mr
over a cold phlex)
water surface. Under 8these
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Lapse rate and Temperature Inversion
So when a cool mass of air is transported to the land, the presence of a warmer mass of air aloft
•
resh produces
Preshthe same esh of advection
Prtype Presh inversion.
Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Subsidence inversion

resh h has the nameshindicates, is sproduced

h wellshabove the earth's
h h esh
• Subsidence
s inversion,s s surfaceson account of
P r e P r e P r e P r e P r e P r e P r e P r
subsidence of air currents. This type of upper-air inversion occurs in an air mass when a thick mass of
air subsides.
h • The sinking h air warms hat the dry adiabatic
h rate of h10℃/km. In h certain cases, h the subsidenceh continues
r e s P r e s P r e s P r es P r es P r e s P r e s P r e s P r esh
to a particular level where the air diverges horizontally above a lower layer.
•Temperature inversion of this type generally develops in a layer separating the upper region of
subsidinghair and the lower region characterized by the absencehof vertical motion.
resh P r e s P r e s h P r es h P r es h Pres Presh Presh Presh
• Subsidence inversions are of common occurrence in regions of high pressure that are characterized by
sinking air.
resh • There sh circumstances
Preare Presh whenPduring
resh the night h inversion
Prestwo Preshlayers may sh
Predevelop reshhigh pressure
inPthe Presh
regions, one at the ground produced by radiational cooling and the other at considerable altitudes
produced by subsidence.
resh • ThePsubsidence
resh Presh is ofPgreat
inversion reshenvironmental
Presh significance,
Presh for thePpollutants
resh h
Presmotor
from Presh
vehicles
From The
and other industrial Office
sources Of The
become Nassa welfare
concentrated in theDirector-Elect
lower layers of(Mr
thephlex)
atmosphere and thus
9 form
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Lapse rate and Temperature Inversion
Turbulence and convective inversion
resh • ThisPrtype
eshof inversion
Preshis produced
Presath altitudes esh the surface
Prabove Presh by mechanical
Presh processes.
Presh Presh
• Turbulence and convection are the contributory factors in causing this type of inversion. Because of the
frictional forces eddies form in the lower layers of atmosphere which transport lower air to higher
resh sh bring back
Preand
levels h upperPair
Presthe h the lower
resto sh
Prelevels. Presh Presh Presh Presh
Convectional currents set up in the air near the ground are mainly responsible for the exchange of air
•
between upper and lower levels of the atmosphere.
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
• The phenomena of turbulence and convection cause a thorough mixing of the atmosphere in turbulent
layers. However, the turbulent or convective mixing is limited to a certain height beyond which it does
not and cannot penetrate. It is at this height that the convective inversion is formed.
resh P resh P resh P resh P resh P resh P resh P resh P resh
• In the process of vertical mixing the air carried upward is cooled adiabatically. Similarly the air brought
downwards heated at the same adiabatic rate.

resh h h h h h h r sh resh
• After aesprolonged e s
mixing es
in the atmosphere, the
esair s
at the maximum
e heighte sof turbulentepenetration
P r P r P r P r P r P r P P
becomes colder than what it was before, and that at the bottom of the turbulence layer will be warmer
than what it originally was

resh resh r sh resh r sh resh resh r sh resh

• The transition fromethis cold upper part of theeturbulence zone to the air above with itsetemperature
P
unaffected by FromP
adiabatic P P P P P P
Thecooling
Office comprises a temperature
Of The Nassa inversion
welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex) 10
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Lapse rate and Temperature Inversion
resh • Clouds,
Preshif they ever sh in this
Preform Pre sh
inversion h of stratus
Presare
layer, h stratocumulus
Presor Presh type.PIn sh
recertain Presh
situations, turbulence in association with heat from the ground leads to the formation of cumulus or
cumulonimbus clouds.
resh • Turbulence
Presh inversion
Preshmay occur
Preatsha low level shit may form
Preor h very high
Presat sh
Prealtitudes. Presh Presh
• In case the inversion has formed at lower levels, smoke, dust particles and other pollutants are carried
up to the inversion where they spread beneath the inversion layer and form distinct smoke or haze
resh h weather.
esclear
Prin
lines Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Frontal inversion
• The inverted lapse rate at the front is called frontal inversion, when differing air masses are brought
resh Preshby converging
together Presh movements;
Preshthe warmer Presh resh higher
air beingPrelatively sh to overlie
Pretends Preshthe colder
Presh
and denser air in a horizontal layer.
• However, because of the Coriolis force, the boundary zone between the air masses with contrasting
resh Preshproperties
physical shnever horizontal;
Preare Presh eshrather sloping.
Prare
they Presh In fact,Pthe
reshfrontal zone h is Presh
Presitself
converted into inversion layer in which the lapse rate is inverted.
•In other words, at the frontal zone as one move up from the lower to upper layers of the atmosphere,
resh Preissh
there Preinshtemperature
an increase h increasing
Preswith Presh altitudes.
Presh Presh Presh Presh
From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex)
• The following characteristics distinguish frontal inversion from other types of inversion: -
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Lapse rate and Temperature Inversion
(a) The inversion layer associated with fronts is sloping, while in the other types of inversion it is
resh Presh
horizontal, Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
(b) In frontal inversion the moisture content shows a marked increase with elevation, while in other
types the temperature increases and humidity decreases with the increasing elevation. That is why
resh Preshthe inversion
above Preshlayer clouds h
Presare sh
Preseen.
generally Presh Presh Presh Presh
•In other words, the frontal inversions show an increasing specific humidity in the inversion layer. It is
generally seen that along the fronts the inversion, in the strictest sense of the term, is never found.
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
• What happens is that the actual lapse rate becomes very low in the inversion layer. The reason is quite
simple.
resh • ThePrwarmer
esh air masses
Presh Presh
ascend the
Presh
retreating wedge
P sh
of coldre
Presh
air and they cool
Presh
by adiabatic expansion.resh
P
Because of expansional cooling of the upward moving air at adiabatic rate, the frontal inversions are
rarely observed beyond the height of 2 kilometers.

resh • At Pgreater
resh heightsP r e s
thereh is a marked
P r es h P h
decrease rinesthe lapse rate
P r e s h
in frontal zone,
P r e s h s
whereasrjust
P e habove theresh
P
top of the clouds formed by the rising warm air currents the inversion is always present. Recent
investigations attach special significance to frontal inversions in the origin of extra tropical cyclones

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex) 12
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Temperature
Presh Inversion
Presh Presh Presh Presh
drishtiias.com/printpdf/temperature-inversion

Meaning
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Under normal conditions, temperature usually decreases with increase in altitude in the Presh
troposphere at a rate of 1 degree for every 165 metres. This is called normal lapse rate.
But on some occasions, the situations get reversed and temperature starts increasing
with height rather than decreasing. This is called temperature inversion.
Temperature inversion: It is a reversal of the normal behavior of temperature in the
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh
troposphere. Under this meteorological phenomenon a layer of warm air lies over the cold air
Presh
layer.
It is caused in stac atmospheric conditions while some times, it occurs due to
horizontal or vertical movement of air.
Temperature inversion is usually of short duration but quite common nonetheless.

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh

Favourable Conditions for Temperature Inversion Presh Presh Presh
Long winter nights: Loss of heat by terrestrial radiation from the ground surface during
night may exceed the amount of incoming solar radiation.

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh 1/5

From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex)
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Cloudless and clear sky: Loss of heat through terrestrial radiation proceeds more rapidly
without any obstruction.

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

Dry air near the ground surface: It limits the absorption of the radiated heat from the
Earth’s surface.
Slow movement of air: It results in no transfer or mixing of heat in the lower layers of the
atmosphere.
Snow covered ground surface: It results in maximum loss of heat through reflection of

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

incoming solar radiation.

Types of Temperature Inversion

Temperature inversion occurs in several conditions ranging from ground surface to great
heights. Thus there are several kinds of temperature inversions.

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

The following are classified on the basis of relative heights from the earth’s surface at which it
occurs and the type of air circulation:

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh 2/5

From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex)
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Non-Advectional
Radiation Inversion (Surface Temperature Inversion)

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

Surface temperature inversion develops when air is cooled by contact with a
colder surface until it becomes cooler than the overlying atmosphere; this occurs
most often on clear nights, when the ground cools off rapidly by radiation. If the
temperature of surface air drops below its dew point, fog may result.
It is very common in the higher latitudes. In lower and middle latitudes, it occurs

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

during cold nights and gets destroyed during day time.

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

Subsidence Inversion (Upper Surface Temperature Inversion)
When a widespread layer of air descends, it is compressed and heated by the

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resulting increase in atmospheric pressure, and as a result the lapse rate of
temperature is reduced.
The air at higher altitudes becomes warmer than at lower altitudes, producing a
temperature inversion. This type of temperature inversion is called subsidence
inversion.

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

It is very common over the northern continents in winter (dry atmosphere) and
over the subtropical oceans; these regions generally have subsiding air because
they are located under large high-pressure centers.
It is also called upper surface temperature inversion because it takes place in the
upper parts of the atmosphere.

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh 3/5

From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex)
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

Advectional
Valley inversion in intermontane valley
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh
In high mountains or deep valleys, sometimes, the temperature of the lower layers
Presh
of air increases instead of decreasing with elevation along a sloping surface.
Here, the surface radiates heat back to space rapidly and cools down at a faster
rate than the upper layers. As a result the lower cold layers get condensed and
become heavy.

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh

The sloping surface underneath makes them move towards the bottom where the
cold layer settles down as a zone of low temperature while the upper layers are Presh
relatively warmer.
This condition, opposite to normal vertical distribution of temperature, is known
as Temperature Inversion.

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

Frontal or Cyclonic inversion

When the warm and cold fronts meet, then the warm front rises up and being
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh
heavier the cold front sinks down. It results in formation of Frontal Inversion.
Presh
It has considerable slope, whereas other inversions are nearly horizontal. It often
takes place in the temperate zone and causes cyclonic conditions which result in
the precipitation in different forms.
A frontal inversion is unstable and is destroyed as the weather changes.

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh 4/5

From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex)
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

Effect
Temperature inversion determines the precipitation, forms of clouds, and also causes frost

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

due to condensation of warm air due to its cooling.
Dust particles hanging in the air: Due to inversion of temperature, air pollutants
such as dust particles and smoke do not disperse on the surface.
Stops the movement of air: It causes the stability of the atmosphere that stops the
downward and upward movement of air.

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

Less rainfall: Convection clouds can not move high upwards so there is less rainfall
and no showers. So, it causes a problem for agricultural productivity.
Lower visibility: Fog is formed due to the situation of warm air above and cold air
below, and hence visibility is reduced which causes disturbance in transportation.
Thunderstorms and tornadoes: Intense thunderstorms and tornadoes are also
associated with inversion of temperature because of the intense energy that is released
resh Presh Presh Presh
after an inversion blocks an area’s normal convention patterns.
Presh Presh
Diurnal variations in temperature tend to be very small.

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh 5/5

From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex)
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh ATMOSPHERE

THE Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
WMA 202

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

Lecturers in charge: Prof. G.C. Ufoegbune and Miss
Barakat Layi-Adigun
resh Presh P r esh P r esh P r esh P r esh P
Department of Water Resources management andr esh P r esh Presh
Agrometeorology, COLERM.
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex) 1
resh P resh P resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
The Atmosphere
• The term atmosphere refers to the gaseous envelope surrounding the earth.
resh • ThePratmosphere
esh isshbelievedPrto
Pre eshhave developed
Presh h
Presmillions
some h
resyears
Pof sh it is Pstill
Preand
ago resh
maintaining its present form and composition as a result of chemical and photochemical
processes combined with differential escape rates from the earth’s gravitational field.
resh • WePdescribe
resh P r esh P r esh P r esh P r esh P r esh P r esh P r
the atmosphere as a thick blanket of gases composed of a mixture of various esh
gases, water vapour, and aerosols, the atmosphere is held to the earth by the gravitational
attraction of the earth and it is densest at the sea level and thins rapidly upwards.
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
• Generally the atmosphere is highly oxidized and contains very little hydrogen. The most
important constituents of the air in the earth’s atmosphere are nitrogen and oxygen. Without
the atmosphere, theshearth wouldshnot have been
sh habitablesfor
h the following reasons:
resh Pre sh Pre Pre Pre Pre Pre sh Pre sh Presh
The atmosphere helps to shield and protect all life forms from the harmful radiation from the
sun and its gaseous content sustains plants and animals.
resh esh
ThePratmosphere esh
Prprovides sh
Premaintains
and h
ressupply
Pthe esh required
ofProxygen Preshfor lifePto sh
rethrive Presh
The atmosphere protects the earth from extremes of heat and cold by controlling the earth’s
energy budget
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
From holds
The atmosphere The Office Of The
moisture Nassa
that welfare
gives Director-Elect
precipitation and (Mr phlex) same across
distributes 2 the
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
❖ The average composition of the atmosphere is presented in the table. The major gases making
resh h atmosphere
resthe
Pup Presh are; Nitrogen
Presh Oxygen sh ArgonPrwhich
Preand esh are inPrconstant
esh Preshwhile Presh
amounts
water vapour, carbondioxide and ozone are highly variable both spatially and temporally.
The atmosphere is well mixed and is constant in composition in the lower layer referred to as
the homosphere.
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
❖ At the higher levels, the heterosphere, there is little mixing and so diffusive separation tends
to take place up to about 100km.
❖
resh Presh Presh
Generally the composition
Presh Presh
of the atmosphere
Presh
changes with
Presh
the height above
Presh
the sea level.
Presh
❖ Water vapour is limited to 10-12km because atmospheric moisture i.e. water vapour is supplied
to the earth’s surface through process of evapotranspiration. While at higher levels oxygen and
resh h h h h bysh h radiation. sh
Presh
minors constituentss such as carbon
s dioxide aresdissociated solar ultraviolet
s
P r e P r e P r e P r e P r e P r e Pre
❖ CO2 enters the atmosphere mainly through the action of living organism in the ocean and on
land. The use of fossil fuels is now a major contributor to global CO2
resh ❖
Presh Presh
The non-gaseous
Presh
constituents
Presh
are concentrated
P esh
in the rlower
Presh
layer of
Presh
the atmosphere. The
Presh
nongaseous constituents are the aerosols such as the particles of dust, smoke, organic matter,
sea salt and the by-products of fire and industry such as carbon, sulphurdioxide, carbon
monoxide and lead.
resh P r esh
❖ The aerosols P r esh
are The
so light P r
thatOf
esh
even minor P r esh
movements P r esh P r
in air can sustain(Mr
esh
them. P r esh
Dust, salt, carbon,3 P r esh
From Office The Nassa welfare Director-Elect phlex)
sulphur, lead and aluminum compounds are the most abundant in the aerosols.
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Composition of the atmosphere

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex) 4
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
THE LAYERED STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE
According to temperature, the atmosphere contains four different layers. They are the Troposphere,
resh Stratosphere,
Presh Mesosphere,
Presh and the esh sh
Prewhich
Prthermosphere h
resfurther
canPbe Presh
subdivided esh
intoPrionosphere resh
Pand
exosphere. Three of these layers are relatively warm layers (these are the layers near the surface; between
50 and 60 km: and above about 120 km) and the remaining two that separate the warmer layers are the
resh relatively
Presh Presh
cold layers (between
Presh
10 and
P esh
30 km, andraround
Presh
80 km)
Presh Presh Presh
TROPOSHERE
The first layer is called the troposphere. The depth of this layer varies from about 8 to 16 kilometers.
•
resh • From sh
Prethe P r esh P r esh P r esh P r esh P r esh P r esh P
tropics to the Earth's Polar Regions the troposphere becomes gradually thinner. The depth r esh
of this layer at the poles is roughly half as thick when compared to the tropics.
Average hdepth of the h troposphere ish approximately 11kilometers. About 80% of the totalhmass of the h
resh h h h
•
P r e s P r e s P r es P r es P r e s P r e s P r e s P r e s
atmosphere is contained in troposphere.
• It is also the layer where the majority of our weather occurs.
resh • With esh
Princreasing Presh air temperature
height, Presh drops sh
Preuniformly reshaltitude P
with
P h of approximately
atreasrate Presh resh
P6.5°
Celsius per 1000 meters. This phenomenon is commonly called the Environmental Lapse Rate.
• At an average temperature of -56.5° Celsius, the top of the troposphere is reached. At the upper edge
resh sh
Pretroposphere
of the esahnarrowPtransition
Pris resh h
Presknown
zone eshtropopause.
asPrthe Presh Presh Presh
From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex) 5
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
STRATOSPHERE
• Above the tropopause is the stratosphere. This layer extends from an average altitude of 11 to 50
resh Presh above
kilometers eshEarth's surface.
Prthe Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
This stratosphere contains about 19.9% of the total mass found in the atmosphere. Very little
•
weather occurs in the stratosphere.
resh • InPthe
resh P r esh P r esh P r esh P r esh P r esh P r esh P r
first 9 kilometers of the stratosphere, temperature remains constant with height. A zone with
esh
constant temperature in the atmosphere is called an isothermal layer.
h • From an h altitude ofsh20 to 50 kilometers,
h temperature
h increases
h with anshincrease in altitude.
h The sh
r e s e s
Pr temperatures Pr e es es e s e e s Pre
higher found Pinr this region
Pr of the stratosphere
Pr Pr becauseProf a localized
occurs
concentration of ozone gas molecules. These molecules absorb ultraviolet sunlight creating heat
energy that warms the stratosphere.
resh • Ozone
Preshis primarily sh
Prefound P r esh P r esh P r esh P r esh P r esh P
in the atmosphere at varying concentrations between the altitudes of 10 to r esh
50 kilometers. This layer of ozone is also called the ozone layer.
• The ozone layer is important to organisms at the Earth's surface as it protects them from the
re sh Presheffects P sh Presh radiation.
PreshWithoutPrthe
eshozone layer h
Preslife h
resexist Presh
harmful ofrethe Sun's ultraviolet couldPnot on the
Earth's surface.
• Separating the mesosphere from the stratosphere is transition zone called the stratopause. At the
r e sh h
esthe
Prof Presh is another h
Prestransition reshknown Pasrethe
Pzone sh Presh Presh Presh
top mesosphere mesopause.
From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex) 6
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
THERMOSPHERE
• The last atmospheric layer has an altitude greater than 80 kilometers and is called the thermosphere.
resh resh
PTemperatures h
Prinesthis shgreater than
Prebe
layer can
h
Pres1200°C. Presh Presh Presh Presh
• These high temperatures are generated from the absorption of intense solar radiation by oxygen
molecules (O2).
resh P resh P resh P resh P resh P resh P resh P resh P resh
• While these temperatures seem extreme, the amount of heat energy involved is very small. The amount
of heat stored in a substance is controlled in part by its mass. The air in the thermosphere is extremely
thin with individual gas molecules being separated from each other by large distances.
resh Presh
MESOSPHERE Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
• Directly above the stratosphere and below the thermosphere. It extends from about 50 to 85km above
the earth surface.
resh P resh P resh P resh P resh P resh P resh P resh P resh
• Temperature decreases with height throughout the mesosphere
• The coldest temperatures in earth’s atmosphere, about -90°C are found near the top of this layer.
resh resh% of oxygen,
• PThe Presh h
rescarbo
nitrogen Pand h the air P
Presin
dioxide esh
isressentially esh as thatPin
Prsame
the sh of the
relevels Presh
earth’s atmosphere immediately above the earth’s surface

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex) 7
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

THE LAYERED STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex) 8
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Heating of the atmosphere
• The earth does more than absorb or reflect shortwave insulation; it constantly gives off long wave
resh Presh on its own.
radiation h
PresWhen esh land Pmasses
thePrearth’s resh and oceans
Preshabsorb shortwave
Presh Presh It triggers
radiation, Presh
rise in temperature, and the heated surface now emits long wave radiation.
• One or two things can happen to this radiation leaving the planetary surface; either it is absorbed by
resh resh
thePatmosphere Pre
or h
itsescapes sh
Prespace
into Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
• The major atmospheric constituent that absorbs the earth’s long wave radiation are carbon dioxide,
water vapour, and ozone. Each of these variable gases absorbs radiation at certain wavelengths but
resh h wavelengths
Presother
allows Presh to escape PreshthroughPan sh
reatmospheric sh
Pre“window.” Presh Presh Presh
• Up to 9 percent of all terrestrial radiation is thereby lost to space, except when the window is shut by
clouds. Clouds absorb or reflect back to earth almost all the outgoing long wave radiation. Therefore, a
resh h
Preswinter
cloudy Preis
night shlikely toPbe sh
rewarmer Preash
than clear onePresh Presh Presh Presh
• The atmosphere is heated by the long wave radiation it absorbs. Most of this radiation is absorbed at
the lower, dense levels of the atmosphere, a fact that helps account for air’s higher temperatures near
resh resh surface.
thePearth’s Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
• Thus, our atmosphere is actually heated from below, not directly by the sun above. The atmosphere
itself, being warm, can also emit long wave radiation. Some goes off into space, but some known as
resh Presh
counter-radiation, h
Prisesreradiated reshto the earth.
Pback Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
•
From The
Without this counter Officefrom
radiation Of The
theNassa welfarethe
atmosphere, Director-Elect (Mr phlex)
earth’s mean surface
9
temperature would be
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Heating of the atmosphere
• about -20o C, 35o C colder than its current average of approximately 15o C. The atmosphere,
resh Presh acts as Parblanket
therefore, esh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
The blanket effect of the atmosphere is similar to the action of radiation and heat in a garden
•
greenhouse.
resh • Shortwave
Presh radiation sh
Prefrom P r esh P r esh P r esh P r esh P r esh P r
the sun is absorbed and transmitted through the greenhouse glass windows,
esh
strikes the interior surface, and is converted to heat energy.
h • The longhwave radiation h generatedsby
h the surfaceshheats the inside
h of the greenhouse.
h But sthe
h same glasssh
r e s e s
r the short P e s e e
r radiationPrnow acts as Partrap to prevent e s
Pr that heat frome s e
Pr being transmitted
Pr Pre
thatPlet wave to the
outside environment, thereby raising the temperature of the air inside the greenhouse.
A similarhprocess takeshplace on thehearth, with the atmospherehreplacing thehglass. Not surprisingly,
resh h sh sh
•
P r e s P r e s P r es P r es P r e s P r e s P r e P r e
this is called the basic natural process of atmospheric heating greenhouse effect.
• Human being may be influencing the atmosphere’s delicate natural processes through series of activities
which may trigger sequence of events that could heighten a global warming trend with possibly dire
resh Pre s h
consequences re s h
forPnear-future Pres h
environmental res h
Pchange Pre s h Pre s h Pre s h Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex) 10
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Short-Wave Energy in the Atmosphere
Sunlight first enters the atmosphere and passes through the mesosphere with little change.
•
resh • In P sh
restratosphere,
the sh densityProf
Prethe h
esatmospheric sh increases.
Pregases PreshThere isPmore
resh oxygenPravailable
esh Presh
which
reacts with the shortest or ultra-violet wavelengths and effectively removes them, warming the
atmosphere in the process.
resh • It isPin sh troposphere
rethe Preshthat most sh
Preeffects esh In thePupper
takePrplace. resh troposphere,
Presh the atmosphere
Presh is Presh
relatively dense with a pressure of about 20% of that at the surface.
• The size of the gas molecules of the air is such that they interact with the insolation, causing some of it
resh esh
Prscattered
to be resh directions.
inPmany h process
PresThis h
Presdepends sh
Prewavelength.
on eshshorter Pwaves
PrThe resh are Presh
scattered more than the longer waves so we have these scattered waves as blue sky.
If the reverse were true, the sky would be permanently red, and if there were no atmosphere, as on the
•
resh moon, sh sky would
Prethe Presbeh black.Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
• Dust and haze in the atmosphere produce further scattering, but not all of this is lost. Some of the
scattered radiation is returned to space, but much is directed downwards the surface as down-scatter
resh or diffuse
Presh radiation.
Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
• This is also the type of radiation which is experience during cloudy conditions with no direct sunlight
when the solar beam is ‘diffused’ by the water droplets or ice particles.
resh • Without
Preshdiffuse radiation,
Presh everything
Presh we seePwould
resh either P sh bright,Prwhen
revery
be esh in direct sh
Presunlight, Presh
or
From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex) 11
almost black when in shadow.
resh P resh P resh P resh P resh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Short-Wave Energy in the Atmosphere
• Another type of short wave energy loss is absorption. The gases in the atmosphere absorb some
resh Presh
wavelengths
Presh
as cloud
P esh
equally do.rIn
Presh
this manner,
Presh
the atmosphere
Presh
is warmed
P sh
though thereamounts
Presh
involved are small. The most important loss of short-wave radiation in its path through the atmosphere
is by reflection.

resh h
• The water
r e s dropletsreorshice crystalsreinshclouds arerevery
s h s
effectiverein h s h
reflectingrinsolation.
e The
r e s h
degree of resh
P
reflection P called the albedo.
is usually P P P P P P

• Albedo is normally expressed as a ratio of the amount of reflected radiation divided by the incoming
resh resh
if multiplyesbyh 100, this can
resh resh resh resh r h
radiation, be expressed as a percentage. The sunlight reachingesthe earth’s esh
P P r P P P P P Pr
surface which is not reflected, the radiation is returned to space in the short wave form and becomes
part of the outflow of energy from the earth

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex) 12
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Long Wave Energy in the Atmosphere
• All substances emit long wave radiation in proportion to their absolute temperatures. The earth’s
resh surface h
Presreceives h
Presshort
most sh
Preradiation
wave sh
Pretherefore
and Presh has the
normally sh
Prehighest Presh
temperatures. It Presh
follows from this form that, most long wave emission will be from the ground surface.
•The atmosphere is much more absorbent to long wave radiation than to shortwave radiation.
resh • Carbon h
Presdioxide P r esh P r esh P r esh P r esh P r esh P r esh P r esh
and water vapour are much more effective absorbers of much of the longer part of the
spectrum.
h • Clouds are h also moreseffective
h at absorbing
h longswave
h radiation hhence, theirsh
temperature swill
h be highersh
r e s e s e es e e s e e Pre
thanProtherwise. Pr Pr Pr Pr Pr Pr
•This cloud effect is most noticeable at night. With clear skies, radiation is emitted by the surface but
little is received from the atmosphere and therefore, the temperature falls rapidly.
resh P r e s h P r e s h P r es h P r es h P r e s h Presh Presh Presh
• If the sky is cloudy, the clouds will absorbs much of the radiation from the surface and, because they
are also emitters, more of the radiation will be returned to the grounds as counter radiation than if the
h sky had been h clear. h
re s Pre s Pres Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
• Some of the radiation given off by the surface is lost to space but majority gets caught up in the
two-way exchange between the surface and the atmosphere.
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex) 13
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
Heat Balance
• Climate is often considered to be something derived from the atmosphere, and it is true that the climate
resh resh is essentially
of aPplace Preshthe result esh
Prof Presh of heat
the redistribution sh
Preenergy h face ofPrthe
Presthe
across eshearth. Presh
• However, the events of the atmosphere are greatly affected by the processes that operates on the
earth’s surface itself. Flows of heat energy to and from the surface are as much as part of the climate of
resh h the winter
Presas
an area h
Pressnow resh thunderstorm,
or Psummer Presh resh
in Pfact, reshheat energy
because Pthese Presh Presh
flows operate
continuously.
• The heat energy balance of the earth’s surface is composed in its simplest form of four different kinds
resh PreshOne of Pthese
of flows. reshis the composite
Presh flows h
esradiant
Prof Presh
heat Preup
that makes shnet radiation
Preshthe second sh
Preis
latent heat which causes evaporating liquids to change to gases.
•All the air molecules contain heat energy, the heat that we feel on our skin, and this sensed heat is
resh termed h
Pressensible P reshflow. Presh
heat Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
• Usually during the day, the ground warms the air above it. Warm air rises, and parcels of air move
upward in a vertical heat-transfer process known as convection, thereby causing a sensible heat flow.
resh • Whereas,
Presh sensiblePrheat
esh flow depends
Presh on convection,
Presh reshthat flows
thePheat
h
Presinto h
resof
and Pout Presh
the ground
depends on conduction, the transport of heat energy from one molecule to the next.
• The heat that is conducted into and out of the earth’s surface is collectively called ground heat flow or
r e sh reshflow. Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
soilPheat From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex) 14
resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh
Heat
resh
Balance
resh
P P Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh
• This is the smallest of the four heat balance components.
• Generally, the heat that passes into the ground during the day is approximately equal to
resh s h
re flowing Pout
Pthat s h
re at night. Pre s h Pre s h Pre s h Pre s h Presh Presh
• Thus, over a 24 hour period, the balance of ground heat flow often is so small that it can
be disregarded. Except for the usually small amount of energy used by plants in
resh resh sh
Prethe
Pphotosynthesis, h
Presbalance
total heat reshpart of the
ofPany sh
Preearth sh
Preup
is made Preshof
of the flows Presh
radiant heat, latent heat, sensible heat and ground heat

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

resh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh Presh

From The Office Of The Nassa welfare Director-Elect (Mr phlex) 15