Chapter 4

JOB ANALYSIS: THE BUILDING BLOCK

OF HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Cam Caldwell
Distinguished Visiting Scholar -- Modern College of Business and
Science, Muscat, Oman

The technical skills of Human Resource Management (HRM) are

logical and straight forward, but rarely fully understood by individual
employees, managers and supervisors, the Top Management Team--or
even by some Human Resource Professionals (HRPs). Although it is
generally understood that the job analysis is a critical foundation element
of HRM, errors are frequently made in conducting a job analysis,
documenting job requirements, and using that information to insure that an
organization is able to accomplish outcomes that are critical to an
organization’s success.
As the building block for many organizational systems and HRM
programs, the job analysis not only defines critical job elements but is an
important resource in generating management information used to guide an
organization as it accomplishes its mission 1. The purpose of this chapter is
1
This key role of the job analysis is identified in Mathis, R. L., Jackson, J. H, Valentine, S.
R., & Meglish. P. A.., (2014). Human Resource Management (15th ed.) pp. 144-147.
to explain key elements that make up a job analysis, to identify how and
why the job analysis is so critical to organizational outcomes, and to
enumerate common errors made in conducting a job analysis. We begin the
chapter by defining the job analysis and identifying eight key steps in the
job analysis process. The chapter identifies twelve important
organizational and HRM elements that utilize job analysis information to
achieve vital outcomes. We then identify seven errors that occur in
conducting a job analysis and suggest how to mitigate those errors. The
chapter concludes with a summary of the contributions of this chapter to
HRM.

DEFINING THE JOB ANALYSIS

A job analysis has been described as the essential element for virtually
all of the HRM functions2 and “the basis for the solution of virtually every
human resource problem”3. The job analysis provides a means for
understanding the Knowledge, Skills, Abilities, and Other requirements
(KSAOs) essential to the performance of each organizational position
Job analysis is defined as the systematic process for identifying the
nature and outcomes of a position by determining the specific tasks and
activities performed to achieve desired results and the context in which
work is performed4.

2
Many texts confirm this key fact. See, for example, Prien, E. P., Goodstein, L. D.,
Goodstein, J., and Gamble, L. G. Jr., (2009). A Practical Guide to Job Analysis. San
Franciso, CA: Pfeiffer.

3
This profound statement is found on page 1 of Brannick, M. T., & Levine, E. L., (2007).
Job Analysis: Methods, Research, and Application. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

4
This definition incorporates insights from other scholars. See, for example, Brannick, M.
T., & Levine, E. L., (2007), op. cit. page 9.
3 Job Analysis

5
.

Figure 1.

Typical outcomes of the job analysis include identifying the most

efficient ways of performing work tasks, the enhancement of employee job
satisfaction, opportunities to improve training, development of
performance measurement systems, and matching job requirements with
individual qualifications as part of employee selection and development 6.
Conducting a job analysis begins by first understanding the purpose of an
organization, its structure and design, its context within its external
environment, and its available resources7.

5
These elements are defined in Ployhar, R. E., and Moliterno, T. P., (2011). “Emergence of
the Human Capital Resource: A Multilevel Model.” Academy of Management Review, Vol.
36, No. 1, pp. 127-150.

6
See the Business Dictionary definition of job analysis found online on August 5, 2017 at
http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/
job-analysis.html.

7
Ibid.
4 Cam Caldwell

Figure 2.

CONDUCTING A JOB ANALYSIS

Although there are differing perspectives about the steps involved in

conducting a job analysis, the job analysis typically includes eight
important steps:

1) Determine the Job to be Analyzed and its Contribution to

Organization Mission. Every position in an organization exists to
further the mission and objectives of an organization. The
outcomes and results of each position must be defined in
measurable terms8.

8
Ibid.
5 Job Analysis

2) Identify Subject Matter Experts and Participants to Include in the

Process. A job analysis is best conducted by individuals who have
a clear understanding of the expectations, requirements, and
outcomes associated with the position being analyzed. Internal and
external “customers” of the position have valuable insights, as do
colleagues who work with and are interdependent with the
position. Relationships developed are often critical to the effective
performance of any position and should be considered, along with
task-related outcomes and expectations9.
3) Systematically Collect Information about the Job. There are many
sources of job information, ranging from such resources as a
previously developed job description, classification standards,
established performance measures, and specialized job audits 10.
Identifying job tasks, relationships, performance outcomes,
required skills, specialized abilities, necessary knowledge, and
other job-related criteria form the foundation of the job
analysis11.
4) Matching Job Content with Competencies and Requirements. Each
source of job information can be useful in identifying the factors
that are necessary in the successful achievement of job outcomes.
Carefully matching job content with those competencies and
requirements results in a detailed list of qualities essential for
performing successfully12.
5) Identifying Critical Tasks and Results. Subject Matter Experts and
other stakeholders who are involved should rank the importance of
9
Many varied studies have been conducted about participants participating in generating
job analysis information. One such study is Truxillo, D. M., Paronto, M. E., & Collins, M.,
(2004). “Effects of Subject Matter Expert Viewpoint on Job Analysis Results.” Public
Personnel Management, Vol. 33, Iss. 1, pp. 33-46,

10
See Prien, E. P., et al., (2009) op. cit. for examples of various methods of generating job
content information.

11
Brannick, M. T. & Levine. E. L., (2007) op. cit.

12
rien, E. P., et al., (2009) op. cit.
6 Cam Caldwell

those tasks and results which are most important and essential for
achieving organizational priorities for the position being
analyzed13. Often these critical tasks and outcomes require
collaborative effort with other organizational personnel and the
nature of that cooperation should be clearly described and
included14.
6) Identify Competencies Matching Tasks and Results. Ranking
critical competencies is essential in order to identify the most
important capabilities required to achieve desired outcomes 15. The
ability to translate KSOAs into specific competencies demands
that each of those outcomes and their antecedents be clearly
enumerated.
7) Formally Confirm the Overall Job Elements. Compile and review
all of the information generated in the job analysis process and
reaffirm that the job tasks and competencies accurately match the
purposes of the position and their contribution to desired
organizational outcomes16.
8) Document the Final Result. Publish the job analysis, identify and
document when it was conducted, and formally adopt it as a
summary of the purposes, tasks, and requirements of the position
being analyzed17.

Although there are several ways of conducting a job analysis in the

process of gathering and verifying job content information and job
13
Truxillo, D. M., et al., (2004) op. cit.

14
he importance of behavioral skills and relationship competencies are documented in
sources such as Van Scotter, J. R., & Motowidlo, S. J. (1996). “Interpersonal Facilitation
and Job Dedication as Separate Facets of Contextual Performance. Journal of Applied
Psychology, Vol. 81, Iss. 5, pp. 525-531.
15
Prien, E. P., et al., (2009) op. cit.

16
Involve stakeholders, managers and supervisors, and Subject Matter Experts, as noted in
Truxillo, D. M., et al., (2004) op. cit.

17
Documentation and formalization of the process provides a formal record which can be
used as an organization resource. See Brannick, M. T. & Levine. E. L., (2007) op. cit.
7 Job Analysis

requirements, these eight steps are applicable and necessary in order to

confirm that job analysis information generated is both complete and
correct18.

Figure 3.
HRM SYSTEMS AND PROCESSES

Utilizing the information generated by the job analysis, many HRM

functions depend upon that information in serving the organization.
Brannick and Levine have identified twelve distinct HRM systems and
processes, which they describe as HRM “purposes or uses,” that are
directly affected by the job analysis19.

18
Ibid.

19
These twelve important technical HRM tasks are all accomplished more effectively with
the aid of a high quality job analysis. See Ibid., pp. 3-5.
8 Cam Caldwell

1) Preparing Job Descriptions. The job analysis enables HRPs to

prepare a job description which includes a job title, an overall job
summary, duties and tasks, and job qualifications.
2) Establishing Job Classifications. A job classification is a cluster or
family of related jobs based upon similar duties, responsibilities,
and authority. The job analysis provides information then confirms
or disconfirms the linkage between positions.
3) Job Evaluation. Because a job analysis documents the work to be
performed and the qualifications required for a position, it enables
an organization to establish a pay range for that position and to
help insure internal equity of compensation among positions
within an organization.
4) Job, Team, and System Design, and Redesign. Job design bundles
tasks into a position. Team design bundles an integrated set of
tasks to a team. Systems design assigns tasks to equipment and
people associated with the same organizational system. Redesign
is about improving job, team, or system efficiency.
5) Human Resource Requirements and Job Specifications. The job
analysis identifies the KSAOs required that are necessary for the
effective performance of a position. Job specifications refer to the
years of required experience. This information is essential for
hiring, promotion, and compensation issues.
6) Performance Appraisal. Performance appraisal identifies the
standards of quantitative and qualitative performance of positions
in achieving organizational goals. Performance reviews are
conducted by managers and supervisors to communicate
expectations, coach employees, and provide regular feedback.
7) Training. The job analysis enables an organization to identify
types of training needed by employees in various positions.
Training improves individual performance, stimulates workplace
learning, and facilitates constant improvement.
8) Worker Mobility. The job analysis can aid organizations in
identifying qualified candidates as positions change, as
9 Job Analysis

promotional opportunities arise, and as employees consider career

opportunities beyond their current positions.
9) Workforce Planning. Information about employee qualifications
and capabilities can assist organizations as they consider the
impacts of organization growth, succession planning, and
technological impacts on the organization.
10) Efficiency Identification. The job analysis can be a useful tool in
identifying the need for better tools, eliminating tasks which add
little or no value, and developing quality-related work aids.
11) Safety. The job analysis can help to identify opportunities to
reduce risk or the causes of accidents or injuries. Work tools, the
work environment, and work processes can be improved using job
analysis data.
12) Legal and Quasilegal Requirements. Several HRM functions and
processes must comply with legal guidelines and the job analysis
can play a major role in confirming the legal nature of many of
those functions and processes. For example, a job analysis can
identify Bona Fide Occupational Qualifications required in
selection and testing candidates.

All twelve of these HRM functions, systems, and processes are directly
benefited by the information generated by the job analysis, confirming its
importance as the fundamental building block of HRM20.

JOB ANALYSIS ERRORS TO AVOID

Despite the fact that the job analysis is a vital part of every HRM
system, a recurring set of errors are frequently made in conducting a job
analysis. The consequences of making one or more of these mistakes not
only undermine the ability of an organization to perform the twelve HRM
functions listed herein but challenge the credibility of HRPs and the entire
20
Prien, E. P., et al., (2009) op. cit.
10 Cam Caldwell

organization. Nonetheless, these errors recur from time to time in

organizations of all types.

1) Failure to Focus on Contribution to Mission. Each organizational

position exists to contribute to the organization’s mission and
purposes. The focus of a job analysis requires identifying tasks
performed but those tasks sometimes get out of balance with the
organization’s fundamental goals. Conducting the job analysis
must always be done with the organization’s mission and purpose
clearly in mind21.
2) Overlooking Key Stakeholders. The value and credibility of the job
analysis demands that key stakeholders -- both internal and
external customers – have input in either developing the job
analysis or reviewing the final product. Inviting departmental or
union employees into job analysis development meetings and
explaining the process for developing the job analysis can increase
employee trust in the HRM role and build credibility22.
3) Imposing Unnecessary Job Requirements. Occasionally, managers
and supervisors who participate in a job analysis make the
mistaken but well-meaning assumption that it is in the interest of
their organization to establish higher standards for job
qualifications than are actually needed to perform the required job
tasks. Imposing such qualifications that are not required is in
conflict with the law and job requirements must be validated as
Bona Fide Occupational Qualifications. HRPs must sometimes be
especially tactful in explaining the difference between legal
requirements and qualifications that a supervisor views as
“desirable” to include as a requirement for performing a position23.
21
Ibid.

22
One of the co-authors of this chapter chose to involve union employees as both observers
and participants in the development of a job analysis in an organization rife with political
conflict and a history of employee dissatisfaction. The outcome was that the employees in
that union bought into the testing and selection process ultimately developed for the first
time in the organization’s ten-year history
23
The Griggs vs. Duke Power Case clearly identified the importance of Bona Fide
Occupational Qualifications and struck down an artificial and discriminatory requirement
11 Job Analysis

4) Failing to Update Old Analyses. Jobs change over time.

Technology evolves. Yet organizations continue to act as if job
requirements and job content are unchanging. It is not unusual for
organizations to pull out an old job description or job analysis and
“short-cut” the job analysis by substituting old information that no
longer applies24.
5) Overlooking Team Collaboration and Interpersonal Skills.
Focusing on technical job requirements can help insure that
individuals are qualified to perform job functions that are
absolutely necessary for successful performance. At the same time,
individuals in organizations must also work effectively as
members of a team and must cooperate effectively with others
within their department and within their organization. Overlooking
key interpersonal skills can be an expensive mistake in conducting
a job analysis and can result in hiring technically skilled
individuals who are ineffective in working with others25.
6) Missing Critical “Flair Factors”. Flair factors are those difficult-
to-define qualities that individuals possess that make the difference
between a performer that “looks good on paper” and one that is
able to get a job done extraordinarily well 26. Although individual
personal factors, like perseverance and passion, are often difficult
to articulate in a job analysis, those factors are often critical
that employees needed a high school degree to perform job tasks. See Mathis, R. L., (2014)
op. cit.

24
This common mistake was made by a large municipality in which the Police Chief
wanted to utilize a thirty year-old job analysis as the basis for developing a selection
process for new police officers.

25
Increasingly, organizations have recognized the importance of team collaboration and
interpersonal qualifications for many positions which involve cooperative effort to achieve
vital tasks. See Goleman, D., (2007) Social Intelligence: The New Science of Human
Relationships. New York: Bantam.

26
The concept of “flair factors” was written about in Irish, R. K., (2011). “Focusing on the
Flair Factor.” America’s Civil War Magazine. Sept. 22, 2011 found online on August 7,
2017 at http://www.slideshare.net/Talentplus/the-flair-factor,
12 Cam Caldwell

differentiating qualities of a successful versus an unsuccessful

performer27.
7) Skipping Steps. Although conducting a job analysis may seem to
be a detail-oriented and time consuming process, with effective
planning the process can be conducted both quickly and correctly.
Unfortunately, a common error made in many organizations is the
skipping of steps in the process due to the press of time and other
responsibilities. The result of skipping steps is often the costly
error of developing an inaccurate job analysis – a mistake which
can create a negative domino effect throughout many parts of an
organization28.

As with any important task, conducting a job analysis requires a

thorough understanding of its key components, thoughtful attention to
detail, and a commitment to excellence in producing a product that has
profound implications throughout every organization.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE CHAPTER

The job analysis is a building block of HRM because it focuses on the

important tasks upon which competitive advantage, service to customers,
and constant improvement are based. Although there are many useful
methods for conducting a job analysis, the focus of this chapter has been
on understanding the job analysis role, identifying its organizational
significance, and articulating errors to avoid in the job analysis process.
Thus, there are three major contributions of this chapter.

27
This powerful truth is the subject of Duckworth, A., (2016). GRIT: The Power of Passion
and Perseverance. New York: Scribner.

28
This point is powerfully made in the outstanding book, Russo, J. E., & Shoemaker, P. J.
H., (2001). Winning Decisions: Getting it Right the First Time. New York: Currency.
13 Job Analysis

1) Explaining the importance of the job analysis. As we have noted,

the job analysis has ramifications organization-wide and can be a
powerful tool for HRPs in serving other departments.
2) Clarifying the scope and significance of the job analysis.
Identifying twelve important functions that are dependent upon the
job analysis help to clarify the need to conduct a job analysis that
is accurate, valid, and complete. The significance of a job analysis
is profoundly personal for each employee because, when done
correctly, it provides the organization with information that
properly frames the expectations for each employee’s
performance.
3) Cautioning regarding common job analysis errors. The seven
common errors identified in this chapter are important for HRPs,
Subject Matter Experts, managers, and supervisors to review as
they prepare to participate in the job analysis process. Avoiding
these errors enables participants to create an end product that will
truly add value to the organization.

The job analysis, like so many key foundational tasks, must be done
correctly and efficiently if it is to be a valuable tool for effective HRM. As
HRPs review the key steps required in conducting a job analysis, the
insights from this chapter are a helpful resource with ramifcations
organization-wide.

QUESTIONS TO PONDER

1) As you reflect on the key steps required in conducting a job

analysis, which of these steps do you consider to be most critical?
Which step do you think is most frequently overlooked?
2) In what way is preparing a job analysis a task that requires
extensive preparation? How should the importance of job
requirements and job outcomes be decided?
14 Cam Caldwell

3) How do you think HRPs should resolve questions about

differences of opinion regarding the contents of a job analysis and
the requirements for a position?

A SHOCKING TERMINATION – CASE STUDY –

BY DR. SARAH J. SMITH

At a manufacturing corporation, Ben was hired as the new Vice

President of Operations. During the interview process the C-level suite was
impressed with his credentials and experience. They felt comfortable with
selecting Ben and looked forward to his arrival. One of the technical units
Ben would be responsible for was New Product Development. The team
included highly capable, well educated subject matter experts. This team
had a long history of product development success through innovation and
formulated powerful suggestions for new creative solutions to today's and
future challenges.
Michael had worked in product development for ten years. He was
revered for his work ethic, coupled with a high level of intelligence and
creativity. Michael was known to work six hours at the home plant and
then drive two hours to another facility. He worked into the night and put
in long hours. Coworkers on the New Product Development team were
under the impression Michael's work was well respected and had value.
What happened next shocked the conscience of members on Michael's
team.
Everyone in the organization received an email that Michael had been
terminated, effective immediately. With the number of hours he dedicated
to the company and the creative solutions he contributed, this seemed to be
an irrational decision on the part of Ben. After all, Ben had only served as
Vice President of Operations for three weeks. The nature of a sudden and
unanticipated termination left many organizational members with
questions.
15 Job Analysis

1) What role could the HRM staff have played in this process? Would
HRM staff have been able to assist the Vice President of
Operations in only three weeks?
2) When matching job content with competencies and requirements,
Michael definitely met the requirements of the job. Do you think
Michael could have been perceived as overqualified or
overzealous?
3) Could Ben have gone back to Michael's job description or
performance review for more information about Michael's roles,
responsibilities, and job expectations? If he did not do so, do you
think Ben assumed organization risk with Michael's seemingly
sudden termination?

OUTDATED JOB DESCRIPTIONS LEAD TO

A CREATIVE SOLUTION – CASE STUDY –
BY DR. SARAH J. SMITH

In a growing organization that does not have its own in-house HRM
staff, the decision was made to reevaluate the budget. With cooperation
from various department heads, budgets were rearranged and Julie was
hired. She came to the organization with a proven track record for
successful HR office start-ups and everyone was happy to have an HRP
full-time, on staff.
Prior to the decision to create an HRP position, the company’s HR
functions were outsourced. This outsourcing created several issues
because, although the relationship with the vendor began positively and
company representatives visited the location frequently, over time this
relationship changed. Department heads saw an HR vendor representative
only about once per year. Simultaneous with decreased service, the vendor
consistently increased the billing price for services.
When Julie came on board as Director of Human Resources, she was
surprised how outdated many HR functions had become. There was a 4
16 Cam Caldwell

inch red binder in Julie's office containing the organization's job

descriptions. Unfortunately, the job descriptions were ten years old. There
were no records to clarify if and how job analysis was conducted. Further,
the performance review form was a template that did not 'fit' many of the
jobs within the organization.
The department head for transportation asked Julie to place an ad for a
new driver. Knowing how outdated the job descriptions were, along with
the sheer number of job descriptions which were in need of review and
likely revision, Julie formulated a plan. She was a one-person office and
knew it would take time to gather input from key stakeholders and
structure a review of all job descriptions. Julie also felt uncomfortable
posting an open position without an accurate job description in place.
Julie decided prior to posting an open position, she would assist the
department head to create a focus group and review the needed knowledge,
skills, abilities and other conditions necessary for job success. This process
worked well because

a) Julie inched toward the ultimate goal: quality job analysis

producing accurate job descriptions, and
b) The hiring department head did not want to leave an open position
for an extended period of time. The organization was lean, and
every worker was important to fulfillment of the mission and
delivery of services.

From the updated job description, Julie drafted a job posting and had
the department head approve what would be advertised. When it came time
for interviews, Julie used the revised job description to formulate an
interview guide of job-related questions for the interview panel.

1) If you were the transportation department head, how would you

decide who to involve in the job analysis? (Your department runs
three shifts and in addition to drivers, dispatch personnel are
employed at the facility)
17 Job Analysis

2) Who would be key external stakeholder participants? This

department provides much needed transportation in an area
without other public transportation. Riders travel to various
destinations. Fares are based on ridership and input costs of
operation.
3) How should Julie work with the department heads to design a
system for the job analysis and job description revision process?
4) If employees feel they are not equitably compensated for their
work, could they look at the job description to see if the
knowledge, skills, and abilities indicated still describe what is
needed to successfully achieve the job duties? What other
indicators could be helpful for a strategic compensation review?
5) Upon revision of the job descriptions, how would you proceed
with updating the performance review process?

SCH