Implementation Systems for IIoT

By
Kshama Shukla
AP, MME
Contents
• Sensors and Actuators for Industrial Processes
• Sensor networks
• Process automation and Data Acquisitions on IoT Platform
• Microcontrollers and Embedded PC roles in IIoT
• Wireless Sensor nodes
• Bluetooth
• WiFi
• LoRa Protocols
• IoT Hub systems.
Sensors and Actuators for Industrial Processes

• All IoT applications need to have one or more sensors to collect data
from the environment.
• Sensors are essential components of smart objects.
• One of the most important aspects of the Internet of Things is context
awareness, which is not possible without sensor technology.
• IoT sensors are mostly small in size, have low cost, and consume less
power.
• They are constrained by factors such as battery capacity and ease of
deployment.
Mobile Phone Based Sensors
• First of all, let us look at the mobile phone, which is ubiquitous and
has many types of sensors embedded in it.
• In specific, the smartphone is a very handy and user friendly device
that has a host of built in communication and data processing
features.
• With the increasing popularity of smartphones among people,
researchers are showing interest in building smart IoT solutions using
smartphones because of the embedded sensors.
• Some additional sensors can also be used depending upon the
requirements.
 Accelerometer
• The accelerometer senses the motion and acceleration of a mobile phone.
• It typically measures changes in velocity of the smartphone in three dimensions.
• There are many types of accelerometers.
• In a mechanical accelerometer, we have a seismic mass in a housing, which is tied to the
housing with a spring.
• The mass takes time to move and is left behind as the housing moves, so the force in the spring
can be correlated with the acceleration.
• In a capacitive accelerometer, capacitive plates are used with the same setup.
• With a change in velocity, the mass pushes the capacitive plates together, thus changing the
capacitance.
• The rate of change of capacitance is then converted into acceleration.
• In a piezoelectric accelerometer, piezoelectric crystals are used, which when squeezed generate
an electric voltage.
• The changes in voltage can be translated into acceleration.
• The data patterns captured by the accelerometer can be used to detect physical activities of the
user such as running, walking, and bicycling
Gyroscope
• The gyroscope detects the orientation of the phone very precisely.
• Orientation is measured using capacitive changes when a seismic
mass moves in a particular direction.
• The magnetometer detects magnetic fields.
• This can be used as a digital compass and in applications to detect the
presence of metals.
Camera and Microphone
• The camera and microphone are very powerful sensors since they
capture visual and audio information, which can then be analyzed and
processed to detect various types of contextual information.
• For example, we can infer a user’s current environment and
the interactions that she is having.
• To make sense of the audio data, technologies such as voice
recognition and acoustic features can be used.
 GPS (Global Positioning System)

• The GPS (Global Positioning System) detects the location of the phone, which is one of the
most important pieces of contextual information for smart applications.
• The location is detected using the principle of trilateration.
• The distance is measured from three or more satellites (or mobile phone towers in the case of A-
GPS) and coordinates are computed.

Light Sensor
• The light sensor detects the intensity of ambient light.
• It can be used for setting the brightness of the screen and other applications in which some
action is to be taken depending on the intensity of ambient light.
• For example, we can control the lights in a room.
Proximity Sensor
• The proximity sensor uses an infrared (IR) LED, which emits IR rays. These rays bounce back
when they strike some object.
• Based on the difference in time, we can calculate the distance.
• In this way, the distance to different objects from the phone can be measured.
• For example, we can use it to determine when the phone is close to the face while talking.
• It can also be used in applications in which we have to trigger some event when an object
approaches the phone.
• Some smartphones such as Samsung’s Galaxy S4 also have a thermometer, barometer, and
humidity sensor to measure the temperature, atmospheric pressure, and humidity, respectively.
Medical Sensors
• The Internet of Things can be really beneficial for health care applications.
• We can use sensors, which can measure and monitor various medical parameters in the human
body.
• These applications can aim at monitoring a patient’s health when they are not in hospital or when
they are alone.
• Subsequently, they can provide real time feedback to the doctor, relatives, or the patient.
• McGrath and Scanaill have described in detail the different sensors that can be worn on the body
for monitoring a person’s health.
Medical Sensors Contd..
• There are many wearable sensing devices available in the market.
• They are equipped with medical sensors that are capable of measuring different parameters such
as the heart rate, pulse, blood pressure, body temperature, respiration rate, and blood glucose
levels.
• These wearables include smart watches, wristbands, monitoring patches, and smart textiles.
• Moreover, smart watches and fitness trackers are becoming fairly popular in the market as
companies such as Apple, Samsung, and Sony are coming up with very innovative features.
• For example, a smart watch includes features such as connectivity with a smartphone, sensors
such as an accelerometer, and a heart rate monitor
Monitoring Patches
• Another novel IoT device, which has a lot of promise
are monitoring patches that are pasted on the skin.
• Monitoring patches are like tattoos.
• They are stretchable and disposable and are very cheap.
These patches are supposed to be worn by the patient for
a few days to monitor a vital health
• parameter continuously.
• All the electronic components are embedded in these
rubbery structures.
• They can even transmit the sensed data wirelessly. Just
like a tattoo, these
• patches can be applied on the skin as shown in Figure 5.
• One of the most common applications of such patches is
to monitor blood pressure.
Neural Sensors
• Today, it is possible to understand neural signals in the brain,
infer the state of the brain, and train it for better attention and
focus. This is known as neurofeedback.
• The technology used for reading brain signals is called EEG
(Electroencephalography) or a brain computer interface.
• The neurons inside the brain communicate electronically and
create an electric field, which
• can be measured from outside in terms of frequencies.
• Brain waves can be categorized into alpha, beta, gamma, theta,
and delta waves depending upon the frequency.
• Based on the type of wave, it can be inferred whether the brain
is calm or wandering in thoughts.
• This type of neurofeedback can be obtained in real time and
can be used to train the brain to focus, pay better attention
towards things, manage stress, and have better mental well-
being.
Environmental and Chemical Sensors.
o Environmental sensors are used to sense parameters in the physical environment such as
temperature, humidity, pressure, water pollution, and air pollution.
o Parameters such as the temperature and pressure can be measured with a thermometer
and barometer.
o Air quality can be measured with sensors, which sense the presence of gases and other
particulate matter in the air.
o Chemical sensors are used to detect chemical and biochemical substances.
o These sensors consist of a recognition element and a transducer.
o The electronic nose (e-nose) and electronic tongue (e-tongue) are technologies that can be
used to sense chemicals on the basis of odor and taste, respectively.
o The e-nose and e-tongue consist of an array of chemical sensors coupled with advance
pattern recognition software.
o The sensors inside the e-nose and e-tongue produce software.
o The sensors inside the e-nose and e-tongue produce complex data, which is then analyze
through pattern recognition to identify the stimulus.
Sensors
• Power of sensors and IoT is in the area of precision agriculture
(sometimes referred to as smart farming),

• Uses a variety of technical advances to improve the efficiency,

sustainability, and profitability of traditional farming practices.

• GPS and satellite aerial imagery for determining field viability; robots
for high-precision planting, harvesting, irrigation real-time analytics
and artificial intelligence to predict optimal crop yield, weather
impacts, and soil quality.
Actuators
• Actuators are natural complements to sensors.
• Actuators will receive some type of control signal (commonly an electric signal or
digital command) that triggers a physical effect, usually some type of motion,
force, and so on.
• An actuator is a device, which can effect a change in the environment by
converting electrical energy into some form of useful energy.
• Some examples are heating or cooling elements, speakers, lights, displays, and
motors.
• The actuators, which induce motion, can be classified into three categories,
namely, electrical, hydraulic, and pneumatic actuators depending on their
operation.
• Hydraulic actuators facilitate mechanical motion using fluid or hydraulic power.
• Pneumatic actuators use the pressure of compressed air and electrical ones use
electrical energy.
Actuators

• As an example, we can consider a smart home system, which consists

of many sensors and actuators.
• The actuators are used to lock/unlock the doors, switch on/off the
lights or other electrical appliances, alert users of any threats through
alarms or notifications, and control the temperature of a home (via a
thermostat).
• A sophisticated example of an actuator used in IoT is a digital finger,
which is used to turn on/off the switches (or anything which requires
small motion) and is controlled wirelessly.
Actuators
• Actuators can be classified include the following:
• Type of motion: Actuators can be classified based on the type of motion they
produce (for example, linear, rotary, one/two/three-axes).
• Power: Actuators can be classified based on their power output (for example,
high power, low power, micro power)
• Binary or continuous: Actuators can be classified based on the number of stable
state outputs.
• Area of application: Actuators can be classified based on the specific industry or
vertical where they are used.
• Type of energy: Actuators can be classified based on their energy type.
 Process automation and Data Acquisitions on IoT Platform

https://www.databricks.com/blog/2022/01/05/how-to-build-scalable-data-and-ai-industrial-iot-solutions-in-manufacturing.html
Microcontrollers and Embedded PC roles in IIoT

• Microcontrollers, also known as MCUs, serve as the “brains” of IoT-

based devices.
• These compact integrated circuits incorporate a processor, memory,
and input/output peripherals, all within a single chip.
• Their primary function is to control and manage the operations of the
device.
Microcontrollers

• Microcontrollers are tiny, self-contained computers hosted on a

microchip.
• They enable connectivity and control in all the things which could be
connected to the internet.
• Microcontrollers are designed to perform specific functions, and they
can be integrated into almost anything ranging from industrial
equipment, warehouse inventory items, wearables devices, to home
appliances and much more.
• The Internet of things (IoT) is enabling our hyperlinked world to get
even more connected.
Microcontrollers

• Most IoT devices have to be small and work based on relatively low
energy consumption.
• This is particularly true for resource-constrained devices, which
might operate far from a central system and use low-powered
batteries to function.
• Such IoT devices need something less heavy duty than the type of
processor found in a typical personal computer. For this, they use
microcontrollers.
• When trying to understand the place microcontrollers occupy in IoT,
we’re going to look at an IoT technology stack for an embedded
device and how the MCU interacts within it.
Microcontrollers Selection

• A. Data Processing: Microcontrollers excel at processing and

analyzing data collected by sensors. They efficiently handle data
filtering, data compression, and data encryption, ensuring that only
relevant and secure information is transmitted to the cloud or other
connected devices.
• B. Connectivity: Microcontrollers facilitate seamless connectivity
between various components within the IoT device, as well as with
external systems through communication protocols like Wi-Fi,
Bluetooth, Zigbee, or LoRaWAN.
Microcontrollers Selection

• C. Power Management: Many IoT devices are battery-powered or

rely on low-power sources. Microcontrollers play a vital role in
optimizing power consumption and prolonging the device’s battery
life by utilizing sleep modes and power-saving algorithms.
• D. Decision Making: Through pre-programmed instructions or
machine learning algorithms, microcontrollers can process real-time
data and make autonomous decisions without requiring constant
human intervention.
Benefits of Microcontrollers in IoT Devices
• A. Cost-Effectiveness: Microcontrollers are affordable and cost-
effective solutions, making IoT devices accessible to a wider range of
applications and industries.
• B. Compact Size: Their compact size allows for easy integration into
small and portable devices, enabling the development of wearable
gadgets and other miniature IoT solutions.
Benefits of Microcontrollers in IoT Devices

• C. Real-time Processing: Microcontrollers provide real-time data

processing, ensuring swift decision-making and responsiveness in
critical applications like healthcare, industrial automation, and
transportation.
• D. Energy Efficiency: With their low-power capabilities,
microcontrollers enable the creation of energy-efficient IoT devices
that can operate for extended periods without frequent battery
replacements.
• E. Customizability: Manufacturers can customize the functionality
of microcontrollers to suit the specific requirements of their IoT
devices, enhancing overall performance and versatility.
Microcontroller Variants for IoT Devices
• A. 8-bit, 16-bit, and 32-bit Microcontrollers: These variants differ in
their processing power, memory capacity, and complexity. 8-bit
microcontrollers are ideal for simple, low-complexity applications,
while 32-bit microcontrollers offer higher performance for more
demanding tasks.
• B. SoC (System-on-a-Chip) Microcontrollers: SoC microcontrollers
integrate additional features like wireless communication, memory,
and analog-to-digital converters on a single chip, streamlining the
development process and reducing the device’s overall footprint.
Microcontroller Variants for IoT Devices

• C. IoT-Specific Microcontrollers: Some microcontrollers are designed

specifically for IoT applications, featuring ultra-low power
consumption, built-in security mechanisms, and support for various
communication protocols.
• These include microcontrollers in the XMC family and PSoC family
that were custom-designed for IoT applications – from extremely
energy-saving to extremely high-performance. The microcontrollers
are backed up by an extensive portfolio of reliable, high-performance
memories for embedded systems.
Choosing the best microcontroller for IoT
Memory
• The amount of memory will, of course, have a fundamental
impact on the overall performance of the device. Therefore,
memory requirements for a device’s programming tasks must
be carefully calculated—both RAM and ROM.
• Also, ensure the decision is future-proofed by arranging for
enough spare capacity to handle the demands placed on it by
future updates.
 Power
• Power requirements is another major consideration when it
comes to choosing the best MCU.
• For instance, an IoT smart medical device, like a hearing aid,
can run on a low-power battery. On the other hand, heavy smart
industrial equipment will consume lots of electricity, but you’ll
want the device to be as energy efficient as possible
 Internet and other communication protocols
• How will your IoT device connect to the application? What type
of data will the device be pushing, and where? Does it need to
interact with other devices locally?
• For example, a residential smart alarm system may need Wi-Fi
protocols, while an office IoT HVAC system may require wired
ethernet. For local device communication, Bluetooth or Thread
network could be needed, and remote devices outside Wi-Fi
range require 4G data connectivity.
 Connection ports
• To work out how many GPIOs are needed on a microcontroller,
first define the data inputs the device requires. Also, bear in
mind, there are both digital ports and analog ports on a CPU,
which process different types of data inputs and outputs.
Architecture
• Remember, most applications run off ARM, MIPS, or X86
architecture. Therefore, make sure your choice can support the
complexity of your device and system, including the I/Os and
data processing and how much power that requires.
 Cost
• Always keep one eye on the future when considering microcontroller
costs. There is no point building a prototype with a board that can
become prohibitively expensive to scale and take to market. Also, be
aware, some MCUs come with licensing fees for individual device
drivers.
Security
• Security is a significant consideration for all IoT projects and needs
to be engineered across the stack. Standard security features on
commercial boards include cryptographic bootloaders and hardware
accelerators, shield layers, and memory protection units.
 The difference between Microcontroller and
Microprocessor
• Microprocessors are different than
microcontrollers in their design.
Microprocessors have the only CPU inside
them and no in-memory support while
Microcontrollers, on the other side, has CPU,
RAM, ROM and other peripherals which are
all embedded on the chip.
• At times it is also termed as a mini computer
or a computer on a single chip. At the
moment, there are tons of microcontrollers
with a wide range of features designed for
different use-cases.
Embedded Microprocessor

• An embedded microprocessor is a computer chip used inside

several devices and equipments to provide added functionality.
• A microprocessor is a digital-electronic component with
transistors integrated on a single semiconductor IC that is small
and consumes less power.
• Due to flexibility, cost, programmability and
adaptability microcontrollers are popular to implement various
types of controllers that we know from the electronics history.
• The functions of the microprocessor include fetching, decoding
and processing the data.
Embedded Microprocessor

• Embedded microprocessor systems are nothing but computer chips that are
integral part of lighting system, home appliances, industrial equipments, etc.
• Generally, microprocessors are used in signal processing, general computing and
real-time computing data.
• As a signal processor, microprocessors’ uses in digital televisions include
decoding of the digital and radio signals.
• In real-time systems, microprocessors are embedded in security devices like anti-
lock breaking system; these systems are widely used in automobiles.
• Its importance includes:
1. Handling many functions like calculations and word processing at higher speeds
2. Performing operations for the repetitive, continuous, progressive and sequential
functions without human labor
3. Communicating with the internet, telephones and other interfacing devices
Block diagram of an Embedded
Microprocessor
Embedded Microprocessor

• A microprocessor chip is built by using semiconductor devices wherein thousands

of transistors are integrated into a single chip for better performance. When we
look at microprocessor’s history, the Pentium 4 processors have around 40-50
million transistors. The major microprocessor’s parts include:
• ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
• Memory unit
• Control Unit
• Registers
• System Bus
 Arithmetic Logic Unit
• An ALU is also known as integer unit as it is used to perform logical operations
like Not, OR AND, and math calculations like add, subtract, divide, multiply and
comparisons like greater then, less than, etc.
Memory Unit
• Cache memory is a small amount of memory located on the chip of a
microprocessor. A microprocessor stores a copy of data and instructions in its
cache memory while executing the program. Types of microprocessor memory
include ROM and RAM.
 Control Unit
• Control Unit is the brain of a microprocessor as it manages complete operations.
It performs the operations like managing input, output devices, storing data and
fetching instructions.
Registers
• Registers are small, fast memories built into the central processing unit (CPU) to
speed up its operation. General purpose registers store arbitrary data and special
purpose registers control the processor.
 System Bus
• System bus is a single wire used to attach different components to communicate
with the internal and external parts of the microprocessor.
• The bus receives data and instructions from the main memory, and then sends
them to instruction cache and data cache.
• Finally, these are processed and the results are again sent to the main memory
through this bus.
Types of Microprocessors
• The classification of embedded-microprocessor depends on several factors like
computing performance, availability of memory, type of application, etc., and
some of these microprocessors include:
• Complex instruction set microprocessors (CISC)
• Reduced instruction set microprocessors (RISC)
• Superscalar microprocessors
• Application specific integrated circuit (ASIC)
• Digital signal microprocessors (DSPs)
What is Data Acquisition?

• A Data Acquisition System, often abbreviated as DAQ, consists of sensors, measuring

instruments, and a computer.
• Its purpose is to gather and process essential data for understanding electrical or physical
phenomena.
• This system plays a crucial role in tasks like monitoring heating coil temperature to
evaluate efficiency in achieving desired levels.
• Data acquisition, also known as the process of collecting data, relies on specialized
software that quickly captures, processes, and stores information.
• It enables scientists and engineers to perform in-depth analysis for scientific or enginee-
ring purposes.
• Data acquisition systems are available in handheld and remote versions to cater to
different measurement requirements.
• Handheld systems are suitable for direct interaction with subjects while remote systems
excel at distant measurements, providing versatility in data collection.
Data Acquisition System
• Sensors: Devices that gather information about physical or environmental conditions, such as te-
mperature, pressure, or light intensity.
• Signal Conditioning: To ensure accurate measurement, the raw sensor data undergoes
preprocessing to filter out any noise and scale it appropriately.
• Data Logger: Hardware or software that records and stores the conditioned data over time.
• Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC): Converts analog sensor signals into digital data that
computers can process.
• Interface: Connects the data acquisition system to a computer or controller for data transfer and
control.
• Power Supply: Provides the necessary electrical power to operate the system and sensors.
• Control Unit: The management of the data acquisition system involves overseeing its overall
operation, which includes tasks such as triggering, timing, and synchronization.
• Software: Allows users to configure, monitor, and analyze the data collected by the system.
Data Acquisition System
• Communication Protocols: The transmission and reception of data between a system and external de-
vices or networks is known as data communication.
• Storage: For storing recorded data, there are a range of options available, including memory cards,
hard drives, or cloud storage. These provide both temporary and permanent storage solutions.
• User Interface: This system allows users to interact with and control the data acquisition
system effectively.
• Calibration and Calibration Standards: To ensure accuracy the sensors and system are periodically
calibrated against known standards.
• Real-time Clock (RTC): Accurate timing is maintained to ensure synchronized data acquisition
and timestamping.
• Triggering Mechanism: Data capture is initiated based on predefined events or specific conditions.
• Data Compression: Efforts are made to reduce the size of collected data for storage and transmission in
remote or resource limited applications
RFID
• Radio Frequency Identification (RFID).
• RFID is an identification technology in which an RFID tag (a small chip with an antenna)
carries data, which is read by a RFID reader.
• The tag transmits the data stored in it via radio waves.
• It is similar to bar code technology. But unlike a traditional bar code, it does not require
line of sight communication between the tag and the reader and can identify itself from
a distance even without a human operator.
• The range of RFID varies with the frequency.
• It can go up to hundreds of meters.
• RFID tags are of two types: active and passive.
• Active tags have a power source and passive tags do not have any power source.
• Passive tags draw power from the electromagnetic waves emitted by the reader and are
thus cheap and have a long lifetime
• There are two types of RFID technologies: near and far
• A near RFID reader uses a coil through which we pass alternating current and generate a
magnetic field.
• The tag has a smaller coil, which generates a potential due to the ambient
• changes in the magnetic field.
• This voltage is then coupled with a capacitor to accumulate a charge, which then
powers up the tag chip.
• The tag can then produce a small magnetic field that encodes the signal to be
transmitted, and this can be picked up by the reader.
• In far RFID, there is a dipole antenna in the reader, which propagates EM waves.
• The tag also has a dipole antenna on which an alternating potential difference appears
and it is powered up.
• It can then use this power to transmit messages.
• RFID technology is being used in various applications
• such as supply chain management, access control, identity
• authentication, and object tracking. The RFID tag is attached to the
object to be tracked and the reader detects and record its presence when the
object passes by it. In this manner, object movement can be tracked and RFID can
serve as a search engine for smart things.
• For access control, an RFID tag is attached to the authorized object.
• For example, small chips are glued to the front of vehicles.
• When the car reaches a barricade on which there is a reader, it reads the tag data
and decides whether itis an authorized car.
• If yes, it opens automatically. RFID cards are issued to the people, who can then
be identified by a RFID reader and given access accordingly.
• The low level data collected from the RFID tags can be transformed
into higher level insights in IoT applications
• There are many user level tools available, in which all the data
collected by particular RFID readers and data associated with the
RFID tags can be managed.
• The high level data can be used to draw inferences and take further
action.
Near Field Communication (NFC)
• Near Field Communication is a very short range wireless communication technology, through
which mobile devices can interact with each other over a distance of few centimeters only.
• All types of data can be transferred between two NFC enabled devices in seconds by bringing
them close to each other.
• This technology is based on RFID.
• It uses variations in the magnetic field to communicate data between two NFC enabled devices.
• NFC operates over a frequency band of 13.56 MHz, which is the same as high frequency RFID.
• There are two modes of operation: active and passive.
• In the active mode, both the devices generate magnetic fields, while in the passive mode, only
one device generates the field and the other uses load modulation to transfer the data.
• The passive mode is useful in battery powered devices to optimize energy use.
• One benefit of the requirement of close proximity between devices is that it is useful for secure
transactions such as payments.
• Finally, note that NFC can be used for two-way communication unlike RFID.
• Consequently, almost all smartphones in the market today are NFC enabled.
Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN)
• Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) Based on IP for Smart Objects.
• Many times, data from a single sensor is not useful in monitoring large areas and
complex activities.
• Different sensor nodes need to interact with each other wirelessly.
• The disadvantage of non-IP technologies such as RFID, NFC, and Bluetooth is that
their range is very small.
• So, they cannot be used in many applications, where a large area needs to be
monitored through many sensor nodes deployed in diverse locations.
• A wireless sensor network (WSN) consists of tens to thousands of sensor nodes
connected using wireless technologies.
Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN)

• They collect data about the environment and communicate it to gateway devices
that relay the information to the cloud over the Internet.
• The communication between nodes in a WSN may be direct or multihop.
• The sensor nodes are of a constrained nature, but gateway nodes have sufficient
power and processing resources.
• The popular network topologies used in a WSN are a star, a mesh, and a hybrid
network.
• Most of the communication in WSN is based on the IEEE 802.15.4 standard.
• There are clearly a lot of protocols that can be used in IoT scenarios.
Applications of WSN
• Military applications: Wireless sensor networks be likely an integral part of
military command, control, communications, computing, intelligence, battlefield
surveillance, reconnaissance and targeting systems.
• Area monitoring: In area monitoring, the sensor nodes are deployed over a
region where some phenomenon is to be monitored. When the sensors detect
the event being monitored (heat, pressure etc.), the event is reported to one of
the base stations, which then takes appropriate action.
• Transportation: Real-time traffic information is being collected by WSNs to later
feed transportation models and alert drivers of congestion and traffic problems.
• Health applications: Some of the health applications for sensor networks are
supporting interfaces for the disabled, integrated patient monitoring, diagnostics,
and drug administration in hospitals, tele-monitoring of human physiological
data, and tracking & monitoring doctors or patients inside a hospital.
 Applications of WSN
• Environmental sensing: The term Environmental Sensor Networks has developed to cover many
applications of WSNs to earth science research. This includes sensing volcanoes, oceans, glaciers,
forests etc. Some other major areas are listed below:
• Air pollution monitoring
• Forest fires detection
• Greenhouse monitoring
• Landslide detection
• Structural monitoring: Wireless sensors can be utilized to monitor the movement within buildings
and infrastructure such as bridges, flyovers, embankments, tunnels etc. enabling Engineering
practices to monitor assets remotely without the need for costly site visits.
• Industrial monitoring: Wireless sensor networks have been developed for machinery condition-
based maintenance (CBM) as they offer significant cost savings and enable new functionalities. In
wired systems, the installation of enough sensors is often limited by the cost of wiring.
• Agricultural sector: using a wireless network frees the farmer from the maintenance of wiring in a
difficult environment. Irrigation automation enables more efficient water use and reduces waste.
Structure of a wireless sensor network

• Star network (single point-to-multipoint)

• A star network is a communications topology where a single base station can send and/or receive
a message to a number of remote nodes.
• The remote nodes are not permitted to send messages to each other. The advantage of this type
of network for wireless sensor networks includes simplicity, ability to keep the remote node’s
power consumption to a minimum.
• It also allows low latency communications between the remote node and the base station.
• The disadvantage of such a network is that the base station must be within radio transmission
range of all the individual nodes and is not as robust as other networks due to its dependency on
a single node to manage the network.
 Mesh network
• A mesh network allows transmitting data to one node to other node in the
network that is within its radio transmission range.
• This allows for what is known as multi-hop communications, that is, if a node
wants to send a message to another node that is out of radio communications
range, it can use an intermediate node to forward the message to the desired
node.
• This network topology has the advantage of redundancy and scalability.
• If an individual node fails, a remote node still can communicate to any other
node in its range, which in turn, can forward the message to the desired
location.
• In addition, the range of the network is not necessarily limited by the range in
between single nodes; it can simply be extended by adding more nodes to the
system.
• The disadvantage of this type of network is in power consumption for the
nodes that implement the multi-hop communications are generally higher
than for the nodes that don’t have this capability, often limiting the battery
life.
• Additionally, as the number of communication hops to a destination
increases, the time to deliver the message also increases, especially if low
power operation of the nodes is a requirement.
•
 Hybrid star – Mesh network
• A hybrid between the star and mesh network provides a
robust and versatile communications network, while
maintaining the ability to keep the wireless sensor nodes
power consumption to a minimum.
• In this network topology, the sensor nodes with lowest
power are not enabled with the ability to forward
messages.
• This allows for minimal power consumption to be
maintained.
• However, other nodes on the network are enabled with
multi-hop capability, allowing them to forward messages
from the low power nodes to other nodes on the network.
• Generally, the nodes with the multi-hop capability are
higher power, and if possible, are often plugged into the
electrical mains line.
• This is the topology implemented by the up and coming
mesh networking standard known as ZigBee.
 • Functional block diagram of a
WSN Architecture versatile wireless sensing node
is provided in figure.
• Modular design approach
provides a flexible and versatile
platform to address the needs of
a wide variety of applications.
• For example, depending on the
sensors to be deployed, the
signal conditioning block can be
re-programmed or replaced.
• This allows for a wide variety of
different sensors to be used with
the wireless sensing node.
• Similarly, the radio link may be
swapped out as required for
a given applications’ wireless
range requirement and the need
for bidirectional
communications.
The components of a sensor node
Functional block diagram of a sensor node
• Using flash memory, the remote nodes acquire data on command from a base station, or
by an event sensed by one or more inputs to the node. Moreover, the embedded
firmware can be upgraded through the wireless network in the field.
• The microprocessor has a number of functions including:
• Managing data collection from the sensors
• performing power management functions
• interfacing the sensor data to the physical radio layer
• managing the radio network protocol
• A key aspect of any wireless sensing node is to minimize the power consumed by the
system. Usually, the radio subsystem requires the largest amount of power. Therefore,
data is sent over the radio network only when it is required. An algorithm is to be loaded
into the node to determine when to send data based on the sensed event. Furthermore,
it is important to minimize the power consumed by the sensor itself. Therefore, the
hardware should be designed to allow the microprocessor to judiciously control power to
the radio, sensor, and sensor signal conditioner
6LoWPAN

• IPv6 is considered the best protocol for communication in the IoT domain
because of its scalability and stability.
• Such bulky IP protocols were initially not thought to be suitable for
communication in scenarios with low power wireless links such as IEEE 802.15.4.
• 6LoWPAN, an acronym for IPv6 over low power wireless personal area networks,
is a very popular standard for wireless communication.
• It enables communication using IPv6 over the IEEE 802.15.4 protocol.
• This standard defines an adaptation layer between the 802.15.4 link layer and the
transport layer.
• 6LoWPAN devices can communicate with all other IP based devices on the
Internet.
6LoWPAN

• The choice of IPv6 is because of the large addressing space available in IPv6.
6LoWPAN networks connect to the Internet via a gateway (WiFi or Ethernet),
which also has protocol support for conversion between IPv4 and IPv6 as
today’s deployed
• Internet is mostly IPv4. IPv6 headers are not small enough to fit within the
small 127 byte MTU of the 802.15.4 standard.
• Hence, squeezing and fragmenting the packets to carry only the essential
information is an optimization that the adaptation layer performs.
6LoWPAN

(i) Header compression 6loWPAN defines header compression of IPv6 packets for
decreasing the overhead of IPv6.
• Some of the fields are deleted because they can be derived from link level
information or can be shared across packets.
(ii) Fragmentation: the minimum MTU size (maximum transmission unit) of IPv6 is
1280 bytes.
• On the other hand, the maximum size of a frame in IEEE 802.15.4 is 127 bytes.
• Therefore, we need to fragment the IPv6 packet.
• This is done by the adaptation layer.
(iii) Link layer forwarding 6LoWPAN also supports mesh under routing, which is
done at the link layer using link level short addresses instead of in the network
layer.
• This feature can be used to communicate within a 6LoWPAN network.
Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE)

• Bluetooth Low Energy, also known as “Bluetooth Smart,” was developed by the
Bluetooth Special Interest Group.
• It has a relatively shorter range and consumes lower energy as compared to
competing protocols.
• The BLE protocol stack is similar to the stack used in classic Bluetooth technology.
• It has two parts: controller and host.
• The physical and link layer are implemented in the controller.
• The controller is typically a SOC (System on Chip) with a radio.
• The functionalities of upper layers are included in the host.
• BLE is not compatible with classic Bluetooth.
• Let us look at the differences between classic Bluetooth and BLE
Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE)

• The main difference is that BLE does not support data streaming.
• Instead, it supports quick transfer of small packets of data (packet size is
small) with a data rate of 1 Mbps.
• There are two types of devices in BLE: master and slave.
• The master acts as a central device that can connect to various slaves.
• Let us consider an IoT scenario where a phone or PC serve as the master
and mobile devices such as a thermostat, fitness tracker, smart watch, or
any monitoring device act as slaves.
• In such cases, slaves must be very power efficient.
• Therefore, to save energy, slaves are by default in sleep mode and wake up
periodically to receive packets from the master.
Difference between Bluetooth and BLE
• In classic Bluetooth, the connection is on all the time even if no data
transfer is going on.
• Additionally, it supports 79 data channels (1 MHz channel bandwidth) and
a data rate of 1 million symbols/s, whereas, BLE supports 40 channels with
2 MHz channel bandwidth (double of classic Bluetooth) and 1 million
symbols/s data rate.
• BLE supports low duty cycle requirements as its packet size is small and the
time taken to transmit the smallest packet is as small as 80 μs.
• The BLE protocol stack supports IP based communication also.
• An experiment conducted by Siekkinen et al. recorded the number of bytes
transferred per Joule to show that BLE consumes far less energy as
compared to competing protocols such as Zigbee.
• The energy efficiency of BLE is 2.5 times better than Zigbee.
Why Bluetooth in IoT?
• Bluetooth Low Energy in IoT can help IoT devices conserve energy by keeping the
devices in sleep mode when they are not in use, then let users exit the mode
when connected or reconnected.
• Bluetooth Low Energy in IoT is ideal for IoT applications because, contrary to the
classic Bluetooth applications, which reconnect to devices at a time of six seconds
or more, IoT BLE applications can quickly pair and reconnect with devices in six
milliseconds instead.
• In IoT BLE, a device can function in three stages; the Advertising stage, Scanning
stage, and Connected stage.
• In a scenario where you want to integrate two BLE devices with each other, one
device has to advertise.
• In contrast, the other has to scan for the device advertising before subsequently
initiating a connection. Advertising basically involves broadcasting packets that
allow another scanning device to find them.
Bluetooth IoT Devices
• Advertising is deployed in all Bluetooth IoT devices, but
one prominent application that exclusively functions in
this state is the Beacon technology.
• Beacon devices, like the MOKOBlue M1 Ultra-thin
Beacon, stay in the Advertising mode while
broadcasting data to other devices that they can
explore and read such data from.
• Since advertising data capacity is increased in
Bluetooth 5.0, Beacons can unlock new IoT applications
and use cases by transmitting more data.
• Properties of Bluetooth network
• Standard: Bluetooth 4.2
• Frequency: 2.4GHz
• Range: 50-150m
• Data transfer rates: 3Mbps
• Advantages of Bluetooth network
• • It is wireless.
• • It is cheap.
• • It is easy to install.
• • It is free to use if the device is installed with it.
• Disadvantages of Bluetooth network
• • It is a short-range communication network.
• • It connects only two devices at a time.
Zigbee
• It is based on the IEEE 802.15.4 communication protocol standard
and is used for personal area networks or PANs
• The IEEE 802.15.4 standard has low power
• Zigbee was developed by the Zigbee alliance, which works for reliable,
low energy, and cheap communication solutions.
• The range of Zigbee device communication is very small (10–100
meters).
• The details of the network and application layers are also specified by
the Zigbee standard.
• Unlike BLE, the network layer here provides for multihop routing.
Zigbee
• ZigBee is a Personal Area Network task group with low rate task group 4.
• It is a technology of home networking. ZigBee is a technological standard
created for controlling and sensor the network.
• ZigBee is a standard that addresses the need of very low-cost
implementation of Low power devices with Low data rate for short-range
wireless communications.
• Types of ZigBee Devices:
• Zigbee Coordinator Device – It communicates with routers. This device is
used for connecting the devices.
• Zigbee Router – It is used for passing the data between devices.
• Zigbee End Device – It is the device that is going to be controlled
Zigbee
General Characteristics of Zigbee Standard:
• Low Power Consumption
• Low Data Rate (20- 250 kbps)
• Short-Range (75-100 meters)
• Network Join Time (~ 30 msec)
• Support Small and Large Networks (up to 65000 devices (Theory); 240 devices (Practically))
• Low Cost of Products and Cheap Implementation (Open Source Protocol)

Operating Frequency Bands (Only one channel will be selected for use in a network):
1. Channel 0: 868 MHz (Europe)
2. Channel 1-10: 915 MHz (US and Australia)
3. Channel 11-26: 2.4 GHz (Across the World
Zigbee Architecture
• Architecture of Zigbee: Zigbee
architecture is a combination of 6 layers.
1. Application Layer
2. Application Interface Layer
3. Security Layer
4. Network Layer
5. Medium Access Control Layer
6. Physical Layer
Zigbee Architecture
• The Application layer is present at the user level.
• The Application Interface Layer, Security Layer, and Network Layer are
the Zigbee Alliance and they are used to store data and they use the
stack.
• Medium Access control and the Physical layer are the IEEE 802.15.4
and they are hardware which are digital means they accept only 0 and
1.
Features of ZigBee for Home Automation
• Some of the features of ZigBee for Home Automation include:
• Simplified setup and maintenance
• Ideal for new construction and remodelling
• ZigBee gives access to devices anywhere from the world just from your
smartphone
• Monitors power use and allows you to turn on/off devices from remote locations
• Built in security with interference avoidance techniques ensures better/enhanced
security and worry-free operations.
• Help you customise lighting scenes based on daily schedules, events and
activities.
• Due to low-power consumption of the ZigBee protocol, your security sensors can
work for a period of 7 years.
LoRaWAN
• LoRa stands for long-range radio, which is a low-power WAN wireless standard
adopted and promoted by American Semtech Company. Based on spread
spectrum technology, it is one of the wireless communication technologies of
LPWAN, performing well in terms of transmission distance and power
consumption.
• LoRa has longer distances than other wireless technologies for the same power
consumption, providing a simple system with long distances, long battery life, and
high capacity to scale sensor networks. The coverage of the Lora connection is 3-5
times that of traditional radio frequency communication. At present, LoRa has
been popularized all over the world and gradually applied to the Internet of
Things.
 LORA ZIGBEE

Specifications authority LoRa Alliance Zigbee Alliance

Year of development 2009 1998
Standard IEEE 802.15.4 IEEE 802.15.4
Frequency band 863 to 870 MHz, 902 to 868MHz, 915 MHz, 2.4GHz
928 MHz, 915 to 928
MHz, 2.4 GHz worldwide
Transmission range 3 miles (4.7 km) in urban areas, 10 miles (16 km) or 10 to 100 meters
more in rural areas
Power consumption 300 bps to 37.5 kbps low
Data rate lower compare to Zigbee 20 kbps (868 MHz),
40Kbps (915 MHz) , 250 kbps (2.4GHz)
Topology star star, tree, peer-to-peer and mesh
Cost low middle
Application used as Wide Area used as LR-WPAN i.e. low rate wireless personal
Network area network