FM 1042

BY: MDM. FAZILAH AHMAD

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 Chapter 2

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
AND GRAPHS

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3
Bluman, Chapter 2

Chapter 2 Overview

Introduction

2-1 Organizing Data

2-2 Histograms, Frequency Polygons, and Ogives

2-3 Other Types of Graphs

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4
Bluman, Chapter 2

Chapter 2 Learning Outcomes

Organize Organize data using frequency distributions.

Represent data in frequency distributions graphically using histograms, frequency polygons, and
Represent ogives.

Represent Represent data using Pareto charts, time series graphs, and pie graphs.

Draw and Draw and interpret a stem and leaf plot.

interpret

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5
Bluman, Chapter 2

2-1 Organizing Data

Data collected in original form is called raw data.

A frequency distribution is the organization of

raw data in table form, using classes and
frequencies.

Nominal- or ordinal-level data that can be placed

in categories is organized in categorical
frequency distributions.

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Example:
Categorical Frequency Distribution

Twenty-five army indicates were given a blood test to

determine their blood type.

Raw Data: A,B,B,AB,O O,O,B,AB,B B,B,O,A,O

A,O,O,O,AB AB,A,O,B,A

Construct a frequency distribution for the data.

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7
Bluman, Chapter 2

Solution:
Categorical Frequency Distribution
Twenty-five army indicates were given a blood test to determine their blood type.
Raw Data: A,B,B,AB,O O,O,B,AB,B B,B,O,A,O A,O,O,O,AB AB,A,O,B,A

Class Tally Frequency Percent

A IIII 5 20
B IIII II 7 35
O IIII IIII 9 45
AB IIII 4 16
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Bluman, Chapter 2

Grouped Frequency Distribution

Grouped frequency distributions are used when the range of the data is large.

The smallest and largest possible data values in a class are the lower and upper
class limits.

Class boundaries separate the classes.

To find a class boundary, average the upper class limit of one class and the lower
class limit of the next class.

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9
Bluman, Chapter 2

Grouped Frequency Distribution

The class width can be calculated by subtracting

• successive lower class limits with successive upper class limits.
• upper and lower class boundaries.

The class midpoint Xm can be calculated by averaging upper and lower class limits (or boundaries).

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10
Bluman, Chapter 2

Rules for Classes in Grouped Frequency Distributions

1. There should be 5-20 classes.

2. The class width should be an odd number.
3. The classes must be mutually exclusive.
4. The classes must be continuous.
5. The classes must be exhaustive.
6. The classes must be equal in width (except
in open-ended distributions).

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Example: Constructing a Grouped Frequency
Distribution
The following data represent the record high temperatures for each of the 50
states. Construct a grouped frequency distribution for the data using 7
classes.

112 100 127 120 134 118 105 110 109 112
110 118 117 116 118 122 114 114 105 109
107 112 114 115 118 117 118 122 106 110
116 108 110 121 113 120 119 111 104 111
120 113 120 117 105 110 118 112 114 114

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12
Bluman, Chapter 2

Solution: Constructing a Grouped Frequency Distribution

STEP 1 Determine the classes.

Find the class width by dividing the range by the number of classes 7.
Range = High – Low
= 134 – 100 = 34

Width = Range/7 = 34/7 = 5

Rounding Rule: Always round up if a remainder.

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13
Bluman, Chapter 2

Solution: Constructing a Grouped Frequency Distribution

We will choose the lowest data value, 100, for the first lower class limit.

The subsequent lower class limits are found by adding the width to the previous
lower class limits.

Class Limits
100 - 104 ◼The first upper class limit is one less than the next lower
105 - 109 class limit.
110 - 114 ◼The subsequent upper class limits are found by adding
115 - 119 the width to the previous upper class limits.
120 - 124
125 - 129
130 - 134
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Bluman, Chapter 2

Solution: Constructing a Grouped Frequency Distribution

The class boundary is midway between an upper class limit and a

subsequent lower class limit. 104,104.5,105

Class Class Cumulative

Frequency
Limits Boundaries Frequency
100 - 104 99.5 - 104.5
105 - 109 104.5 - 109.5
110 - 114 109.5 - 114.5
115 - 119 114.5 - 119.5
120 - 124 119.5 - 124.5
125 - 129 124.5 - 129.5
130 - 134 129.5 - 134.5
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Bluman, Chapter 2

Solution: Constructing a Grouped Frequency Distribution

STEP 2 Tally the data.

STEP 3 Find the frequencies.

Class Class Cumulative

Frequency
Limits Boundaries Frequency
100 - 104 99.5 - 104.5 2
105 - 109 104.5 - 109.5 8
110 - 114 109.5 - 114.5 18
115 - 119 114.5 - 119.5 13
120 - 124 119.5 - 124.5 7
125 - 129 124.5 - 129.5 1
130 - 134 129.5 - 134.5 1
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Bluman, Chapter 2

Constructing a Grouped Frequency Distribution

STEP 4 Find the cumulative frequencies by keeping a running
total of the frequencies.

Class Class Cumulative

Frequency
Limits Boundaries Frequency
100 - 104 99.5 - 104.5 2 2
105 - 109 104.5 - 109.5 8 10
110 - 114 109.5 - 114.5 18 28
115 - 119 114.5 - 119.5 13 41
120 - 124 119.5 - 124.5 7 48
125 - 129 124.5 - 129.5 1 49
130 - 134 129.5 - 134.5 1 50
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Bluman, Chapter 2

2-2 Histograms, Frequency Polygons, and Ogives

Three Most Common Graphs in Research:

1. Histogram

2. Frequency Polygon

3. Cumulative Frequency Polygon (Ogive)

1. Histogram 2. Frequency Polygon 3. Cumulative Frequency Polygon

(Ogive)
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Bluman, Chapter 2

Histograms

The histogram is a graph

that displays the data by
The class boundaries are
using vertical bars of
represented on the
various heights to
horizontal axis.
represent the frequencies
of the classes.

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19
Bluman, Chapter 2

Example: Histograms
Construct a histogram to represent the
data for the record high temperatures for
each of the 50 states.

112 100 127 120 134 118 105 110 109 112
110 118 117 116 118 122 114 114 105 109
107 112 114 115 118 117 118 122 106 110
116 108 110 121 113 120 119 111 104 111
120 113 120 117 105 110 118 112 114 114
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Bluman, Chapter 2

Solution: Histograms
Histograms use class boundaries and frequencies of
the classes.
Class Class
Frequency
Limits Boundaries
100 - 104 99.5 - 104.5 2
105 - 109 104.5 - 109.5 8
110 - 114 109.5 - 114.5 18
115 - 119 114.5 - 119.5 13
120 - 124 119.5 - 124.5 7
125 - 129 124.5 - 129.5 1
130 - 134 129.5 - 134.5 1
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Bluman, Chapter 2

Solution: Histograms
Histograms use class boundaries and frequencies of the
classes.
22
Bluman, Chapter 2

Frequency Polygons

The frequency polygon is a graph that displays the data by using lines
that connect points plotted for the frequencies at the class midpoints.
The frequencies are represented by the heights of the points.

The class midpoints are represented on the horizontal axis.

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Bluman, Chapter 2

Example: Frequency Polygons

Construct a frequency polygon to represent

the data for the record high temperatures
for each of the 50 states.

112 100 127 120 134 118 105 110 109 112
110 118 117 116 118 122 114 114 105 109
107 112 114 115 118 117 118 122 106 110
116 108 110 121 113 120 119 111 104 111
120 113 120 117 105 110 118 112 114 114
24
Bluman, Chapter 2

Solution: Frequency Polygons

Frequency polygons use class midpoints and
frequencies of the classes.

Class Class
Frequency
Limits Midpoints
100 - 104 102 2
105 - 109 107 8
110 - 114 112 18
115 - 119 117 13
120 - 124 122 7
125 - 129 127 1
130 - 134 132 1
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Bluman, Chapter 2

Solution: Frequency Polygons

Frequency polygons use class midpoints and
frequencies of the classes.
A frequency polygon
is anchored on the
x-axis before the first
class and after the
last class.
26
Bluman, Chapter 2

Ogives

The ogive is a graph that represents the cumulative frequencies for the classes in
a frequency distribution.

The upper-class boundaries are represented on the horizontal axis.

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27
Bluman, Chapter 2

Example: Ogives

Construct an ogive to represent the data for the

record high temperatures for each of the 50
states.

112 100 127 120 134 118 105 110 109 112
110 118 117 116 118 122 114 114 105 109
107 112 114 115 118 117 118 122 106 110
116 108 110 121 113 120 119 111 104 111
120 113 120 117 105 110 118 112 114 114
28
Bluman, Chapter 2

Solution: Ogives
Ogives use upper class boundaries and
cumulative frequencies of the classes.

Class Class Cumulative

Frequency
Limits Boundaries Frequency
100 - 104 99.5 - 104.5 2 2
105 - 109 104.5 - 109.5 8 10
110 - 114 109.5 - 114.5 18 28
115 - 119 114.5 - 119.5 13 41
120 - 124 119.5 - 124.5 7 48
125 - 129 124.5 - 129.5 1 49
130 - 134 129.5 - 134.5 1 50
29
Bluman, Chapter 2

Solution: Ogives
Ogives use upper class boundaries and cumulative
frequencies of the classes.

Cumulative
Class Boundaries
Frequency
Less than 104.5 2
Less than 109.5 10
Less than 114.5 28
Less than 119.5 41
Less than 124.5 48
Less than 129.5 49
Less than 134.5 50
30
Bluman, Chapter 2

Solution: Ogives
Ogives use upper class boundaries and cumulative
frequencies of the classes.
31
Bluman, Chapter 2

Procedure Table
Constructing Statistical Graphs

1: Draw and label the x and y axes.

2: Choose a suitable scale for the frequencies or cumulative

frequencies, and label it on the y axis.

3: Represent the class boundaries for the histogram or ogive, or

the midpoint for the frequency polygon, on the x axis.

4: Plot the points and then draw the bars or lines.

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Bluman, Chapter 2

2.2 Histograms, Frequency Polygons, and Ogives

If proportions are used instead of frequencies, the graphs are called

relative frequency graphs.

Relative frequency graphs are used when the proportion of data values
that fall into a given class is more important than the actual number of
data values that fall into that class.
33
Bluman, Chapter 2

Example:
Construct a histogram, frequency polygon, and ogive using
relative frequencies for the distribution (shown here) of the miles
that 20 randomly selected runners ran during a
given week.
Class
Frequency
Boundaries
5.5 - 10.5 1
10.5 - 15.5 2
15.5 - 20.5 3
20.5 - 25.5 5
25.5 - 30.5 4
30.5 - 35.5 3
35.5 - 40.5 2
34
Bluman, Chapter 2

Histograms
The following is a frequency distribution of miles run per week
by 20 selected runners.

Class Relative Divide each

Frequency frequency by
Boundaries Frequency
the total
5.5 - 10.5 1 1/20 = 0.05 frequency to
10.5 - 15.5 2 2/20 = 0.10 get the
15.5 - 20.5 3 3/20 = 0.15 relative
20.5 - 25.5 5 5/20 = 0.25 frequency.
25.5 - 30.5 4 4/20 = 0.20
30.5 - 35.5 3 3/20 = 0.15
35.5 - 40.5 2 2/20 = 0.10
f = 20 rf = 1.00
35
Bluman, Chapter 2

Histograms
Use the class boundaries and the
relative frequencies of the classes.
36
Bluman, Chapter 2

Frequency Polygons
The following is a frequency distribution of
miles run per week by 20 selected runners.
Class Class Relative
Boundaries Midpoints Frequency
5.5 - 10.5 8 0.05
10.5 - 15.5 13 0.10
15.5 - 20.5 18 0.15
20.5 - 25.5 23 0.25
25.5 - 30.5 28 0.20
30.5 - 35.5 33 0.15
35.5 - 40.5 38 0.10
37
Bluman, Chapter 2

Frequency Polygons
Use the class midpoints and the relative
frequencies of the classes.
38
Bluman, Chapter 2

Ogives
The following is a frequency distribution of
miles run per week by 20 selected runners.
Class Cumulative Cum. Rel.
Frequency
Boundaries Frequency Frequency
5.5 - 10.5 1 1 1/20 = 0.05
10.5 - 15.5 2 3 3/20 = 0.15
15.5 - 20.5 3 6 6/20 = 0.30
20.5 - 25.5 5 11 11/20 = 0.55
25.5 - 30.5 4 15 15/20 = 0.75
30.5 - 35.5 3 18 18/20 = 0.90
35.5 - 40.5 2 20 20/20 = 1.00
f = 20
39
Bluman, Chapter 2

Ogives
Ogives use upper class boundaries and cumulative
frequencies of the classes.
Cum. Rel.
Class Boundaries
Frequency
Less than 10.5 0.05
Less than 15.5 0.15
Less than 20.5 0.30
Less than 25.5 0.55
Less than 30.5 0.75
Less than 35.5 0.90
Less than 40.5 1.00
40
Bluman, Chapter 2

Ogives
Use the upper class boundaries and the cumulative
relative frequencies.
41
Bluman, Chapter 2

Shapes of Distributions
42
Bluman, Chapter 2

Shapes of Distributions
43
Bluman, Chapter 2

2.3 Other Types of Graphs

Bar Graphs
44
Bluman, Chapter 2

2.3 Other Types of Graphs

Pareto Charts
45
Bluman, Chapter 2

2.3 Other Types of Graphs

Time Series Graphs
46
Bluman, Chapter 2

2.3 Other Types of Graphs

Pie Graphs
47
Bluman, Chapter 2

2.3 Other Types of Graphs

Stem and Leaf Plots

A stem and leaf plots is a data plot that uses part of a data value as
the stem and part of the data value as the leaf to form groups or
classes.

It has the advantage over grouped frequency distribution of retaining

the actual data while showing them in graphic form.
48
Bluman, Chapter 2

Example:
At an outpatient testing center, the number of cardiograms
performed each day for 20 days is shown. Construct a stem and
leaf plot for the data.
25 31 20 32 13
14 43 2 57 23
36 32 33 32 44
32 52 44 51 45
49
Bluman, Chapter 2

25 31 20 32 13
14 43 2 57 23
36 32 33 32 44
32 52 44 51 45

Unordered Stem Plot Ordered Stem Plot

0 2 0 2
1 3 4 1 3 4
2 5 0 3 2 0 3 5
3 1 2 6 2 3 2 2 3 1 2 2 2 2 3 6
4 3 4 4 5 4 3 4 4 5
5 7 2 1 5 1 2 7
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Bluman, Chapter 2

TUTORIAL 2 :

TUTORIAL PAGE QUESTIONS NUMBER

NUMBER
2-1 51-53 1-4; 10-11; 14-16; 22-24

2-2 65-67 1; 5; 9; 10-11

2-3 90-93 2-3; 8-9; 17-19

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